Chapter 2-Transformers PDF

TRANSFORMERS
Chapter 2
Prof. Adel Gastli
Electric Machines Chapter2: Transformers
CHAPTER CONTENT
Prof. Adel Gastli
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Construction & Principle of Operation
2.3
Practical Transformer
2.4
Equivalent Circuit Parameters
2.5
Multi-secondary windings
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8
Efficiency
2.9
Three-Phase Transformer
2.10
Per-Unit System
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8 Efficiency
2.9 Three-Phase Transformer

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
Introduction
A transformer is an electrical device
that transfers ac energy from one
electrical circuit to another by
magnetic coupling but without any
moving parts.
Its action is based on the laws of
electromagnetic induction.
There is no electrical connection between
primary and secondary (except for one
case).
There is no change in frequency.
Prof. Adel Gastli
Introduction
The ac power is transferred from primary to
secondary through magnetic flux.
Prof. Adel Gastli
Introduction
They are rugged and durable in
construction.
They have High efficiency as well as 99%.
Transformers alone cannot do the following:
Convert DC to AC or vice versa
Change the voltage or current of DC
Change the frequency (the "cycles") of AC.
However, transformers are components of

the systems that can perform all these
functions.
Prof. Adel Gastli
Introduction
Prof. Adel Gastli
Introduction
Transmission Transformer
Prof. Adel Gastli
Introduction
Distribution Transformer
220 KV 5 KV
Prof. Adel Gastli
Introduction
11 KV 415V
Service Transformer
Prof. Adel Gastli
Circuit Transformer
10
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8 Efficiency

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
11
Basic Components
Iron Core
Primary
winding
connected
to the
source
Insulated
Copper Wire
Secondary
winding
connected to
the load
Both coils are electrically separated but magnetically

linked through a low reluctance path (Iron Core)
Prof. Adel Gastli
12
Basic Components
Laminated iron
core is used to
reduce eddy
current loss
Insulated
copper wire
Prof. Adel Gastli
13
Prof. Adel Gastli
14
How does it work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjwzpoCiF8A
8:41
Prof. Adel Gastli
15
The Two-Winding Theory
i1
v1
a
+
e1
_
b
Primary
d
e1 N1
dt
N1
N2
c
+
e
_ 2
d
Secondary
d
e2 N 2
dt
If the flux varies sinusoidally, m sin t

then, e1 N1 m cos t
Prof. Adel Gastli
16
The Two-Winding Theory

e1 and e2 are in time phase because they are
produced by the same flux.

m
N1 m 2f
E1
m N1
2
2
i1
v1
4.44 f m N1
a
+
e1
_
b
N1
N2
c
+
e
_ 2
d
E1 and E2 are root-meansquare values
E2 4.44 f m N 2
E1 N1
a turns ratio
E2 N 2
Voltages are in phase (no phase shift)

Voltage magnitudes vary with turns ratio.
Prof. Adel Gastli
17
Ideal Transformer
Ideal Transformer
r1 r2 0 (winding resistances)
No leakage flux and core losses are negligible
(high permeability) exciting current 0
i1
v1
e1
d
v1 e1 N1
dt
N1
N2
c S
+
e_2 v2
d
Load
d
v2 e2 N 2
dt
v1 e1 N1

a (turns ratio or transformer ratio)
v2 e2 N 2
Prof. Adel Gastli
18
Ideal Transformer
Power conservation
S1 S 2
*
1
*
2
I
E2
E1
I
EI E I
*
1 1
*
2 2
(Complex vectors)
i1
v1
I1 E2 N 2
I 2 E1 N1
e1
N2
N1
c S i2
+
e_2 v2 Load
d
N1 I 1 N 2 I 2
Conservation of mmf
Currents are in phase.

Current ratio is opposite to the voltage ratio
Prof. Adel Gastli
19
Impedance Transfer
I1
I1
I2
V1
V2
Z2
V1
Z1
N1 N2
V2
Secondary impedance Z 2
I2
V1 aV2
2 V2
Primary impedance Z1
a
a2Z2
I1 I 2 / a
I2
Prof. Adel Gastli
20
Impedance Transfer
Secondary impedance is transferred to the primary side
I1
Z Z1 a Z 2
'
2
I1
I2
V1
V2
Z2
V1
Z2
N1 N2
Primary impedance is transferred to the secondary side
Z1
Z Z2 2
a
'
1
This impedance transfer is very useful because it eliminates

magnetically coupled circuit and transforms it into an
electrical circuit and thereby simplifies the circuit.
Prof. Adel Gastli
21
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8 Efficiency

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
22
Practical Transformer: Equivalent Circuit

m
R1
I1
I2
l1
V1
N1
R1
R2
l2
N1: N2
I1 Xl1
V2
N2
Xl2 I2 R2
V1
V2
Primary
winding
Magnetic
Core
Secondary
winding
R1 & R2: the resistance of the primary and secondary winding

Xl1 & Xl2: the leakage reactance of the primary and secondary winding
Prof. Adel Gastli
23

X l1 X 1 2fLl1
N1 l1
Ll1
I1
Leakage inductance of winding 1
X l 2 X 2 2fLl 2
Ll 2
Prof. Adel Gastli
Leakage reactance of winding 1
Leakage reactance of winding 2
N 2 l 2
Leakage inductance of winding 2
I2
24

In practice, Im is required to establish flux m in the core.
=> This effect can be represented by a magnetizing
inductance Lm or magnetizing reactance Xm.
The core loss can be represented by a resistance Rc.
X1
R1
V1
I1
I1
I2
Ic1
Im1
Rc1
Xm1
X2
N1: N2
E1
E2
R2
I2
V2
Ideal Transformer
Primary winding
Magnetic Core
Secondary winding
A practical transformer is equivalent to an ideal transformer

+ external impedances that represent imperfections of an
actual transformer.
Prof. Adel Gastli
25

X1
R1
V1
I1
Ic1
Rc1
N1: N2
I2
I1
Im1
E1
Xm1
V1 E1 I1 R1 jX 1
X2
I2
E2
Ideal Transformer
V1 E2
V2
E2 V2 I 2 ( R2 jX 2 )
N1
I1 R1 jX 1
N2
N1
V1 V2 I 2 ( R2 jX 2 )
I1 R1 jX 1
N2
N
N
V1 V2 1 I 2 1
N 2
N2
Prof. Adel Gastli
R2
N1
but I 2 I 2
N2
( R2 jX 2 ) I1 R1 jX 1
26

2
N
N1
1
( R2 jX 2 ) I1 R1 jX 1
V1 V2
I 2
N 2
N2
Considering:
N1
R2 R2
N2
and
N1
X 2 X 2
N2
V1 V2 I 2 ( R2 jX 2 ) I1 R1 jX 1
V1 I1 R1 jX 1 I 2 ( R2 jX 2 ) V2
Prof. Adel Gastli
27
V1 I1 R1 jX 1 I 2 ( R2 jX 2 ) V2
X1
R1
I1
V1
X2
I2
Ic1
I1
Rc1
Im1
Xm1
R2
I2
I2
V2
V2
E1=E2
N1: N2
X1
R1
I1
V1
Prof. Adel Gastli
X2
I2
I1
Ic1
Rc1
Im1
Xm1
R2
I2
E1=E2
V2
Z2
Load
E1 E2' aE2
V2' aV2
I 2' I 2 / a
X 2' a 2 X 2
R2' a 2 R2
28
Approximate Equivalent Circuit

X1
R1
I1
V1
X2
I2
I1
Im1
Ic1
Rc1
Xm1
R2
I2
Z2 Load
V2
E1=E2
If I1 R1 and I1 X 1 are very small compared to V1 | E1 || V1 |

Shunt branch can be moved to the supply terminal
R1
I1
Ic1
V1 R
c1
Prof. Adel Gastli
I1
Im1
Xm1
R2
X1
X2
Xeq1
Req1
Zeq1
I2
V2
29

R1
I1
Ic1
V1 R
c1
I1
Im1
Xm1
X1
R2
X2
Xeq1
Req1
Zeq1
I2
V2
I 1 is also very small compared to I1

I 1 5% I1 it' s possible to remove the shunt branch.
Xeq1 I
2
I1 Req1
V1
Prof. Adel Gastli
Zeq1
V2
Transformer
Approximate
Equivalent Circuit
Referred to Primary
30

Referred to Primary
Xeq1 I
2
I1 Req1
V1
V2
Zeq1
Referred to Secondary
Xeq2 I2
I1 Req2
V1
Prof. Adel Gastli
Zeq2
Req 2
Req1
X eq 2
V2
R2 R1'
a2
X eq1
X 2 X 1'
a2
V1
'
V1
, I1' I 2 aI1
a
31
Analysis of Transformer
X eq
Req
V1
I '2 X eq
I '2 Req
Prof. Adel Gastli
'
I1 I 2
V2'
V1 V2' I 2' Req jX eq
'
I2
32
X eq
Req
Lagging power factor
V1
V1 V2' I 2' Req j I 2' X eq
'
I1 I 2
V1
I '2 Z eq
V2'
V2'
I '2 X eq
I '2 Req
I '2
Prof. Adel Gastli
33
X eq
Req
Leading power factor
V1
'
'
'
V1 V2 I 2 Req j I 2 X eq
I '2
V1
V2'
I '2 X eq
I '2 Z eq
V2'
Prof. Adel Gastli
'
I1 I 2
I '2 Req
34
Transformer Rating and Name Plate

Rated voltage: The device can continuously operate at the
rated voltage without being damaged due to insulation
failure
Rated current: The device can continuously operate at the
rated current without being damaged due to thermal
destruction
10kVA
1100/110 Volts
Prof. Adel Gastli
The transformer is a step-down transformer

which has two windings one rated for 1100V
an the other one for 110V. Thus,
a = 1100/110 = 10 = turns ratio
Each winding is designed for 10 kVA.
The current rating for high-voltage winding is
10000/1100 = 9.09 A
The current rating for lower-voltage winding
is 10000/110 = 90.9 A
35
Polarity
Polarity marked with either dots

or signs
Current entering identical terminals

produce fluxes in the same direction
Thus e12 and e34 are in phase.
Polarity can be determined

by experiment as follows
If V13V12+V34 then 1 and 4 identical

If V13 V12-V34 then 1 and 3 identical
Prof. Adel Gastli
36
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8 Efficiency

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
37

No-Load test (Open-Circuit Test)
A
Voc2
Rc1
Poc
I c1
I m1 I oc2 I c21
Voc
X m1
I m1
Prof. Adel Gastli
V1
Voc
Rc1
I1
Ic1
Rc1
I1
Im1
Xm1
Poc I ocVoc cos( o )

or
Poc
cos( o )
I ocVoc
I c I oc cos( o )
I m I oc sin( o )
V1
Rc
IC
V1
Xm
Im
38

Short-Circuit Test
A
Vsc
V
sc
I sc
X eq
Zeq
Psc
cos( sc )
I sc Vsc
Psc
Req 2
I sc
Z eq
Xeq
Isc Req
or
2
eq
2
eq
Vsc
Z sc
I sc
Req Z sc cos( sc )
X eq Z sc sin( sc )
Prof. Adel Gastli
39

R1 a 2 R2 Req1 & X 1 a 2 X 2 X eq
The primary resistance R1 can be measured directly, and

knowing a, R2 can be found.
R2
Req1 R1
a2
The leakage reactance is assumed to be divided equally

between the two windings,
X1 X
'
2
Prof. Adel Gastli
X eq
2
X 2'
X2 2
a
40
Example 2.1:
The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20kVA, 8000/240 V,

60-Hz transformer are to be determined. The open-circuit and the short-circuit
tests were performed on the primary side of the transformer, and the following
data were taken:
__________________________________________
Open-circuit test
Short-circuit test
(on primary)
(on primary)
__________________________________________
vNL =8000 V
Vsc= 489 V
INL= 0.214 A
Isc = 2.5 A
PNL= 400 W
Psc = 240 W
__________________________________________
Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the

primary side, and sketch that circuit.
Prof. Adel Gastli
41
I1
Solution 2.1:
From No-Load Test Results
V1
Ic1
I1
Rc1
Im1
Xm1
PNL
400
cos( NL )
0.234 lagging
VNL I NL 8000 0.214
I c1 I NL cos NL 0.214 0.234 0.05 A
sin( NL ) 1 cos 2 NL 0.972
I m1 I NL sin( NL ) 0.214 0.972 0.208 A

VNL 8000
Rc1
160k
I c1 0.05
Prof. Adel Gastli
VNL 8000
X m1
38.5k
I m1 0.208
42
Solution 2.1:
From Short-Circuit Test Results
Isc
Vsc
Psc
I sc2
V
Z eq sc
I sc
2
2
X eq Z eq
Req
Xeq
Req
Req
Zeq
489 V
Z eq
195.6
2 .5 A
240 W
Req
38.4
2
2.5 A
X eq 195.6 38.4 192

2
Prof. Adel Gastli
43
Solution 2.1:

Req 38.4
X eq 192
Rc1 160k
192
38.4
I1
V1
Prof. Adel Gastli
Ic1
160k
I1
Im1
X m1 38.5k
I2
38.5k
V2
44
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8 Efficiency

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
45
Multi-Secondary Windings
Prof. Adel Gastli
46
I3
I1
E1
N3
E3
I2
N1
N2
E2
E1 N1
E2 N 2
E1 N1
E3 N 3
Primary
Prof. Adel Gastli
47
Current ratio: superposition
I12
E1
I2
N1
N2
N2
I12 I 2
N1
E2
Primary
Prof. Adel Gastli
48
I3
I13
E1
N3
E3
N1
N3
I13 I 3
N1
Primary
Prof. Adel Gastli
49
I3
N3
I1
E1
E3
I2
N1
N2
E2
I1 I12 I13
N3
N2
I2
I3
N1
N1
I 1 N1 I 2 N 2 I 3 N 3
Primary
Prof. Adel Gastli
50
Power
I3
N3
I1
E1
E3
I2
N1
N2
E2
S1 S 2 S 3
Primary
EI E I EI
*
1 1
Prof. Adel Gastli
*
2 2
*
3 3
51
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8 Efficiency

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
52
Autotransformer
I1
V1
1
FU ( N1 N 2 ) I1 1 N1 I1
I1 1
U
L
I2 a
N
FL N 2 ( I1 I 2 ) 1 I 2 I1
I2
N1
N2
I1 -I2
V2
V1 N1
a
V2 N 2
Same as a two-winding
Transformer
Advantages:
Prof. Adel Gastli
Lower leakage reactances

Lower losses
Lower exciting current
Increased kVA rating
Variable voltage output
Disadvantage:
The direct electric connection

between the primary and
secondary sides.
53
Autotransformer
I1
V1
A1
E1
I2
B1
N1
E2
N2
V2
A2
B2
Prof. Adel Gastli
54
Autotransformer
Is
Voltage and current
A1
N1
I load I1 I 2
Prof. Adel Gastli
Iload
A2
V1
V1 E1 E2
I1
E1
E2
N2
B1
I2
V2
B2
55
Autotransformer
Power
+
E1
-
I1
N1
I2
N2
Is
+
E2
E1
I1
Iload
A2
V1
S A E1I1 E2 I 2
N1
A1
E2
N2
B1
I2
V2
B2
S B V1I s V2 I load
Prof. Adel Gastli
56
Autotransformer
Power
S B V1 I s ( E1 E2 ) I1 E1 I1 E2 I1
S B S A E2 I1
SB S A
Prof. Adel Gastli
57
VARIAC: Variable Autotransformer

Z
Is
N3
Y
N1
Sliding
terminal
I1
Iload
V1
N2
Prof. Adel Gastli
I2
V2
58
VARIAC: Variable AutoTransformer

Z
VARIAC: Output Voltage

At X
Vload
Is
N2
Vs
N1 N 2
N3
Y
N1
V1
At Y Vload Vs
At Z
Vload
Sliding
terminal
I1
N1 N 2
Vs
N1 N 2
Iload
X
N2
I2
V2
N1 N 2 N 3
Vs
N1 N 2
The VARIAC can adjust the load voltage from zero to greater
than the supply voltage.
Prof. Adel Gastli
59
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8 Efficiency

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
60
Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is the ability of a system to provide near
constant voltage over a wide range of load conditions.
Zeq
V1
V2
Voltage regulation
Transformer
V1
2
V2
I2
Locus of
V1
I2Zeq1
I2Req1
2 is the angle of the load impedance

Prof. Adel Gastli
Load
I2Xeq1
| V | NL | V | L
| V |L
Referred to
Primary
| V2' | NL | V2' | L
Voltage regulation
| V2' | L
| V2' | NL | V1 |
| V1 | | V2' |L
Voltage regulation
| V2' |L
61
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8
Efficiency

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
62
Efficiency
Pout
Pout
Pout
Pin Pout Plosses Pout Pc Pcu
Pout V2 I 2 cos 2
Pcu I12 R1 I 22 R2 I12 Req1 I 22 Req 2
Pc I c21 Rc
V2 I 2 cos 2
F ( I 2 , cos 2 )
2
2
V2 I 2 cos 2 I c1Rc I 2 Req 2
Prof. Adel Gastli
63
Maximum Efficiency
Constant V2 and 2
V2 I 2 cos 2
F ( I 2 , cos 2 )
2
2
V2 I 2 cos 2 I c1Rc I 2 Req 2
d
0 Pc I 22 Req 2
dI 2
Core loss = Copper loss
Constant V2 and I2
d
0 2 0 cos 2 1
d 2
Resistive load
100.0
Maximum efficiency occurs when

the load power factor is unity and
load current is such that copper loss
equals core loss.
% Efficiency
98.0
96.0
94.0
92.0
I2
90.0
I 2 ( rated )
0
Prof. Adel Gastli
PF = 1.0
PF = 0.8
PF = 0.6
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
64
All-Day (or Energy) Efficiency

Distribution transformer
all-day efficiency
AD
energy output over 24 hours
energy input over 24 hours

energy output over 24 hours
energy output over 24 hours losses over 24 hours
Distribution transformer is designed for maximum efficiency

occurring at the average output power.
Power transformer is designed for maximum efficiency occurring
during rated output power.
Prof. Adel Gastli
65
Example 2.2:
A 15kVA 2300/230-V transformer is to be tested to determine its

excitation branch components, its series impedances, and its voltage regulation. The
following test data have been taken from the primary side of the transformer:
___________________________________________________
Open-circuit test
Short-circuit lest
___________________________________________________
Voc =2300 V
Vsc=47 V
Ioc= 0.21 A
Isc =6.0 A
Poc=50 W
Psc =160 W
___________________________________________________
The data have been taken by using the connections shown in the primary side.
a) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage side.
b) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, 1.0 power factor,
and at 0.8 leading power factor using the exact equation for Vp
d) Perform the same three calculations, using the approximate equation for Vp. How close
are the approximate answers to the exact answers?
e) What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of 0.8 lagging?
Prof. Adel Gastli
66
Solution
(a) From the open-circuit test data, the elements of the
excitation branch referred to the primary are
determined as follows:
POC
2
2
VOC
VOC
2300 2
Rc
105.8 k
Rc
POC
50
VOC
2300
I c1
0.0217 A
Rc 105,800
2
I m1 I OC
I c21 0.212 0.0217 2 0.2089 A
VOC
2300
X m1
11 k
I m1 0.2089
Prof. Adel Gastli
67
From the short-circuit test data1 the short-circuit impedance

angle is:
PSC 160
PSC I Req1 Req1 2 2 4.45
I SC
6
VSC 47
Z SC
7.833
I SC
6
2
SC
2
X eq1 Z SC
Req2 1 7.8332 4.452 6.45
Prof. Adel Gastli
68
(b) To find the equivalent circuit referred to the lowvoltage side, it is simply necessary to divide the
impedance by a2 .
Since a =Np/Ns =10, the resulting values are:
Prof. Adel Gastli
69
(c) I S ,rated
S rated 15,000 VA
65.2 A
Vs ,rated
230 V
o
At PF=0.8 lagging, current I s 62.5 36.9 A
Vp
a
Vs Req 2 jX eq 2 Is
230 0o 0.0445 j 0.0645 65.2 36.9o
234.84 j1.62
234.85 0.4o V
The resulting voltage regulation:
234.85 230
VR
100% 2.1%
230
Prof. Adel Gastli
70
At PF=1, current
Vp
a
I s 65.2 0o A
Vs Req 2 jX eq 2 Is
230 0o 0.0445 j 0.0645 65.2 0o
232.9 j 4.21
232.94 1.04o V
232.94 230
VR
100% 1.28%
230
Prof. Adel Gastli
71
o
At PF=0.8 leading, current I s 62.5 36.9 A
Vp
a
Vs Req 2 jX eq 2 Is
230 0o 0.0445 j 0.0645 65.2 36.9o
229.80 j 5.10
229.85 1.27 o V
229.85 230
VR
100% 0.062%
230
Each of these three phasor diagrams are shown in next slide.
Prof. Adel Gastli
72
Vp
a
234.9 0.4o V
Vs 230 0o V
I s 65.2 36.9o A
Vp
a
jX eq 2 I s 4.21 53.1o V
Req 2 I s 2.9 36.9o V
232.9 1.04o V
jX eq 2 I s 4.21 90o V
Vs 230 0o V
I s 65.2 0 A
o
I s 65.2 36.9o A
Vp
a
229.8 1.27 o V
Vs 230 0o V
Prof. Adel Gastli
Req 2 I s 2.9 0o V
jX eq 2 I s 4.21 126.9o V
Req 2 I s 2.9 36.9o V
73
(e) The efficiency at full load 0.8 power factor lagging:
Vp
a
234.85 0.4o V
I s 62.5 36.9o A
Pout 15,000 0.8 12,000 W
Pcu 62.52 0.0445 173.83 W
V
P
c
p / a
Rc / a 2
234.852
52.1 W
1058
Pin Pout Pcu Pc 12000 173.83 52.1 12,225.93 W

Pout
12000
100 98.15%
Pin 12225.93
Prof. Adel Gastli
74
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8 Efficiency

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
75
Three-Phase Transformers
Y - D
I
N1:N2
a 3I
V
N1
3
N2
aI
V
a 3
Y - D
Commonly used to step down a high

voltage to a lower voltage. The neutral
point on the high-voltage side can be
grounded, which is desirable in most cases.
Prof. Adel Gastli
76
aI
3
D - Y
V
a
N2
V
I
3
N1
V
I
3
N2
aI
3
V
a
One transformer can be removed for repair

and remaining two can continue to deliver
three-phase power at reduced rating 58%.
This is known as open-delta or V connection.
Prof. Adel Gastli
aI
aI
N1
Commonly used to step up

voltage.
Y - Y
D - D
3V
a
V
N1
3
N2
V
3a
V
a
Rarely used because of problems

with the exciting current and
induced voltages.
77
Phase Shift
Y - D
VAB leads Vab by 30o
D - Y
VAB lags Vab by 30o
D - D
No phase shift
Y - Y
No phase shift
A
Vc
VAB
VAN
VCN
VBN
Va=Vab
Vb
B
VAB
30o
b
Va Vab
VAN
-VBN
VBN
VCN
Vca
Vc
Vb
Vbc
This phase shift in Y-D and D-Y connections can be used

advantageously in some applications
Prof. Adel Gastli
78
Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit
If the 3 transformers are

practically identical.
If the source and load are
balanced.
The voltages and currents in one

phase are the same as those in
others phases, except that there is a
phase displacement of 120o.
A single-phase equivalent circuit

can be conveniently obtained if all
sources, transformer windings, and
load impedances are considered to
be Y-connected.
Analysis of one phase is sufficient

to determine the variables in the
two sides of the transformer.
Xeq1
I1 Req1
V1
Prof. Adel Gastli
Zeq1
I2
V2
79
I
3aI
N1
aI
N2 V / 3a
ZL
ZL
3
ZL
3
ZL
3
V
3
I
V
3a
N1 : N 2 / 3
Prof. Adel Gastli
3aI
V
3a
V
3
3aI
V
3a
ZL
3
a'
ZL
3
ZL
3
ZL
3
V
V/ 3
3a
V / 3a V / 3a
Turn ration of equivalent Y-Y transformer

80
Open-Delta or V Connection
A
Pab Vab I a cos(30 )

Pbc Vbc I a cos(30 )
Ia
If we let:
| Vab || Vbc | V (rated voltage)
Ib
| I a || I c | I (rated current)
0 for resitive load
b
Ic
Vab
VAB
Van
30o
Vcb
Ia
Total power without fault:
Vcn
PD 3VI
30o
VBC
Vca
Vbn
VCD
Ia
Prof. Adel Gastli
Pv Pab Pbc 2VI cos 30o
Vbc
Pv 2 cos 30o
0.58
PD
3
82
Three-Phase Transformer on a Common Magnetic Core

a
c
c
a
a
b
A
a
B
b
C
c
a b c 0
Advantages:
Weighs less
Cost less
Requires less space
Disadvantages:
Magnetic current imbalance
If one phase is broken the
whole transformer must be
removed
Magnetic paths of legs A and C are longer than that of B => magnetic current imbalance.
Prof. Adel Gastli
83
How does it Work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vh_aCAHThTQ
Prof. Adel Gastli
5:47
84
How does it Work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4eyG99jC1c
Prof. Adel Gastli
1:25
85
CHAPTER CONTENT
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Autotransformer
2.7
Voltage Regulation
2.8 Efficiency

2.10
Prof. Adel Gastli
Per-Unit System
86
Per-Unit System
Computation using the actual values of
parameters may be time-consuming.
However, if the quantities are expressed in
a per-unit (pu) system, computations are
much simplified.
The pu quantity is define as:
Actual Quatity
Quatity in pu
Base Value of Quantity
Prof. Adel Gastli
87
Per-Unit System
The advantages of using the per-unit
system:
The parameters fall in a narrow
numerical range; this
simplifies
computations and makes it possible to
check the correctness of the computed
values.
It makes it unnecessary to refer
quantities on the high or low side of
transformers.
Prof. Adel Gastli
88
Per-Unit System (cont.)

To establish a per-unit system it is necessary to
select power and voltage base values as follows:
Pbase = Sbase= rated volt amper (VA) ,
Vbase= rated voltage (V).
Then base current and base impedance can

be calculated as follows:
Z eq1
S basse
Z eq1, pu
I base
Z base1
Vbase
2
Z eq 2
Vbase Vbase
Z eq 2, pu
Z base
I base Sbase
Z base 2
Prof. Adel Gastli
89

Z eq 2, pu
Z eq 2
Z base 2
( Z eq1 a 2 )
2
( Z base1 a )
Z eq1
Z base1
Z eq1, pu
The per-unit impedance is the same

referred to either side of the transformer
Prof. Adel Gastli
90

Full Load Copper Losses
2
P
I
The full load copper losses is : cuFL
1FL Req1
( PcuFL ) pu
In per unit value
I12FL Req1
Pbase
I12FL Req1
VbaseI base
since I1FL = Ibase , therefore
( PcuFL ) pu
2
I base
Req1
VbaseI base
I baseReq1
Vbase
Req1 Req1
( Req1 ) PU
Vbase Z base
I base
Hence the transformer resistance in per unit form also

represents the full load copper losses in per unit form.
Prof. Adel Gastli
91
Per-Unit System for 3 phase transformer

S1 ,base
S base
I ,base
S1 ,base
V ,base
I ,base
I L ,base
Z base
Prof. Adel Gastli
,base
S1 ,base
S base
3V ,base
Sbase
3VL ,base
3V ,base
Z base
Sbase
92
EXAMPLE: A 50-kVA
13,800/208-V -Y distribution
transformer has a resistance of 1% and a reactance of 7%
per unit.
a) What is the transformers phase impedance referred
to the high-voltage side?
b) Calculate this transformer's voltage regulation at full
load and 0.8 PF lagging, using the calculated highside impedance.
c) Calculate this transformer's voltage regulation under
the same conditions, using the per-unit system.
Prof. Adel Gastli
93
Solution
3V ,base
a) The base impedance is:
Z base
Sbase
313,800
11,426
50,000
2
The per-unit impedance of the transformer is:
Z eq , pu 0.01 j 0.07 pu
So the high-side impedance in ohms is
Z eq Z eq , pu Z base 0.01 j 0.07 11,426 114.2 j800

b) To calculate the voltage regulation of a three-phase transformer bank,
determine the voltage regulation of any single transformer in the bank.
The voltages on a single transformer are phase voltage, so
VR
Prof. Adel Gastli
VP aVS
aVS
100%
94
Solution
The rated transformer phase voltage on the primary is 13,800V, so the
rated phase current on the primary is given by:
S
I
3V
The rated apparent power is S=50kVA, so:
50,000
I
1.208 A
313,800
The rated phase voltage on the secondary of the transformer is:
208 / 3 V
When referred to the high-voltage side of the transformer, this voltage
becomes:
V'S aVS 13,800 V
Assume that the transformer secondary is operating at rated voltage and
current, and find the resulting primary phase voltage:
Prof. Adel Gastli
95
50,000
I
1.208 A
313,800
Solution
VP aVS Req I jX eq I
PF 0.8 lagging -36.87o
VP 13,800 0o V 114.2 1.208 - 36.87 o A j800 1.208 - 36.87 o A

13,800 138 36.87 o 966.4 53.13o
13,800 110.4 j82.8 579.8 j 773.1
14,490 j 690.3
14,506 2.73o V
Therefore: VR
VP aVS
aVS
14,506 13,800
100%
100 5.1%
13,800
1 0o V
c) In the per-unit system, the output voltage and current are:
1 36.87 o A
Therefore, the input voltage is:
VP. pu 1 0o 0.01 1 36.87 o j 0.07 1 36.87 o

1 0.008 - j0.006 0.042 j0.056
1.051 1.0
1.05 j 0.05 1.051 2.73o
VR
100% 5.1%
1 .0
Prof. Adel Gastli
96
EXAMPLE: Three single-phase, 50 kVA, 2300/230 V, 60 Hz

transformers are connected to form a 3-phase, 4000/230 V
transformer bank.
The equivalent impedance of each transformer referred to
low voltage is Zeq1=0.012 + j0.016 .
The 3-phase transformer supplies a 3-phase, 120 kVA, 230
V, 0.85 PF (lagging) load.
a) Draw a schematic diagram showing the transformer
connection.
b) Determine the transformer winding currents.
c) Determine the primary voltage (line-to-line)
required.
d) Determine the voltage regulation.
Prof. Adel Gastli
97
Solution
(a) The connection diagram is shown below. The high-voltage windings
are to be connected in wye so that the primary can be connected to
the 4000 V supply. The low-voltage winding is connected in delta to
form a 230V system for the load.
VLp 3V1
3 2300
3984 V
(b)
2300
10
230
4000 V
I s 301.24
S
120,000
I
173.92 A
Is
301.24 A 2
3
3
3Vs
3 230
I 2 173.92
I1
17.39 A
a
10
Prof. Adel Gastli
98
(c) Computation can be carried on a per-phase basis as follows.

Z eq1 (0.012 j 0.016) 10 2
1.2 j1.6
cos 1 0.85 31.8o
The primary equivalent circuit is:
V1 2300 0o 17.39 31.8o 1.2 j1.6
The primary line-to-line voltage:
(d)
Prof. Adel Gastli
VR
V1 2332.4 V
3 V1 4039.8 V
2332.4 2300
100% 1.41%
2300
99
EXAMPLE: A Three-phase , 230 V, 27 kVA, 0.9 PF (lag) load

is supplied by three 10 kVA, 1330/230 V, 60 Hz
transformers connected in Y- by means of a common 3phase feeder whose impedance is 0.003+j0.015 per
phase.
The transformers are supplied from a 3-phase source
through a 3-phase feeder whose impedance is 0.8+j5.0
per phase.
The equivalent impedance of one transformer referred to
the low-voltage side is 0.12+j0.25 .
Determine the required supply voltage if the load voltage
is 230 V.
Prof. Adel Gastli
100
Solution
The circuit of the system is:
The equivalent circuit of the individual transformer referred

to the high-voltage side is
2
ReqH jX eqH
1330
0.12 j 0.25 4.01 j8.36

230
The turns ratio of the equivalent Y-Y bank is

a'
Prof. Adel Gastli
3 1300
10
230
101
The single-phase equivalent circuit of the system is:
All the impedances from the primary side can be transferred to the
secondary side and combined with the feeder impedance on the
secondary side as:
0.80 4.01 0.003 0.051
5 8.36
R
X
0.015 0.149
2
10 2
10
230 o
VL
0 133 0 o
3
27 103
IL
67.67 A
3 133
L cos 1 0.9 25.8o

Prof. Adel Gastli
102
The phase supply voltage referred to secondary is:

Vs' 133 0o 67.67 25.8o 0.051 j 0.149
133 0o 10.6571 45.3o
140.7 3.1o
The actual phase supply voltage is:
Vs a 'V 10 140.7 1407 V

'
s
The line-to-line supply voltage is: 1407 3 2437 V

Prof. Adel Gastli
103
HOME EXERCISE
Find the equivalent Y-Y transformer ratio
for the following 3-phase winding
connections:
D-Y
Y-Y
D-D
Prof. Adel Gastli
104

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