HVE Course File

KHAMMAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &
SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
& ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
IV YEAR
I SEM
EEE
COURSE
FILE
HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
2009 13
KITS COURSE FILE

SYLLABUS
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO HIGH VOLTAGE TECHNOLOGY AND
APPLICATIONS
Electric Field Stresses, Gas / Vacuum as Insulator, Liquid Dielectrics,
Solids and Composites, Estimation and Control of Electric Stress, Numerical
methods for electric field computation, Surge voltages, their distribution and
control, Applications of insulating materials in transformers, rotating
machines, circuit breakers, cable power capacitors and bushings.
UNIT II
BREAKDOWN IN GASEOUS AND LIQUID DIELECTRICS
Gases as insulating media, collision process, Ionization process,

Townsends criteria of breakdown in gases, Paschens law. Liquid as
Insulator, pure and commercial liquids, Breakdown in pure and commercial
liquids.
UNIT III
BREAKDOWN IN SOLID DIELECTRICS
Intrinsic
breakdown,
electromechanical
breakdown,
thermal
breakdown, breakdown of solid dielectrics in practice, Breakdown in

composite dielectrics, solid dielectrics used in practice.
UNIT IV
GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
Generation of High Direct Current Voltages, Generation of High

alternating voltages, Generation of Impulse Voltages, Generation of Impulse
Currents, Tripping and control of impulse generators.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
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KITS COURSE FILE
UNIT V
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
Measurement of High Direct Current Voltages, Measurement of High

Voltages alternating and Impulse, Measurement of High Currents-direct,
alternating and impulse. Oscilloscope for impulse voltage and current
measurements.
UNIT VI
OVER
VOLTAGE
PHENOMENON
AND
INSULATION
COORDINATION
Natural causes for over voltages Lightning phenomenon, Overvoltage
due to switching surges, system faults and other abnormal conditions,
Principles of Insulation Coordination on High voltage and Extra High voltage
power systems.
UNIT VII
NON-DISTRUCTIVE
TESTING
OF
MATERIAL
AND
ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
Measurement of D.C resistivity, Measurement of Dielectric constant
and loss factor, partial discharge measurements.
UNIT VIII
HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
Testing of Insulators and Bushings, Testing of Isolators and circuit

breakers, testing of cables, Testing of Transformers, Testing of Surge
Arresters, and Radio Interference measurements.
TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCS

High Voltage Engineering by M.S.Naidu and V.Kamaraju TMH
Publications, 3rd Edition.
High Voltage Engineering: Fundamentals by E.Kuffel, W.S.Zaengl,
J.Kuffel by Elsevier, 2nd Edition.
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KITS COURSE FILE
High Voltage Engineering by C.L.Wadhwa, New Age Internationals (P)

Limited, 1997.
High Voltage Insulation Engineering by Ravindra Arora, Wolfgang
Mosch, New Age International (P) Limited, 1995.
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KITS COURSE FILE
OBJECTIVE OF THE COURSE
The principle objective of this subject is to study the fundamentals of

high voltage engineering, to cover the fundamentals of lab techniques,
and to present the basics of high voltage insulation design together with
the analytical and modern numerical tools available to high voltage
equipment designers.
This course provides
the
student
with
solid
foundation
in
mathematical, scientific and engineering fundamentals required to solve

electrical engineering problems with more emphasis on high voltage
engineering and also provides a path to pursue higher studies.
In modern times, high voltages are used for a wide variety of applications
covering the power systems, industry, and research laboratories. Such
applications have become essential to sustain modern civilization.
This course also provides the student with an academic environment
aware of excellence, and the life-long learning needed for successful
professional career such as high voltages are applied in laboratories in
nuclear research, in particle accelerators, and Van de Graaff voltages are
indispensable.
Also, voltages up to 100KV are used in electrostatic precipitators, in
automobile ignition coils, etc.
X-ray equipment for medical and industrial applications also uses high
voltages. Modern high-voltage test laboratories employ voltages up to
6MV or more.
This course also provides the student an ability to relate engineering
issues to broader social context.
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KITS COURSE FILE
OUTCOMES OF THE COURSE

Student will demonstrate an ability to design electrical and electronic
circuits and conduct experiments with electrical systems, analyze and
interpret data.
Student will demonstrate an ability to visualize and work on laboratory
and multi disciplinary tasks.
Student will demonstrate knowledge of differential equations, vector
calculus, complex variables, matrix theory, physics, chemistry and
electrical and electronics engineering
Student will show the understanding of impact of engineering solutions
on the society and also will be aware of contemporary issues.
Student will develop confidence for self education and ability for life-long
learning.
Student who can participate and succeed in competitive examinations
like GATE, GRE.
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KITS COURSE FILE
UNIT I
OBJECTIVE
In this chapter, some of the general principles used in high-voltage
technology are discussed. The diverse conditions under which a high-voltage
apparatus is used necessitate careful design of its insulation and the
electrostatic field profiles. The principal media of insulation used are gases,
vacuum, solid, and liquid, or a combination of these. For achieving
reliability and economy, knowledge of the causes of deterioration is
essential, and the tendency to increase the voltage stress for optimum
design calls for judicious selection of insulation in relation to the dielectric
strength, corona discharges, and other relevant factors.
IMPORTANT POINTS & DEFINITIONS
The following are the important points and topics that are discussed in this
unit:
The gases which are used as dielectrics in the High-voltage apparatus
are Nitrogen (N2), Carbon dioxide (CO2), dichlorodifluoromethane (CClF2), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
SF6 gas has been found to be a green house gas causing
2
environmental hazards.
Pure nitrogen, air and SF6/N2 mixtures show good potential to replace
SF6 gas.
Petroleum oils are the most common insulating liquids.
Widely used inorganic materials which are used for high-voltage
insulation purposes are ceramics and glass.
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KITS COURSE FILE
The most widely used organic materials are thermosetting epoxy

resins such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE) or crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE).
Kraft paper, natural rubber, silicon rubber and polypropylene rubber
are some of the other materials used as insulants in electrical
equipment.
The composites which are used as insulating materials are oil
impregnated paper, and oil impregnated metalized plastic film.
Three types of numerical methods are commonly employed in high
voltage engineering applications for electric field computations are:
Finite Element Method (FEM), Charge Simulation Method (CSM) and
Surface Charge Simulation Method (SSM) or Boundary Element
Method (BEM).
Surge Voltages can be controlled by shaping the conductors to reduce
stress concentrations, by insertion of higher dielectric strength
insulation at high stress points and by selection of materials of
appropriate permittivitys to obtain more uniform voltage gradients.
The insulating materials are grouped into different classes O, A, B,
and C with temperature limits of 900C, 1050C, 1300C for the three
classes and no specific limit fixed for class C.
Class Y (formerly O) 900C paper, cotton, silk, natural rubber, polyvinyl
chloride, etc., without impregnation.
Class A 1050C same as class Y but impregnated, and nylon.
Class E 1200C Polyethylene terephthalate, cellulose triacetate,
polyurethanes, polyvinyl acetate enamel.
Class B 1300C Mica, fiberglass, asbestos, Bakelite, polyester enamel.
Class F 1550C as class B but with alkyd and epoxy based resins.
Class H 1800C as class B with silicone resin binder, silicone rubber,
aromatic polyamide, polyimide film and estermide enamel.
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Class C above 1800C as class B but with suitable non-organic

binders; Teflon, and other high-temperature polymers.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Average electrical field is the magnitude of electrical field
a) At midpoint between conductors
b) Ratio of potential difference to the distance between the
conductors
c) At surface of the lower potential electrode
d) Ratio of potential difference to half the distance between the
conductors
2. An experimental method for computing the field distribution is
a) Solution of Laplace equation
b) Electrolytic tank method
c) Digital simulation
d) Field intensity method
3. A numerical method to determine electric field in a multi-conductor
geometry is
a) Electrolytic tank method
b) Resistance analog method
c) Finite element method
d) Laplace equation method
4. Most suitable numerical method to solve electrostatic field problems is
a) Laplace equation method
b) Charge simulation method
c) Finite difference method
d) Resistance analog method
5. Open geometry does not pose any problem with
a) Boundary element method
b) Charge simulation method
c) Finite difference method
d) Resistance analog method
6. Finite Element method can be used only with
a) Fields which are bounded
b) Fields which are unbounded
c) Fields which are both bounded and unbounded
d) When high accuracy in not required
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KITS COURSE FILE
7. A comparison of the accuracies of various computational methods shows

a good agreement between the results of
a) FEM & FDM
b) CSM & BEM
c) FEM & CSM
d) BEM & FEM
8. The accuracies obtained with the numerical computation of electric fields
is usually
a) < 1%
b) 2 to 5%
c) 5 to 10%
d) Can be very high
9. The most commonly used liquid for transformer insulation is
a) Mineral oil
b) Askerals
c) Silicone oil
d) Polyester oils
10. For generator coil insulation the class of insulation used is
a) Class A
b) Class B
c) Class C
d) Class F
11. The insulation used in high voltage circuit breakers of large power
rating is
Air
Vacuum
b)
SF6
c)
Mineral oil
d)
Gas insulation is now-a-day used in
a) Generators
b) Motors
c) Transformers
d) Circuit breakers and substations
In high-voltage switch gear, the insulation used inside the breaker (arc
a)
12.
13.
chambers) is
a) Epoxy resin
b) Porcelain
c) Vulcanized
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KITS COURSE FILE
14.
d) Fibre and resin bonded glass fibre

The best insulation among all insulating materials available is
_____________.
15. The most commonly used liquid as insulating medium is ___________.
16. The new insulating liquids that have been used in recent years are
17.
18.
19.
__________.
A composite insulation is a combination of _____________.
Impurities in insulating materials reduce __________.
For parallel cylindrical configuration, the field enhance factor is given
by ___________.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
Discuss the different numerical methods available for estimation of
2.
electric field distribution in dielectric media.

What is Finite Element Method? Give the outline of this method for
3.
solving the field problems.

Discuss briefly the Charge Simulation Method for solving field
4.
problems and estimation of potential distribution.

What is Boundary Element Method? How does it differ from Charge
5.
Simulation Method?
What are surge voltages and how are they distributed in the windings
6.
of a power apparatus like a transformer winding?

How is the insulation arrangement done for different parts in
7.
switchgear?
Indicate the solid insulation applications in
(a) Power Cables
(b) HV Bushings
(c)
Small-size rotating machines
(d) Power Transformers
(e)
Circuit Breakers
REFERENCES
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KITS COURSE FILE
Alston, L.L., High Voltage Technology, Oxford University Press, Oxford

(1967).
Seely, S., Electromagnetic Fields, McGraw-Hill, New York (1960).
Malik, N.H., A Review of Charge Simulation Method and its
Applications, IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, EI-24 No. 1320 (1989).
Kato, S., An Estimation Method for the Electric Field Error of Charge
Simulation Method, 3rd International Symposium on High Voltage
Engineering, Milan, Paper No. 11.09 August, 1979.
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KITS COURSE FILE
UNIT II
OBJECTIVE
In this chapter, the simplest and the most commonly used gases
dielectrics such as nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), Freon (CCl2F2) and
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are discussed. Also, the collision processes and
Ionization
processes
in
gases
dielectrics,
Townsends
Criterion
for
Breakdown are discussed. Liquid dielectrics, pure and commercial liquids,

breakdowns in pure and commercial liquids are also discussed.
The simplest and the most commonly used gases dielectrics are
Nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), Freon (CCl2F2) and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6).
The maximum voltage applied to the insulation at the moment of
breakdown is called the Breakdown Voltage.
The electrical discharges in gases are of two types, i.e., (i) nonsustaining discharges, and (ii) self-sustaining types.
The build-up of high currents in a breakdown is due to the process
known as Ionization in which electrons and ions are created from
neutral atoms or molecules, and their migration to the anode and
cathode respectively leads to high currents.
The two theories which explain the mechanisms of the breakdown
under different conditions are via, (i) Townsend theory, and (ii)
Streamer theory.
An electrical discharge is normally created from unionized gas by
collision processes.
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KITS COURSE FILE
Elastic collisions are collisions which when occur, no change takes

place in the internal energy of the particles but only their kinetic
energy gets redistributed.
Inelastic collisions, on the other hand, are those in which internal
energy take place within an atom or a molecule at the expense of the
total kinetic energy of the colliding particle.
The drift velocity in the field direction W i is proportional to the
electrical field intensity E and may be expressed as follows:
Wi= iE
From the kinetic theory the electron drift velocity W e is given in
microscopic terms as follows:
We =
(lc2)
Where l is an equivalent mean free path of an electron with speed c.

The processes that are primarily responsible for the breakdown of a
gas are ionization by collision, photo-ionization, and the secondary
ionization processes.
The process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule with the
simultaneous production of a positive ion is called ionization.
Secondary ionization processes by which secondary electrons are
produced are the one which sustain a discharge after it is established
due to ionization by collision and photo-ionization.
The equation which is known as Paschens law is as follows:
V = f(pd)
Petroleum oils are the most commonly used liquid dielectrics.
Synthetic Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, Silicone Oils,
Esters,
High
Temperature
Hydrocarbon
(HTH)
oils
and
Tetrachloroethylene (C2Cl4) are also as liquid dielectrics.

Pure liquids are those which are chemically pure and do not contain
any other impurity even in traces of 1 in 109.
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KITS COURSE FILE
Examples of pure liquids are n-hexane (C6H14), n-heptane (C7H16) and

other paraffin hydrocarbons.
Commercial liquids are not chemically pure, and have impurities like
gas bubbles, suspended particles, etc.
The breakdown mechanisms in liquids cab be explained by the
following theories:
(i)
Suspended Particle Mechanism
(ii)
Cavitation and Bubble Mechanism
(iii) Stressed Oil Volume Mechanism
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Electrical conduction in gases was first studied in 1905 by
a) Loeb
b) Maxwell
c) Townsend
d) Hertz
2. An electronegative gas is one in which
a) Positive ions are formed along with electrons
b) The gas has inherent negative charge
c) Gas is ionized due to electron bombardment
d) The gases in which electron gets attached to form negative ion
3. SF6 is a
a) Neutral gas
b) Electronegative gas
c) Ionizes easily to form ions
d) Non-attaching gas
4. Ionization coefficients , are functions of
a) Applied voltage
b) Pressure and temperature
c) Electric field
d) Ratio of electric field to pressure
5. Time lag for breakdown is
a) Time difference between instant of applied voltage and
occurrence of breakdown
b) Time taken for the voltage to rise before breakdown occurs
c) Time required for gas to breakdown under pulse application
d) None of the above
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6. Paschens law states that

a) Breakdown voltage is a function of electric field
b) Breakdown voltage is a function of pd
c) and depends on
d) electronegative gases have high breakdown voltage
7. The mechanism of breakdown in vacuum is due to
a) Particle exchange
b) Field emission
c) Clump formation
d) All of the above
8. SF6 has the following property which is not favorable for use in
electrical apparatus:
a) High dielectric strength
b) High are quenching ability
c) It is not environmental friendly and causes global warming
d) None of the above
9. Which of the following gas is a electronegative gas?
Air
a)
O2
b)
SF6
c)
Both O2 and SF6
d)
10.
Transformer oil is
a) Askeral
b) Silicone oil
c) Polyester
d) Mineral oil
11.
The breakdown strength of mineral oil is about
a) 20 kV/mm
b) 50 kV/mm
c) 3 to 5 kV/mm
d) 30 to 40 kV/mm
12.
Dielectric constant of mineral oil is about
a) 1.5 to 2.0
b) 2.2 to 2.4
c) 3.0 to 3.5
d) 1.008
13.
Conduction and breakdown in commercial liquids is affected by
a) Solid particles
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KITS COURSE FILE
14.
15.
b) Vapour or air bubbles

c) Electrode material
d) All the above three factors a, b and c
Stressed oil volume theory is applicable when
a) Small volume of liquid is involved
b) Large volume of liquid is involved
c) Large gap distance is involved
d) Pure liquids are involved
The parameters that affect the breakdown strength of liquids is
___________.
16.
The liquid which has the highest breakdown ________.
17.
The maximum breakdown strength that can be obtained with
pure liquids like hexane is about __________.
18.
In a pure liquid dielectric, with the increase in hydrostatic
pressure, the breakdown stress _____________.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between photo-ionization and photo-electric
emission.
2. Define Townsends first and second ionization coefficients. How is the
condition for breakdown obtained in a Townsend discharge?
3. What is Paschens law? How do you account for the minimum voltage
for breakdown under a given p x d condition?
4. Explain the phenomena of electrical conduction in liquids. How does
it differ from that in gases
5. What are commercial liquid dielectrics, and how they are they
different from pure liquid dielectrics?
6. What is Stressed oil Volume theory, how does it explain breakdown
in large volumes of commercial liquid dielectrics?
7. Explain briefly Thermal Mechanism of Breakdown.
REFERENCES
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KITS COURSE FILE
Adam Czewski, I., Ionization, conduction and Breakdown in Dielectric

Liquids, Taylor and Francis, London (1969).
Meek, J.M. and Craggs, J.D., Electrical Breakdown of Gasses, John
Wiley, New York (1978).
Kuffel, E.E., Zaengl, W.S. and Kuffel, J., High Voltage Engineering
Fundamentals (2nd Edition), Butterworth Heinemann (2000).
Christophorou, L.G. and Dale, S.J., Encyclopedia of physical Science
and Technology, Edited by R.A. Mayords, 4, pp. 246-292, Academic
Press, New York (1987).
Wilson, A.C.M., Insulating liquids: Their uses, manufacture and
properties, Peter Peregrinus and IEE, London (1980).
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KITS COURSE FILE
UNIT III
OBJECTIVE
Solid dielectric materials are used in all kinds of electrical apparatus
and devices to insulate one current-carrying part from another when they
operate
at
different
voltages.
Solid
insulating
materials,
important
properties of these materials, the mechanism of breakdown in solid

dielectrics are discussed in this chapter.
A good dielectric should have low dielectric loss, high mechanical
strength, should be free from gaseous inclusions, and moisture, and
be resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration.
Solid dielectrics have higher breakdown strength compared to liquids
and gases.
Solid insulating materials used in practice are of two types, namely,
the organic materials and synthetic polymers.
The various breakdown mechanisms in case of solid dielectrics are as
follows:
Intrinsic or Ionic Breakdown
Electromechanical Breakdown
Failure due to treeing and tracking
Thermal breakdown
Electrochemical breakdown
Breakdown due to internal discharges
When voltages are applied only for short durations of the order of 10 8
s, the dielectric strength of a solid dielectric increases very rapidly to
an upper limit called the intrinsic electric strength.

The maximum electrical strength recorded is 15 MV/cm for polyvinylalcohol at -1960C.
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KITS COURSE FILE
When solid dielectrics are subjected to high electric fields, failure

occurs due to electrostatic compressive forces which can exceed the
mechanical compressive strength.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The intrinsic breakdown strength of solid dielectrics is about
a) 50 to 100 kV/mm
b) 500 to 1000 kV/mm
c) 5 to 10 kV/mm
d) 1 to 5 kV/mm
2. The usual mechanism of breakdown in solid dielectrics is
a) Intrinsic breakdown
b) Electromechanical breakdown
c) Thermal breakdown
d) Chemical breakdown
3. Long-term deterioration and breakdown occurs in solid dielectrics due
to
4.
5.
6.
7.
a) Thermal phenomenon
b) Surface discharges
c) Internal discharges
d) Treeing phenomenon
Paper insulation is mainly used in
a) Cables and capacitors
b) Transformers
c) Rotating machines
d) Circuit breakers
Thermal classification of insulating materials is done for
a) Gases
b) Liquids
c) Solids
d) In all the three
Breakdown is permanent in
a) Gases
b) Liquids
c) Solids
d) In all the three
The material used for insulation that is exposed to atmosphere is
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KITS COURSE FILE
a) Ceramics and glass

b) Polyesters
c) Inorganic insulation
d) Rubber and plastics
8. For high frequency applications the following plastic is preferred
a) Polyethylene
b) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
c) Polyester
d) Polystyrene
9. The operating temperatures of polyethylene insulation is
a)
-300 to 500
b)
-600 to 1500
c)
-500 to 800
d)
00 to 1000
10.
Epoxy resins are used as insulation when ___________________.
11.
Electromechanical breakdown occurs when the thickness due
to electrical stress is compressed or reduced to about _____________.
12.
Breakdown due to internal discharges develops ______________.
13.
Electrochemical breakdown and deterioration of insulating
material is due to ____________.
14.
Aging in electrical insulating materials under an electrical field
means _________.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by intrinsic strength of a solid dielectric?
How does breakdown occur due to electrons in a solid dielectric?
2. What is thermal breakdown in solid dielectrics, and how is it
practically more significant than other mechanisms?
3. Explain the phenomenon treeing and tracking in solid insulating
materials under electrical stress. How does it lead to breakdown?
4. Explain the different mechanisms by which breakdown occurs in solid
dielectrics in practice.
5. What is composite insulation? How does short-term breakdown differ
from long-term breakdown?
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KITS COURSE FILE
PROBLEMS
1. A solid specimen of dielectric has a dielectric constant of 4.2, and tan
= 0.001 at a frequency of 50 Hz. If it is subjected to an alternating
field of 50 kV/cm, calculate the heat generated in the specimen due to
the dielectric loss.
2. A solid dielectric specimen of dielectric constant of 4.0 has an internal
void of thickness 1 mm. The specimen is 1 cm thick and is subjected
to a voltage of 80 kV (rms). If the void is filled with air and if the
breakdown strength of air can be taken as 30 kV (peak)/cm, find the
voltage at which an internal discharge can occur.
3. A coaxial cylindrical capacitor is to be designed with an effective
length of 20 cm. The capacitor is expected to have a capacitance of
1000 pF and to operate at 15 kV, 500 kHz. Select a suitable insulating
material and give the dimensions of the electrodes.
REFERENCES
ODwyer, J.J., Theory of Dielectric Breakdown in Solids, Clarendon
Press, Oxford (1964).
Von Hippel, A., Dielectric Materials and Applications, John Wiley, New
York (1964).
Shugg, W.T., Handbook of Electrical and Electronics Insulating
Materials, (2nd Edition), IEEE Press, New York (1995).
Bartnikas, R. and Eichhorn, R.M. (Eds), Engineering Dielectrics, Vol.
IIA, Electrical Properties of Solid Insulating Materials: Molecular
Structure and Electrical Behaviour, ASTM Publications, Philadelphia,
USA (1983).
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KITS COURSE FILE
UNIT IV
OBJECTIVE
In the fields of electrical engineering and applied physics, high
voltages (dc, ac, and impulse) are required for several applications. For
example, electron microscopes and X-ray units require high dc voltages of
the order of 100 kV or more. Electrostatic precipitators, particle accelerators
in nuclear physics, etc. require high voltages (dc) of several kilovolts and
even megavolts. High ac voltages of one million volts or even more are
required for testing power apparatus rated for extra high transmission
voltages (400 kV system and above). High Impulse voltages are required for
testing purposes to simulate over voltages that occur in power systems due
to lightning or switching action. For electrical engineers, the main concern
of high voltages is for the insulation testing of various components in power
systems for different types of voltages, namely, power frequency ac, high
frequency, ac switching or lightning impulses. Hence, generation of high
voltages in laboratories for testing purposes is essential and is discussed in
this chapter.
Rectifier circuits for producing high dc voltages from ac sources may
be (a) Half Wave, (b) Full wave, or (c) voltage doubler-type rectifier.
High voltage direct current voltages can be generated by the following
methods:
Half- and Full- Wave Rectifier Circuits
Voltage Doubler Circuits
Voltage Multiplier Circuits
Single-phase Two-pulse Cascade Multiplier
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KITS COURSE FILE
High
Electrostatic Machines: Basic Principle

Van de Graaff Generators
Electrostatic Generators
Regulation of DC Voltages
voltage alternating voltages can be generated by the following
methods:
Cascade Transformers
Resonant Transformers
Generation of high frequency AC High Voltages
High Impulse voltages can be generated by the following methods:
Standard Impulse Wave shapes
Circuits for Producing Impulse Waves
Multistage Impulse Generators Marx Circuit
Generation of switching surges
High Impulse currents can be generated by the following methods:
Circuits for Producing Impulse Current Waves
Generation of Rectangular Current Pulses
Tripping control of Impulse generator with a three electrode gap
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Peak to peak ripple is defined as
a) The difference between average dc voltage and peak value
b) The difference between maximum and minimum dc voltage
c) The difference between maximum ac and average dc voltages
d) The difference between ac (rms) and average dc voltages
2. In a voltage doubler circuit peak to peak ripple is {if C: capacitance, I:
load current, and f= frequency}
a) =3If/C
b) =2If/fC
c) =3I/fC
d) =I/fC
3. Optimum number of stages for Cockcroft Walton voltage multiplier
circuit are
a)
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KITS COURSE FILE
b)
c)
d)
4. A Van de Graaff generator has a belt speed of 2.5 m/s, charge density
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
of 10 c/m2 and a belt width 2 m. The maximum charging current is

a) 50 A
b) 5 A
c) 2 A
d) 12.5 A
In testing with a resonant transformer, the output voltage is
a) Rectangular wave
b) Triangular wave
c) Trapezoidal wave
d) Pure sine wave
Parallel resonant transformer test system is used when
a) Large test voltages are needed
b) Stable output voltage with high rate of rise of voltage is needed
c) Large current is needed
d) When high frequency test voltage is needed
Tesla coil is used for
a) Generation of sinusoidal output voltages
b) Generation of very high voltages
c) Generation of rectangular voltages
d) Generation of high frequency ac voltages
Time to front of a impulse voltage waveform is defined as __________.
The approximate value of time to front in an impulse voltage generator
is __________.
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KITS COURSE FILE
10.
An impulse voltage generator has a generator capacitance of
0.01 F, load capacitance of 1 nF, front resistance of R 1 = 110 and

tail resistance of R2 = 400. The tail time is ____________.
11.
The voltage efficiency of a normal impulse generator for
generation of switching impulses is ___________________.
12.
A 16-stage impulse generator has stage capacitance of 0.125 F
and a charging voltage of 200 kV. The energy rating in kJ is
_____________.
13.
In an impulse current generator the capacitors are connected in
_________________.
14.
Multi test kits used in high-voltage laboratories consist of
_________________.
15.
Impulse
current
generator
output
waveform
is
_________________.
16.
To minimize the inductance in impulse current generator
circuits ______________ are subdivided into smaller units.
17.
A trigetron gap is used with ________________________.
18.
An oscillatory impulse wave form is represented by ____________.
19.
Within the limits of regulation and ripple, the maximum voltage
and current rating to which a DC Voltage multiplier can be built in
__________________.
20.
The energy rating of different resistor in impulse generators of
medium and large size is ______________.
21.
Impulse generators needed to test gas-insulated systems are
required to produce impulse voltages waves of ________________.
22.
Voltage stabilizers used for regulating high DC Voltages are
____________.
23.
Typical capacitive loading on a testing transformer rated for
100kVA, 250kV will be about ___________________.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
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KITS COURSE FILE
1. Why is a Cockcroft Walton circuit preferred for voltage multiplier

circuits? Explain its working with a schematic diagram.
2. Describe, with a neat sketch, the working of a Van de Graaff
generator. What are the factors that limit the maximum voltage
obtained?
3. Explain the different schemes for cascade connection of transformers
for producing very high ac voltages.
4. What is the principle of operation of resonant transformer? How it is
advantageous over the cascade connected transformers?
5. Give the Marx circuit arrangement for multistage impulse generators.
How is the basic arrangement modified to accommodate the wave time
control resistances?
6. Explain the different methods of producing switching impulses in test
laboratories.
7. How is the circuit inductance controlled and minimized in impulse
current generators?
8. What is a trigatron gap? Explain its functions and operation.
PROBLEMS
1. A Cockcroft Walton type voltage multiplier has eight stages with
capacitances, all equal to 0.05 F. The supply transformer secondary
voltage is 125 kV at a frequency of 150 Hz. If the load current to be
supplied is 5 mA, find
(a) the percentage ripple,
(b) the regulation and
(c) the optimum number of stages for minimum regulation or
voltage drop
2. A 100 kVA, 400/250 kV testing transformer has 8% leakage reactance
and 2% resistance on 100 kVA base. A cable has to be tested at 500kV
using the above transformer as a resonant transformer at 50 Hz. If
the charging current of the cable at 500 kV is 0.4 A, find the series
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KITS COURSE FILE
inductance required. Assume 2% resistance for the inductor to be

used and the connecting leads. Neglect dielectric loss of the cable.
What will be the input voltage to the transformer?
3. An impulse generator has eight stages with each condenser rated for
0.16 F and 125 kV. The load capacitor available is 1000 pF. Find the
series resistances and the damping resistance needed to produce
1.2/50 s impulse wave. What is the maximum output voltage of the
generator, if the charging voltage is 120 kV?
4. A 12-stage impulse generator has 0.126 F capacitors. The wave front
and the wave tail resistances connected are 800 and 5000
respectively. If the load capacitor is 1000 pF, find the front and tail
times of the impulse wave produced.
5. A 6.6 kV/350 kV, 350kVA, 50 Hz testing transformer when tested had
the following observations: (a) no load voltage rise on HV side was 1%
more than the rated value when 6.6 kV was applied on primary side
(b) The rated short circuit current was obtained on HV side when
shorted with 8% rated voltage on primary side. Calculate (i) selfcapacitance of transformer along with its HV side bushing (ii) leakage
reactance neglecting resistance.
REFERENCES
Heller, H. and Veverka, A., Surge Phenomenon in Electrical Machines,
Illifice and company, London (1969).
Dieter Kind, An introduction to High Voltage Experimental Technique,
Wiley Eastern, New Delhi (1979).
High Voltage Technology for Industry and Utilities, Technical
Literature of Hippotronics Inc., Brewster, New York, USA.
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KITS COURSE FILE
UNIT V
OBJECTIVE
In industrial testing and research laboratories, it is essential to
measure the voltages and currents accurately, ensuring perfect safety to the
personnel and equipment. Hence a person handling the equipment as well
as the metering devices must be protected against over voltages and also
against any induced voltages due to stray coupling. Therefore, the location
and layout of the devices are important. Secondly, linear extrapolations of
the devices beyond their ranges are not valid for high-voltage meters and
measuring instruments, and they have to be calibrated for the full range.
Electromagnetic interference is a serious problem in impulse voltage and
current measurements, and it has to be avoided or minimized. Therefore,
even though the principles of measurements may be the same, the devices
and instruments for measurement of high voltages and currents differ vastly
from the low-voltage and low current devices.
High dc voltages can be measured by the following methods:
Series Resistance Micro ammeter
Resistance potential divider
Generating voltmeters
Sphere and other Spark Gaps
High ac voltages can be measured by the following methods:
Series impedance ammeters
Potential dividers (Resistance or Capacitor type)
Potential Transformers (Electromagnetic or CVT)
Electrostatic voltmeters
Sphere gaps
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KITS COURSE FILE
AC high frequency voltages, impulse voltages and other rapidly

changing voltages can be measured by the following methods:
Potential dividers with a cathode ray oscillograph
Peak voltmeters
Sphere gaps
High DC currents can be measured by the following methods:
Resistive shunts with milli ammeter
Hall effect generators
Magnetic links
High AC currents can be measured by the following methods:
Resistive shunts
Electromagnetic current transformers
High frequency AC, impulse and rapidly changing currents can be
measured by the following methods:
Resistive shunts
Magnetic potentiometers or Rogowski coils
Magnetic links
Hall effect generators
Series resistance meters are built for 500 kV dc with an accuracy
better than 0.2%.
Potential dividers are made with 0.05% accuracy up to 100 kV, with
0.1% accuracy up to 300 kV, and with better than 0.5% accuracy for
500 kV.
The current Ic through the Series Capacitance meter is
Ic = jCV
Spark gaps can be used for measurement of the peak value of the
voltage.
High magnitude direct currents are measured using a resistive shunt
of low ohmic value.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. A generating voltmeter is used to measure
(a) Impulse voltages
(b) Ac voltages
(c) Dc voltages
(d) High-frequency ac voltages
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KITS COURSE FILE
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A series capacitance voltmeter can measure

(a) Dc voltages
(b) Ac voltage(RMS value)
(c) Ac voltage (peak value)
(d) Impulse voltages
CVT when tuned does not have
(a) Ratio error
(b) Phase angle error
(c) Ratio and phase angle errors
(d) Temperature error
Electrostatic voltmeters can measure
(a) Only dc voltage
(b) Both dc and ac voltages up to high frequency
(c) Impulse voltages
(d) Ac ,dc and impulse voltages
Sphere gaps are used to measure
(a) Dc voltages
(b) Ac peak voltages
(c) Dc, Ac peak and impulse voltages
(d) Only dc and ac peak voltages
Sphere gap is linear and valid for gap spacing less than of equal to
(a) Radius of the sphere
(b) Diameter of the sphere
(c) Half the radius of the sphere
(d) Two times diameter of the sphere
The main factors that affect the spark over voltage of sphere gap are
(a) Humidity and waveform
(b) Nearby earthed objects and atmospheric conditions
(c) Diameter the sphere
(d) Gap spacing, diameter and waveform
Compensated capacitance divider for a high voltages (1Mv) generally
has a band width of

(a) 10 Mhz
(b) 1Mhz
(c) 100Mhz
(d) 1000Mhz
9. hall generators are normally used to measure
(a) impulse voltages
(b) unidirectional impulse currents
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KITS COURSE FILE
(c) any type of impulse currents

(d) large ac currents
10.
for measuring high impulse currents, the best type of shunt is
(a) squirrel cage
(b) bifilar strip
(c) disc
(d) coaxial tubular(park type)
11.
Rogowski coils and high frequency currents transformers have
bandwidth of about
(a) 100Khz
(b) 10Mhz
(c) 1.0Mhz
(d) 1100Mhz
12.
The type of measuring device preferred for measurement of
impulse currents of short duration is
(a) Parks tubular shunt
(b) Current transformer
(c) Hall generator
(d) Faraday ammeter
13.
For RC divider to be compensated the condition is ____________
14.
The skin depth for resistance material used for impulse shunts
is given by___________.
15.
Sphere gap measurement of peak voltage has an error
of___________.
16.
In high frequency and RF current transformers, the secondary
winding is terminated with a resistance of ______________.
17.
Shunts used for measuring impulse currents, in the range
10KA-50KA will have a resistance of the order of _____________.
18.
The surge impedance of a measuring cable with its resistance
neglected,Cg is_________________.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the generating voltmeter used for measuring high dc
voltages. How does it compare with a potential divider for measuring
high dc voltages?
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KITS COURSE FILE
2. Why are capacitance voltage dividers preferred for high ac voltage

measurements?
3. What is capacitance voltage transformer? Explain with phasor
diagram how a tuned capacitance voltage transformer can be used for
voltage measurements in power systems.
4. Explain the principle and construction of an electrostatic voltmeter for
very high voltages. What are its merits and demerits for high-voltage
ac measurements?
5. Explain how a sphere gap can be used to measure the peak value of
voltages. What are the parameters and factors that influence such
voltage measurement?
6. Compare the use of uniform field electrode spark gap and sphere gap
for measuring peak values of voltages.
7. Give the schematic arrangement of an impulse potential divider with
an oscilloscope connected for measuring impulse voltages.
8. Explain the different methods of high current measurements with
their relative merits and demerits.
9. What are the different types of resistive shunts used for impulse
current measurements? Discuss their characteristics and limitations.
PROBLEMS
1. A generating voltmeter has to be designed so that it can have a range
from 2 to 200kV dc. If the indicating meter reads a minimum current
of 2A and maximum current of 25A, what should the capacitance
of the generating voltmeter be?
2. Design a peak reading voltmeter along with a suitable micro-ammeter
such that it will be able to read voltage, up to 100 kV (peak). The
capacitance potential divider available is of the ratio 1000:1.
3. A resistance divider of 1400 kV (impulse) has a high-voltage arm of 16
kilo-ohms and a low-voltage arm consisting 16 members of 250 ohms,
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KITS COURSE FILE
2 watt resistors in parallel. The divider is connected to a CRO through

a cable of surge impedance 75 ohms and is terminated at the other
end through a 75 ohm resistor. Calculate the exact divider ratio.
4. A Rogowski coil is to be designed to measure impulse currents of 10
kA having a rate of change of current of 10 11 A/s. The current is read
by a TVM as a potential drop across the integrating circuit connected
to the secondary. Estimate the values of mutual inductance,
resistance, and capacitance to be connected, if the meter reading is to
be 10 V for full-scale deflection.
REFERENCES
Craggs, J.D. and Meek, J.M., High voltage Laboratory Techniques,
Butterworths Scientific Publications, London (1964).
Kuffel, E. and Abdullah, M., High Voltage Engineering, Pergamon
Koshrt, F.,Hall Generators for high dc current measurements, ETZ
(A), 77, 487 (1956).
Bowlder, G.W., Measurement in High Voltage Test Circuits, Pergamon
Haefely and Co., H.V.meter for peak and rms value measurements,
Druckschirf, BD., 6589 Basel (1967).
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KITS COURSE FILE
UNIT VI
OBJECTIVE
It is essential for electrical power engineers to reduce the number of
outages and preserve the continuity of service and electric supply.
Therefore, it is necessary to direct special attenuation towards the
protection of transmission lines and power apparatus from the chief causes
of over voltages in electrical systems, namely lightning over voltages and
switching over voltages. Lightning over voltages is a natural phenomenon,
while switching overvoltage originates in the system itself by the connection
and disconnection of circuit breaker contacts or due to initiation or
interruption of faults. Switching overvoltages are highly damped short
duration overvoltages. They are temporary overvoltages of power frequency
or its harmonic frequency, either sustained or weakly damped, and
originates in switching and fault-clearing processes in power systems.
Although both switching and power frequency overvoltages have no common
origin, they may occur together, and their combined effect is important in
insulation design. For the study of overvoltages, a basic knowledge of the
origin of overvoltages, surge phenomenon, and its propagation is desirable.
Lightning phenomenon is a peak discharge in which charge
accumulated in the clouds discharges into a neighboring cloud or to
the ground.
Clouds may have a potential as high as the 10 7 to 108 V with field
gradients ranging from 100 V/cm within the cloud to as high as 10
kV/cm at the discharge point.
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KITS COURSE FILE
According to the Simpsons theory, there are three essential regions

in the cloud to be considered for charge formation.
The Electric Field Intensity E is given by
The lightning stroke and the electrical discharges due to lightning are
explained based on the Streamer or Kanel theory for spark
discharges in long gaps with non-uniform electric fields.
A direct lightning stroke is one that hits either a
Shielding wire (ground wire)
Tower, or
Phase conductor of a overhead power line.
Transmission lines are usually classified as
Lines with no loss or ideal lines,
Lines without distortion or distortionless lines,
Lines with small losses, and
Lines with infinite and finite length defined by all the four
parameters.
A line is said to be ideal line if R = 0 and G = 0.
Very fast transient voltages are generated
during
switching
operations such as
Closing ground switch
Fault clearing
Opening or closing a disconnector switch under load.
The main causes for power frequency and its harmonic overvoltages
are
Sudden loss of loads

Disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive
loads
Ferranti effect, unsymmetrical faults, and
Saturation in transformers, etc.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The electrical field developed within clouds before a lighting stoke
occurs can be of the order of
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KITS COURSE FILE
(a) 0.1 kV/cm

(b) 1kV/cm
(c) 100kV/cm
(d) 10kV/cm
2. The maximum voltage gradient are the ground level due to a
changed cloud before lightning strikes, can be as high as
(a) 1 V/cm
(b) 30 V/cm
(c) 30 V/m
(d) 300 V/cm
3. The velocity of wind currents required for charge separation inside
the moving clouds is of order
(a) 1 to 5 m/s
(b) 5 to 10 m/s
(c) 10 to 20 m/s
(d) 50 to 200 m/s
4. The velocity of return or main stoke may be of the order of (c=velocity
of light)
(a) 0.01 C
(b) 0.001 C
(c) 0.1 C
(d) 0.8 C
5. The cumulative probability of a 10ka lighting stoke current is about
(a) 0.6
(b) 0.2
(c) 0.1
(d) 0.98
6. The rate of rise of current (di /dt) in lighting stokes is
(a) 1 kA/s
(b) 100 kA/s
(c) 100 A/ s
(d) 1000 kA/ s
7. For surge voltage computation, a transformer is represented by an
equivalent circuit of
(a) R-L parallel network
(b) L-C parallel network
(c) R-L series network
(d) R-L-C series network
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KITS COURSE FILE
8. Switching overvoltage in power system networks are of the order of

(a) 1.5pu
(b) 2.5 to 3.5 pu
(c) 10 pu of more
9. Overhead transmission lines are protected from lightning
overvoltages by
(a) Current poise wires
(b) Protection tubes
(c) Ground of shield wires above the main conductors
(d) Shunt reactors
10.
In order to limit the of voltages developed on ground wires due
to lightning stokes, the tower footing resistance should be less than
(a) 1000 ohm
(b) 100 ohm
(c) 25 ohm
(d) 1 ohm
11.
For a typical heavy duty (10 kA rated) surge arresters, the
discharge voltage are rated current will be of the order of
(a) 1 pu
(b) Less than 2.0pu
(c) More than 3.5pu
(d) 2.2 to 3.0
12.
The material used in gap less surge arresters used in hv power
system is
(a) Graphite
(b) Aluminum oxide
(c) Zinc oxide
(d) Silicon carbide
13. Material that is used in surge arresters for EHV and UHV
14.
15.
power Systems
(a) Capacitor
(b) An inductor
(c) Non-linear resistance
(d) Metal oxide
Surge impedance of loss less transmission line is_____________.
The attenuation constant of transmission line in terms all the
parameters R, L, G and C is.______________.

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KITS COURSE FILE
16.
17.
The purpose of insulation coordination____________________.

The maximum rate if rise of surge currents that occur in
overhead lines is______________.

18.
The duration of switching surges in GIS is ___________________.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the mechanisms by which lightning strokes develop and
induce overvoltages on overhead power lines?
2. Give the mathematical models for lightning discharges and explain
them.
3. What are the different methods employed for lightning protection of
overhead lines?
4. What is a surge arrester? Explain its function as a shunt protective
device.
5. What is meant by insulation co-ordination? How are the protective
devices chosen for optimal insulation level in a power system?
6. Derive the expressions for the voltage and current waves on long
transmission lines and obtain the surge impedance of the line.
7. Define surge impedance of a line. Obtain the expressions for voltage
and current waves at a junction or transition point.
8. Explain the terms attenuation and distortion of travelling waves
propagation on overhead lines. What is the effect of corona on the
transmission lines?
PROBLEMS
1. A 3-phase single circuit transmission line is 400 km long. If the line is
rated for 220 kV and has the parameters, R = 0.1 ohms/km, L = 1.26
mH/km, C = 0.009 F/km, and G = 0, find (a) the surge impedance,
and (b) the velocity of propagation neglecting the resistance of the
line. If a surge of 150 kV and infinitely long tail strikes at one end of
PAGE 39
KITS COURSE FILE
the line, what is the time taken for the surge to travel to the other end
of the line?
2. A transmission line of 500 surge impedance is connected to a cable
of 60 surge impedance at the other end. If a surge of 500 kV travels
along the line to the junction point. Find the voltage build-up at the
junction?
3. A 10 MVA, 132 kV transformer is connected to the end of a
transmission line of surge impedance 400. The transformer has an
equivalent capacitance of 0.002 F and leakage inductance of 16 H. If
a rectangular wave of 1000 kV travels through the line and strikes the
transformer, find the surge voltage on the transformer?
4. An underground cable of inductance 0.189 mH/km
and
of
capacitance 0.3 F/km is connected to an overhead line having an

inductance of 1.26 mH/km and capacitance of 0.009 F/km.
Calculate the transmitted and reflected voltage and current waves at
the junction, if a surge of 200 kV travels to the junction, (i) along the
cable, and (ii) along the overhead line.
REFERENCES
Bewley, L.V., Travelling Waves on Transmission Systems, Dover
Publications Inc., New York (1963).
Lewis, W.W., Protection of Transmission Lines and System against
Lightning, Dover Publications, Inc. New York (1965).
Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, Westinghouse Electric
Corporation and Oxford University Press, New Delhi (1962).
Marshall, J.L., Lightning Protection, John Wiley and sons, New York
(1973).
Diesendorf, W., Insulation Coordination in H.V. Electric Power Systems,
Butterworths, London (1974).
PAGE 40
KITS COURSE FILE
UNIT VII
OBJECTIVE
Electrical insulating materials are used in various forms to provide
insulation for the apparatus. The insulating material may be solid, liquid,
gas or even a combination of these, such as paper impregnated with oil.
These materials should posses good insulating properties over a wide range
of operating parameters, such as a wide temperature range (0 0C to 1100C)
and a wide frequency range (dc to several MHz in the radio and highfrequency ranges). Since it is difficult to test the quality of an insulating
material after it forms part of equipment, suitable tests must be done to
ensure their quality in the said ranges of operation. Also these tests are
devised to ensure that the material is not destroyed as in the case of highvoltage testing.
These tests may be conducted at a desired temperature or over a
temperature range by keeping the test specimen in controlled temperature
ovens. A knowledge of the variation of electrical properties over the
operating range can be obtained from these tests and this will help the
design engineer to take into account such variations in the design of
electrical insulation for equipment.
Direct Current Resistivity can be measured by (i) Specimens and
Electrodes,
(ii)Electrode
Materials,
(iii)
Measuring
Cells,
(iv)
Measuring Circuits and (v) Loss of Charge Method.
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KITS COURSE FILE
The dielectric constant and loss factor can be measured by (i)

Measurement Ranges, (ii) Low Frequency Measurement Methods (0
10Hz), (ii) Power-Frequency-Measurement Methods High-Voltage
Schering Bridge, (iii) Audio Frequency Measuring Techniques and
(iv) Detectors.
Partial Discharges can be measured by (i) Discharge Detection using
Straight Detectors, (ii) Balanced Detection Method, (iii) Calibration of
Discharge Detectors, and (iv) Discharge Detection in power cables.
The movement of electrical charges through an insulating medium,
initiated by electron avalanches is defined as Electrical Discharge.
Partial Discharge is defined as an electrical discharge that only
partially bridges the dielectric or insulating medium between two
conductors.
Discharge Inception Voltage is defined as the lowest voltage at
which discharges of specified magnitude will recur when an
increasing ac voltage is applied
Discharge Extinction Voltage is defined as the lowest voltage at
which discharges of specified magnitude will appear when an applied
ac voltage, which is more than the inception voltage, is reduced.
Discharge Magnitude is defined as the quantity of charge, as
measured at the terminals of a sample due to a single discharge.
Discharge Energy is defined as the energy dissipated by a single
discharge.
Average Current is defined as the average value of the discharge
current during a cycle due to a single or multiple discharges.
Discharge Detector is device or an instrument used for either
detecting and/or measuring the discharges.
Sensitivity is defined as the magnitude of the smallest individual
discharge that can be measured under particular test conditions.
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KITS COURSE FILE
Resolution is defined as the minimum interval between two

discharges which can be measured without the magnitude of one
discharge affecting the other.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. For resistivity and dielectric constant measurements the electrode
2.
3.
4.
5.
system used is
(a) Two electrode
(b) Three electrode
(c) Four electrode
(d) None of the above
A sensitive dc galvanometer has a maximum sensitivity of
(a) 10-9 A/cm
(b) 10-8 A/cm
(c) 10-6 A/cm
(d) 10-12 A/cm
Loss of charge Method is used to determine
(a) Insulation resistance
(b) Dielectric constant
(c) Loss factor (tan )
(d) Rate of charging of a capacitor
The equivalent circuit of a lossy capacitor or dielectric is
(a) R-C series circuit
(b) L-C series circuit
(c) R-C parallel circuit
(d) L-C parallel circuit
The type of bridge used for low frequency ( 50 Hz) dielectric
measurement is
(a) Transformer ratio bridge
(b) Moles-bridge
(c) Shunted Schering-bridge
(d) Wagners-bridge
6. Wagners earth is used with Schering-bridge for
(a) Grounding
(b) Divert high current through the bridge when specimen fails
(c) Suppress spikes and overvoltages
(d) Eliminating stray capacitance and coupling
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KITS COURSE FILE
7. Current comparator bridge is used

(a) When test capacitance is large
(b) For high-voltage power frequency measurements
(c) For high-frequency low-voltage measurements
(d) Low-voltage high-frequency measurements
8. Corona discharge is
(a) An internal discharge
(b) Surface discharge
(c) A spark between conductors
(d) Partial discharge around a high-voltage conductor
9. Partial discharge magnitude is
(a) Quantity of charge measured at the terminals of the specimen
(b) Quantity of charge inside a specimen
(c) Voltage across the terminals of a specimen
(d) Average current through the terminals of the specimen
10.
Partial discharge detector is a device that measures or detects
(a) A partial discharge
(b) Corona discharge
(c) Leakage current
(d) Fault current
11.
A simple partial discharge detector circuit consists of a power
unit and a ____________.
12.
The discharge energy in a partial discharge in terms of
discharge magnitude q and inception voltage v is ___________________.
13.
Partial
discharge
inception
voltage
is
defined
as
_____________________.
14.
In pd detectors
partial
discharges
are
displayed
on
_________________.
15.
The bridge commonly used for measurement of dielectric
constant and loss factor in the audio frequency range 100 Hz to 10
kHz is _____________.
16.
The measuring range of high-voltage Schering bridge with std.
capacitors of 50 or 100 pf is _________________.
17.
The measuring range of a high-frequency low-voltage Schering
bridge is __________.
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KITS COURSE FILE
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How is a lossy dielectric represented? Explain how an ideal capacitor
in parallel with a resistor can represent a lossy dielectric over a wide
frequency range?
2. Explain how the volume resistivity of a solid dielectric is determined.
3. Explain the high-voltage Schering-bridge for the tan and
capacitance measurement of insulators or bushings.
4. Explain the modifications to be made to the Schering-bridge for the
following situations:
(a) High dissipation factor test objects
(b) High capacitance test objects
(c) One end of the test object to be grounded
5. Why are the earthing and shielding arrangements needed in the
Schering bridge measurements?
6. Briefly explain how partial discharges in an insulation system or
equipment can be detected and displayed.
7. What are the partial discharges and how are they detected under
power frequency operating conditions?
8. Explain the transformer ratio arm bridge for audio frequency range
measurements. Discuss its merits and demerits over other methods.
PROBLEMS
1. The volume resistivity of a Bakelite piece was determined by using
standard
circular
electrodes,
sensitive
galvanometer,
and
stabilized power supply. When the applied voltage was 1000 V, the
galvanometer deflection with the specimen eas 3.2 cm. When a
standard resistance of Rs = 10 M is used for calibration, the
deflection was 33.30 cm with a universal shunt ratio of 3,000. The
diameter of the electrodes is 10 cm, and the thickness of the
specimen is 2 mm. Find the volume resistivity.
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KITS COURSE FILE
2. The resistivity of the specimen referred to in the above example was

determined using the loss of charge method. A 0.1 F, 1000 V
standard condenser was charged to 1000 V and was discharged
through the specimen. If the time taken for the voltage to fall from
1000 V to 500 V was 30 min 20 sec, find the resistivity of the
specimen
3. A Schering-bridge was used to measure the capacitance and loss
angle of an hv bushing. At balance, the observations were: the value
of the standard condenser = 100 pF, R 3 = 3180 , C3 = 0.00125 F
and R4 = 636 . What are the values of capacitance and tan of the
bushing?
REFERENCES
Harris, F.H., Electrical Measurements, John Wiley, New York (1966).
Bhimani, B.V., Low Frequency A.C. Bridge, Tr. A.I.E.E., 80, part 3,
155 (1961).
ASTM Standards on Electrical insulating materials,, D 150-50T,
1961.
Partial Discharge Measurements, I.E.C. specification No. 270 (1968).
Hague, B., Alternating Current Bridge Methods, (5th Edition), Pitman
and Sons, London, England (1959).
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KITS COURSE FILE
UNIT VIII
OBJECTIVE
It is essential to ensure that the electrical equipment is capable of
withstanding the overvoltages that are met with in service. The overvoltages
may be either due to natural causes like lightning or system-originated ones
such as switching or power frequency transient voltages. Hence, testing for
overvoltages is necessary.
The overvoltage tests are classified into two groups; (i) Power
frequency voltage tests; and (ii) impulse voltage tests.
Disruptive Discharge Voltage is defined as the voltage which
produces the loss of dielectric strength of insulation.
The voltage which has to be applied to a test object under specified
conditions in a withstand test is called the Withstand Voltage.
Fifty Percent Flashover Voltage is defined as the voltage which has
a probability of 50% flashover, when applied to a test object.
Creepage Distance is the shortest distance on the contour of the
external surface of the insulator unit or between two metal fittings on
the insulator.
The tests that are normally conducted on insulators are usually
subdivided as (i) type tests, and (ii) the routine tests.
Type tests are intended to check the design features and the quality.
The routine tests are intended to check the quality of the individual
test piece.
The power frequency tests include (i) Dry and Wet Flashover Tests
and (ii) Wet and Dry Withstand Tests.
Impulse tests include (i) Impulse Withstand Test, (ii) Impulse
Flashover Test and (iii) Pollution Testing.
PAGE 47
KITS COURSE FILE
The tests that are normally conducted on Bushings are subdivided as

(i) Power Frequency Tests, (ii) Impulse Voltage Tests and (iii) Thermal
Tests.
Power Frequency Tests include (i) Power Factor Voltage Test, (ii)
Internal or Partial Discharge Test, (iii) Momentary Withstand Test at
power Frequency, (iv) One minute Wet Withstand Test at power
frequency and (v) Visible Discharge Test at power Frequency.
Impulse tests include (i) Full Wave Withstand Test and (ii) Chopped
Wave Withstand and Switching Surge Tests.
The main tests that are conducted on the circuit breakers and
isolator switches are (i) the dielectric tests or overvoltage tests, (ii) the
temperature rise tests, (iii) the mechanical tests, (iv) the short circuit
tests.
Different tests on cables may be classified into (i) Mechanical tests
like bending test, dripping and drainage test, and fire resistance and
corrosion tests, (ii) dielectric power factor tests, (iii) thermal duty
tests, (iv) power frequency withstand voltage tests, (v) impulse
withstand voltage tests, (vi) partial discharge tests, and (vii) life
expectance tests.
Tests on Surge Arresters include (i) power frequency sparkover test,
(ii) hundred percent standard impulse sparkover test, (iii) front of
wave sparkover test, (iv) Residual test.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Fifty percent flashover voltage is defined as
(a) The voltage at which the flashover probability is 0.5
(b) The voltage at which corona discharge appears before flashover
(c) The voltage at which the flashover occurs alternately when
applied several times
(d) The average value of withstand voltage and flashover voltage
PAGE 48
KITS COURSE FILE
2. Standard
atmospheric
condition
as
per
Indian
Standard
Specifications are
(a)
Temp = 270 C, pressure = 1013 mill bans and humidity = 17
(b)
(c)
(d)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
gms/m3
gms/m3
gms/m3
gms/m3
In wet flashover tests, the conductivity of water used is
(a) 10 1.5 Siemens
(b) 100 15 Siemens at ambient temperature
(c) 45 10 Siemens at room temperature
(d) < 1.0 Siemens at 270 C
Most important tests conducted on isolators and circuit breakers are
(a) Voltage withstand tests
(b) Short circuit tests
(c) High current tests
(d) Temperature rise tests
Fault location in an HV cable is done by
(a) Voltage withstand test
(b) Partial discharge scanning tests
(c) Life tests
(d) Impulse tests
In impulse testing of transformers fault location is usually done by
(a) Neutral current oscillogram
(b) Chopped wave oscillogram
(c) Observing for noise or smoke
(d) Scanning method
The most important test to assert the proper functions of a surge
divertor is
(a) 100% impulse withstand test
(b) Front of wave spark over and residual voltage tests
(c) Impulse current test
(d) Pollution tests
8. The salt-fog test done on insulators is
PAGE 49
KITS COURSE FILE
(a) Impulse test

(b) Power frequency pollution test
(c) Impulse current test
(d) Switching surge test
9. C-tan test on electric bushings is done using _______________.
10.
In C-tan test, a steep increase in tan , when the applied
voltage increases from 100% to 110% indicates __________________.
11.
Impulse testing of transformers indicates ______________.
12.
A better method to detect fault during impulse testing is to
________________.
13.
Switching impulse tests on UHV and EHV transformers can
result in ___________.
14.
RIV tests on transmission line hard ware are done to
________________.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the different power frequency tests done on insulators?
Mention the procedure for testing.
2. What is the significance of impulse tests? Briefly explain the impulse
testing of insulators.
3. Mention the different electrical tests done on isolators and circuit
breakers.
4. What are the significances of power factor tests and partial discharge
tests on bushings?
5. Explain the partial discharge tests on high-voltage cables. How is a
fault in the insulation located in this test?
REFERENCES
Kreguer, F.H., Discharge Detection in H.V. Equipment, Haywood London
(1964).
Ely, C.H.A. and Lambeth, P.J., Artificial Pollution test for H.V. outdoor
insulators, Proc. I.E.E. 111, 991 (1964).
PAGE 50
KITS COURSE FILE
Clark, C.H.W., Radio Interference from H.V. insulators, Electrical

review, 16, 491 (1959).
Berlijn, S., Garnacho, F., Gockenbach, E. and Muhr M., et al.
Influence of different lighting impulse shapes on the breakdown
behavior of insulating materials-proposal for modification of IEC
60060-1, ISH Bangalore, Paper 7-2 (2001).
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KHAMMAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &

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