TRUSS ELEMENT CHAPTER 7@ ‘TRUSS ELEMENT ‘The behaviour of pin-jointed trusses, in which the members are assumed not to transmit ‘moments, is ideally suited to analysis by the finite element method, Although this type of structure may be analysed using a variety of manual techniques, the finite clement approach has the advantage that it gives both the joint deflections and the member forces Moreover, trusses of variable cross-section present no special difficulty and the effets of -. loading by self-weight can aso be incorporated, 7.1 A Linear Truss Element ‘The coordinate system fora two-dimensional trus elements shown in Figure 7.1. The J matric and hence its determinant is equal tothe matrix itself. Note that both the Jacobian matrix and the ttrain-displacement matrix B are constant throughout the element since the shape functions which describe the geometry and displacements ofthe truss clement are assumed tobe linear. (Once the strain is known, the axial stress in the trus is given by the strest-strain relation Oe = Eee (7s) ‘where £ is Young's modulus. This equation is often written in the more general form of =De ‘where the axial stress vector o and the stress-strain matrix Dare defined as 716) 172 Formula ‘Toderive the element stifiness equations we invoke the principle of virtual work which, forthe two-dimensional truss element of Figure 7.1, may be written as 4 [ Segond = PB + P60, + Peps + Pysbrn aan Inthe above, A denotes the cross-sectional area ofthe truss, Seqisthe virtual exal strain, {is the axial stress, (bx ,dy,) ae the virtual displacements at the nodes, and (P,P) are the point loads applied at the nodes. Note that we have assumed thatthe truss is loaded only by point loads applied at the nodes, and not by distributed body forces such as6 selfweight. The latter may be included by considering the appropriate contsbution to the right hand side of the virtual work equation, but will not be considered here for the sake of simplicity, yuation (7.17) may be writen in the usual matrix form as Af oeece = Pon 8) where € = (¢) ithe strain veetor, © (Pa Ba Pa Ba) bul = (bu 6%, ) is the stress vector and P’ Now and De ‘where Bis the strain-displacement matrix and Dis the stress-strain matrix, Substitutingin (7.18) and rearranging gives ota [wince at = 507? 019) Since the variation éu in the nodal displacements is arbitrary, and (7.19) must hold for all such variations, it follows that af BYDBdery dé u = P ‘This expression may be written inthe usual form kunt where a J BTDB dots dé (720) Pp and the nodal displacement vector uis given by (7). Having established the governing equations for the trussclement, we ean now proceed with the details of their evaluationo ‘73 Numerical Integration of Blement Stiffness Matrix ‘Th derive the stiffness equations for a mumercally integrated element, we substitute (7.12), (7.14) and (7.16) ito equation (720) and apply numerical integration. This gives k= 4S BrDR, set3,w, 21) ‘where isthe sumber of integration points, ws the value of the weight for integration Point, B= BE; )isthestrain-splacement matrixevaluatedat = &, dst J, = detJ(@,) isthe determinant of the Jacobian evaluated at # = &, and the value ofthe model coordinate for integration point In te above itis assumed thatthe area and sfiness propertics are constant across cach element. If this isnot the ese, then (7.21) would be ‘placed by an expression ofthe form k= Sai, ders, Aw, (2) where 4, = AG;) and D, = D(,) are the area and streststrain matrix, respectively, computed at § = £, The generality of (7-22) ilustrates the ease with which complicated properties can be incorporated into an element when numerical integration is used, 74 Formal tion of Element Force Vector In the analysis of trusses, the loads are usually applied as concentrated forces at the ‘nodes. This permits the global force vector to be assembled dizecty, without having to ‘compute the element force vector. One common exception to this rule is when the self ‘weight ofthe truss elements are included. In this case, which i not covered here, the nodal {orces arising from the distributed body force must be computed element by element and ‘then inserted into the global force vector, 17 Worked Example of Numerically Integrated Truss Element ‘To choose an appropriate rule for evalusting (7.21) we need to determine the order of the highest degree polynomial that occurs inside the summation sign, For the sifiness ‘matrick, the terms in the matrix B are one order lower than the order of the expansion that is used to model the element displacements. In the case ofthe linear truss element, the B ‘matritis made up of constant terms and thus the order of its highest degree polyno! is zero. The order of the Jacobian matrix, and hence its determinant, can be determined by inspection of equation (7.14). Substituting the derivatives of the shape functions we see that det Ji given by detd = ee x)Jeosa + 4 ~yy)sina Noting that cosa = (x, ~ x))/Land sina +» — Y)/L, this ean be simplified to L(costa + sine) = & det = E(costa + sinta) = & (723) toprove that det Jis constant throughoutthe clement. Thus the highest degree term inthe ‘element stifiness matri, for a linear trusselement with constant ares and constant Young's ‘modulus, is equal to the product of terms which are all constant. The highest degree term6 inside the summation for kis therefore also a constant and, with reference to Table 4.1, it is necessary to use only a one-point Gaus rule. ‘To perform the numerical integration by hand, we frst note that from (7.12) fewsa -sina cosa sina] 24) Suistiuting (7.23) and (7.24) into (7.21), and using the one-point rule in Table 4.1, we Obtain the element stiffness matrix as sine foot pone] x & x feos Jone] § x2 costa cosasina -cos*a -cosasina] over -seasoa cata couine| 09 ‘Asthe clement stifinest is again symmetric and positive definite this implies thatthe global stiiness matrix will also be symmetric and positive definite. 76 A Worked Example of Truss Analysis using Finite Elements Consider the truss shown in Figure 72, which has three nodes and three elements and is subject toa vertical downward force at node two. All elements have Young's modulus E and cross-sectional area.A. Elements one and two are of length /2L, whilst element three is of length 22. clement and nodal freedom numbers U ‘Figure 7.2: Truss geometry and nodal freedom numbers Asin previous examples, the topology ofthe grid is specified by listing the nodes which ‘define each element. These nodes ae usualy specified in aconsstent manner, but foreachtruss clement the nodes can be specified in any order. The nodes for each element aze stored in a single row ofthe array ELTOP as shown below [ELTOP(1,1) ELTOP(1,2)] [i 2]+-nodes for element 1 ELTOP = |ELTOPQ,1) ELTOPQ,2)| = |3 2|—nodes for element 2 [ELTOP(,1) ELTOPG,2)| [3 1]~nodes for element 3 "The nodal freedom NF is constructed using the nodal freedom numbers shown. As in previous examples, the entries inthe nodal freedom array are formed by running through ‘the nodes in ascending sequence and allocating numbers to each degree of freedom that isunrestrained. By convention, theu-displacement isnumbered before the -displacement at each node and all fixed degrees of freedom are given a value of 2er0, For the mesh of linear rod elements shovin in Figure 7.2, the nodal freedom array is given wy [NFL 1) NFQ,2)] [0 oO} node 1 NF = |NF.1) NF@,2)] = [1 2]— node 2 INFG.1) NFG,2)] [3 o]— node 3 [Note that after the boundary conditions have been applied, there are only three unknown displacements, This implies the global stifiness matrix will be 3x3 and the global force vector will be 331. Because the load is applied to the truss directly at a node, the global {force vector can be assembled without forming element force vectors. Indeed, i this case te element force vectors can only be found after the solution forthe displacements has been obtained. For our tru problem, the point load P is applied downward at nodal ao: os ‘The nodal freedom array NF holds the nodal freedom umbers and, in conjunction with the element node numbers listed in the element topology array ELTOF, i used to form @ Steering vector for each element. Allowing forthe fact that presribed degrees of freedom are never assembled, te stcering vector tells us where the element stiffness matrixentries should be inserted inthe global stiness matrix, nodal freedom numbers Figure 7.3: Local and global freedom numbers for truss element one‘The local freedom numbers and nodal freedom numbers fo element one aze as shown in Figure 7.3. Note that local freedoms one and two are associated withthe node thats listed first in the element topology array (in tis case node one). The loal freedoms three and four are then associated with the other node. ‘This order also determines the value of the angle @ which, by definition, it measured potitive anticlockwise from the x-axis about the first node. Using equation (7.25), te stiffness matrix for element one is given by ° (7.27) ‘With reference to Figure 73, the steering vector for element one is, STHER! « [NFQ1)NFQ,2)_NFQ1) NFQQ2) Which indicates that ‘+ rowone and cokumn one of the element stiffness matrix are not assembled into the slobal stifiness matrix ‘+ row two and column two of the element stiffness matrix are not assembled into the slobal stiffness matrix ‘+E jisassembled into K;, of the global sifinessmatrisince its row and column indices fom the steering vector are (1,1) + Kisassembied into X,zof the global stifinessmatrixsince its row and column indices fom the steering vector are (1,2) + Hhisassembled into X,, of the global sitfness matrixsince its row and column indices from the steering vector are (21) ‘+ isassembled into Xz ofthe global sifiness matrixsine its row and column indices ‘rom the steering vector are (2.2) “fe ol: whe 1 oo; toca freedom numbers nodal freedom numbers ‘Figure 74: Local and global freedom numibers for truss element two For clement two, the local freedom numbers and nodal freedom numbers are shown in Figure 74, Thus its element stifness matrix and steering vector aren raay raf 1 14 Wagar 114 728) tat {NFG.1)_-NFG,2) NFQ,1) NFQ,2)} STEER’ B 0 1 a The steering vector indicates that ‘+ row two and column two of the element stifiness matrix are not assembled into the ‘lobalstifiness matrix + jisassembled into Kas ofthe plobalstifinessmatrixsinceisrow and columningices from the steering vector are 33) + isassembled into Ky ofthe global stiiness matrixsinceitsrow and column indices from the steering veetor are (3,1) + Hgisessembledinto Kp ofthe pobalstiffessmetrix since itsrow and column indices srom the steering vector are (3,2) +B isessembledinto X,,ofthe global stifiness matrix since itsrowandcolumnindices from the steering vector are (1,3) + Hyisassembled into K;, ofthe global stiness matrixsince its ow andcolumn indices from the steering vector ae (11) + Hsassembled into X,.ofthe global stifiness matrixsineitsrowand column indices from the steering vector are (1.2) + yisassembledinto Kx ofthe global sifiess matrix since itsrowandcofumn indices fom the stering vector are (23) + Kis assembled into Ky ofthe global stifinessmatrxsinceitsrow and column indices from the stering vector are (2,1) + HLjisassembled into Kz ofthe global stitiness matrixsinceitsowand column indices from the steering vector are (22) a= 180" cosa sina = 0 ays 2 vito vyh0 3 1 9 3 o4 @o«4 ou @ % local freedom numbers nodal freedom numbers Figure 75: Local and global freedom numbers for truss element three For element three, the local freedom numbers and nodal freedom numbers are shown in Figure 7.5. The corresponding element sifiness matrix and steering vector aren fo -a g 00 00 . a9 2hr|-6 0 A o ) 00 00 STEER? = [VFG,1) NFG,2) NFC.3) NFUL2]}= 0 0 9) “The steering vectorindcstes that ‘row two and column two of the element sitfness matrix are not assembled into the ‘lobal stiftess matrix + rowthree and column shree of the element stifiness matrix arenot assembled into the slobal stiffness matrix ‘+ row four and column four ofthe element stifiness matrix are not assembled into the slobal stiffness matrix ‘+ Kj jisassembled into Xs ofthe global stiffness matrixsince itsrow andcolumn indices fom the steering vector are (33) ‘Adding the stiffness conteibutions from each element gives the global stiffness matrix According to K= we + we + we 19 tact 0 0 Sel 1 of Bt]s 1 ifs tefo o | HL oof Ls a a] lo o a 200 4 -felo 2 1 030) 11 B41 ‘Combining (7:30) with the global force vector, given by (7.26),we obtain the global stiffness equations as| nf) 9 Alo 2 ipral = |p| 22r| : oa 1 1 Bally} Lo) Solving this system furnishes the unknown nodal displacements as, 1pL Vz = (i+ 1/2) BL u-%Together with the known boundary conditions U, specifies the solution for the displacements. as this completely (Once the displacements are known, the strainsin each trusselement can be computedusing the strain-displacement relations (7.11). In element one, for example, and Busted PL EA Wary = (E+ yee this implies thatthe axial strsin for element one is Similarly for elements two and three (ox 0 AE: a 3 ~ 20 Once the strains are known, the axial stresses in the truss can be computed from the stress-strain relation (7.15) according to = BE eomresin = i™ (compression) (734) tension) (738) Fix old = - 2p (compression) 738) (compression) 37 Fheold= 4P (tenon) 038) ‘These forces canbe verified by checking equilibrium ateach nodeinthe truss, Atnode two, for example, we assume the forces shown in Figure 7.6. P @ <> FP A Figure 7.6: Equilibrium for node two in truss From equilibrium Sh = ~ Fleoses + Foss YB = = Flsings ~ Fleins = P ‘These equations give the axial forces in elements one end two as -P- (compression) :P_ (compression) ‘hich are identical to those obtained from the finite element analysis,