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Research Methods
The study of conducting research is
Research Methodology.
Research: The
word
research
is
they
form,
patient
study
careful,
and
Research comprises of
Defining and redefining problems.
Formulating hypothesis (basic idea)
Collecting
Organizing
Evaluating datas
Making decisions
Suggesting solutions
Reaching conclusions
Finally,
carefully
testing
the
conclusions
To determine whether they fit the
formulated Hypothesis.
Research Methods:
May
be
Library Research:analysis
of
guides
manipulation
Field Research:
Observation,
Laboratory Research:
Research Methodology:
is the way do
systematically
the
solve
research
problem.
In it we study the various steps that
are generally adopted by a researcher in
studying his research problem logically.
When
we
talk
of
Research
using
particular
method
or
1)
been defined?
3)
interpreted?
6)
7)
enable
thoroughly
to
Business,
administration,
Research
adapted
1)
Controlled
2) Rigorous
3) Systematic
4) Valid
5) Verifiable
6) Empirical
should
7) Critical
1. Controlled: The
research
problem
findings
10
be
foolproof
and
free
from
used
must
be
able
Application
Inquiry mode
objective
to
11
1) Pure Research
1) Descriptive 1)
Quantitative Research
2) Applied Research
2) Correlative
2) Qualitative Research
3) Exploratory
4) Explanatory
1) Pure Research: (Basic or
Fundamental Research)
Gathering, knowledge is termed as
pure or basic research. Just to gather
knowledge in order to formulate or
generalize theories or policies.
Eg) Research on mathematics.
12
To find an
Descriptive Research:
Survey or fact finding enquires
of different kinds. It describes
the actual prevailing state of
affairs, existing at present.
13
Correlative Research:
Goes on to discover the
existing relationship or
interdependence between two
or more aspects / variables.
Otherwise known as
comparative study.
14
Investigates association
between variables.
Eg: Sum of humour and job
satisfaction, (related variable)
Research problem is workers turnover
Analytical Research:
The researcher has to use facts /
information already existing and analyze
these data to make a critical evaluation.
Eg: document study / historical
evidence.
Descriptive Vs Analytical Research:
Explanatory Research:
15
Quantitative Research:
Relates to aspects that can be
quantified and expressed in terms
of quantity.
Otherwise known as structured
Research.
In this type of Research, the
objectives, design, sample and all
16
17
18
Qualities of a Researcher
Top 10 qualities of a Researcher
1)
Ananalytical mind:
Constant analysis on a variety of
factors.
2)
A people person :
For
Intelligence :
Researcher
19
5)
Quick thinker:
Things dont
Commitment:Research is a
communication skills:
So that
Sympathetic:
Having a
20
10) Systematic:
accuracy of observation.
2)
No expressions like
21
facts.
22
done
on
applied
they
face
several
Research
is
carried on.
To
frame
policies.
Govt.
economic
23
Govt.
budget
formulation
Problems Research:
Investigation
present
of
structure
the
and
24
relating
to
purchase,
Operational
Research:
Relates to application of
logical,
mathematical
and
analytical techniques to
solve market problems there
by minimize cost and profit
maximization.
c)
Motivational
Research:
or
consumer
response.
All the above three are responsible for
business decision making.
25
unknown
something
aspects
better
and
and
do
more
efficiently.
Social scientist gain their knowledge
for their own sake and for the
development of the society.
1. Formulating the Research problem:a) The formulation of a general topic
into a specific Research problem thus
constitutes the first step in a scientific
inquiry.
Two steps are involved in formulating
the Research problem,
a) Understanding
thoroughly.
the
problem
26
b) Rephrasing
the
same
into
27
28
problem
into
Analytical
or
operational terms.
PUT THE PROBLEM INTO SPECIFIC
TERMS
This step is of greatest importance in
the entire research process.
The problem to be investigated must
be defined unambiguously or clearly.
Prof W.A. Neiswanger States,
The statement of the objective of the
Research problem is of basic
importance because,
(i) It determines the data which are
to be collected
29
30
31
32
1)
available.
3)
problems.
4)
within
which
research
is
33
Research
design
highlights
certain decision,
1) The nature of the study
2) Purpose of the study
3) Location where the study would
be conducted
4) The nature of data required
34
4 types
items
35
2)
Statistical
Research
design:
out.
Determining sample Design:
All the items considered in any field of
inquiry constitutes a universe or
population.
Study
of
the
entire
36
This
type
of
census
study
is
item
in
the
37
&
judgment
of
the
Researcher.
Mixed sampling:
38
Gathering
appropriate
data
the
truth
of
the
underlying hypothesis.
In case of surveys, data are
collected by
1) By observations
2) Through personnel interview
3) Through telephone interviews
39
4) By mailing of questionnaires
5) Through
schedules
enumerators
The Researcher should select one of
these methods of collecting the data
taking in account the
1) Nature of investigation
2) Objective & scope of Inquiry
3) Financial Resources
4) Time frame
5) Desired degree of Accuracy.
6) Execution of the Project:
(Putting a plan)
Important step in Research study.
40
be
machine
coded
processed
If interview were conducted, make
sure that the interviewers is well
trained to keep the survey as
much as realistic as possible.
8. Analysis of Data :
After the data are collected the
researcher turns to the task of
analyzing the data the analysis of
data
require
closely
related
41
procedure
most
important
step
after
42
its
operational
43
44
2) Observational design:
Relates to the
The technique
45
46
----- Price
(independent)
Independent or Exogenous variable
47
influence
caused
by
the
is
technically
Experimental Error
known
as
48
that
Extraneous
the
influence
variables
on
of
the
variable
is
clearly
design
should
evident.
Control:
Good
minimize
Research
the
effect
for
Extraneous
variables.
Confounded Relationship
The relationship between dependent
and independent variable is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variables.
Research Hypothesis:
49
it
is
experimental
hypothesis testing.
When
the
variables
are
not
50
in
an
experimental
9. Experiment:
51
Comparative Experiment:
Determine
the
impact
in
52
Research Design:
Descriptive Research Design is
concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular
individual or a group.
Study concerned with narration of
facts or characters related to an
individual, group or institution are
descriptive research studies.
Diagnostic Research design
determines the frequency with
which a variable occurs or its
53
Design:
Test the hypothesis of causal
relationship between two or more
variables.
Adopt procedure that not only
reduce bias but enhance
reliability and facilitates deriving
Inferences (results) about the
Research problem.
54
55
56
Time schedule
HYPOTHESIS
A Research hypothesis is a predictive
statement, which is capable of being
tested using scientific methods, which
involves independent and dependent
valuables.
students
57
1)
test.
3)
between
the
variables,
in
case
relational hypothesis.
4)
language.
5)
It
should
be
consistant
and
58
7)
Research
problem).
The
Denoted by Ha
59
u = 100
Alternative Hypothesis
Ha :
u = 100
Ha :
u > 100
Ha :
u < 100
Aspects to be considered
formulating Null Hypothesis
1)
while
reject
Null
hypothesis
since
60
2)
Null hypothesis when it is actually
true, when rejected involves great
risk, the level of significance should
be considered.
3)
Null hypothesis should be very
specific (No approximation)
The level of significance:
Important
testing.
concept
of
hypothesis
researcher
should
make
61
62
hypothesized
value
of
the
population mean.
Procedure for Hypothesis Testing:
1.Testing hypothesis refers whether the
formulated hypothesis is valid or not
2.Whether to Accept or Reject Null
Hypothesis.
(i) Making a formal statement:
Making a formal statement of the
null
hypothesis
and
alternative
hypothesis.
(ii) Selecting a significant level of testing
A
pre-determined
level
of
63
of
random
sample
&
64
and
come
inference.
Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is
the proposition or proposal that implies
no effect on the phenomena.
65
Alternative Hypothesis: is
the
one
Relating
to
Testing
Hypothesis:
SAMPLE SURVEY
Sampling Design:
An art of obtaining a sample from a
given population. The technique or
procedure the researcher adopts for
selecting items for the sample from the
population or universe.
Steps in sampling Design
Type of Universe:
of
66
1)
Sampling Unit:
A geographical area like a state,
district or village.
67
Source List:
Otherwise known
as Sampling Frame
Consists of names of all items of a
universe.
If not available the researcher has
to prepare a Source list.
It
must
comprehensive,
be
reliable,
correct
and
appropriate.
It should be the representative of
the population / universe.
4)
Size of sample:
68
requirements
of
representatives.
Flexibility
Efficiency
Reliability
Costs
or
budget
should
considered.
Factors Influencing size of sample :
Parameters of Interest:
be
69
on
the
researchers
own
interest.
Budgetary constraint :
Cost consideration exercises a major
influence.
a) Sampling Procedure:
The type or technique used by the
researcher to select the items.
70
(2) Mistakes
(3) Non response problems
(4) Questionnaire design flaws
(5) Data processing & analysis
errors
In case of probability sampling,
(homogenous items ) the sampling error
is negligible since the sample is more
accurate.
Characteristics of a Good sample :
Should bind a truly representative
sample.
Small sampling error
Should
fit
constraints.
into
the
budgetary
71
Result
should
be
applicable
in
general.
Characteristics of sample techniques :
1) Much cheaper
2) Saves time
3) Much reliable
4) Suitable for carrying out different
surveys
5) Scientific in Nature
Advantages of sampling:
1) Very accurate
2) Economical in Nature
3) Very reliable
4) Suitable for different surveys
5) Less time consumption
72
under
two
general
categories.
1) Probability sampling
2) Non Probability sampling.
Probability sampling:
Otherwise
known
as
choice
property,
probability
73
different
types
of
probability
sampling,
1) Simple Random sampling
2) Stratified Random sampling
3) Cluster sampling
4) Systematic sampling
5) Area sampling
6) Multi stage sampling
7)
Sampling
with
propotional to size
(1) Sample Random Sampling
probability
74
are
stratum.
selected
from
each
75
76
5th,
10th,
15th,
20th
77
- Stage level
- District level
- Towns
- Villages
Items are selected at four stages / levels.
(7) Sampling
with
proportional to size:
probability
78
79
1) Convenience sampling
2) Quota sampling
3) Judgmental sampling
1) Convenience sampling:
- Choosing
items
at
the
researcher
simply
assume
80
Benefits:
less
expensive,
very
convenient
3. Judgment sampling : (otherwise
known as purposive sampling)
Researcher employs his own Expert
judgment about who to include in the
sample frame.
Disadvantages of sampling:
1)
Inadequacy of samples
2)
Chances of bias
3)
Problems of accuracy
4)
representative sample.
5)
Untrained Manpower.
6)
Absence of Informants
81
7)
82
Availability of time.
83
(3)
Availability of Resources.
(4)
desired.
(5)Statistical tools to be used.
(6)
84
which
the
information
85
86
Statistics
Since
estimates,
is
tools
based
used
on
for
part
of
the
investigator,
enumerator or informant.
Generally the degree of accuracy
depends upon the objections of the
enquiry.
Example: During purchase of Gold, even
1/10th gram in its weight is significant.
But it is not the same in case of
purchasing rice or wheat.
87
of
objects
that
can
be
source
from
which
the
88
2.
(Publications,
Journal,
Magazines etc.)
(g) Method of Data Collection:1. Primary Data.
2. Secondary Data.
Primary Data:First hand data.
Either
Census
or
Sample
technique is to be used.
Census:
investigated.
Sample: Selected representatives from
the
total
investigated.
population
have
to
be
89
CENSUS
SAMPLE
Accuracy Representations,
Time 100%
Accuracy
cannot be attained,
More Less time taken, Less
expensive,
Less
Laborious.
Should be very cautious and careful
while choosing a particular method.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data:
May be obtained by applying any of
the following methods,
1. Direct Personal Interviews.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews.
90
asks
them
questions
or
Cross-examined,
91
there
by
try
to
obtain
the
information).
(iii) Provides
hope
for
getting
delicate
situation
(Some
interview
than
other
survey techniques.
(v) The interviewer can adjust the
language according to the status
and educational level of the person
interviewed,
thereby
inconvenience
misinterpretation.
Demerits:
can
avoid
and
92
contacted
only
at
the
present
advancement
day
in
of
extreme
communication
93
channels
by
replying
adopted
when
the
94
proven
integrity
of
the
Agency/Person.
(ii) Ability of the interviewer to act the
right information from the witness.
(iii) Bribery or other reasons may twist
the witness to give false information
there
by
bringing
wrong
conclusion.
Conclusion:
(i) Let more care should be taken in the
selection of Witness because it is on
their views, the final conclusion is
reached.
95
Can
be
used
to
get
regular
96
Disadvantages:
(i) Lacks Accuracy.
97
1)
The
degree
questionnaire
to
is
which
the
formalized
or
structure.
2)
the questionnaire.
3)
The
communication
method
used.
4)
showing
pictures
on
which
respondents comments.
When a research follows a prescribed
sequence
of
Questions
it
is
structured study.
When no prescribed sequence of
Question exists, the study is NonStructured.
98
When
the
questionnaire
is
is
clear
(the
Easily
adopted
in
large
wide
spread
geographical area.
over
large
99
(2)
(3)
Demerits:
(1)
people.
(2)
lacks co-operation.
(3)
Lacks
Accuracy
because
the
100
(iii) Questionnaire
should
be
interesting.
(iv) Legal Compulsion should be made
to provide in formations.
5.
Schedules
sent
through
Schedules
through
Enumerators:Sending
enumerators or interviewers.
The
enumerators
informants,
gets
contacts
replied
to
the
the
101
(2)
Very
little
scope
for
Non-
Accurate.
Demerits:
(1)
Success
depends
on
the
experience.
(4)
102
is used by a different
agency.
Sources of Secondary Data:
(1)
Published Sources.
(2)
Unpublished Sources.
1. Published Sources:
The Government, Inter National and
local agencies publish statistical data.
Chief Among them,
(i) Inter National Publications:Inter National Institutions & bodies
like I.M.J.(International Monetary Fund),
I.B.R.D.
(International
Reconstruction
and
Bank
of
Development),
103
United
Nations
Organization
(b)
Census of India.
(c)
(d)
(e)
104
(b)
Research (I.C.A.R.)
(c)
Indian
Agricultural
Statistics
Publications
of
various
appointed
by
the
Government.
(a)
Raj
Committees
Report
on
Agricultural Taxation.
(b) Wanchoo Committees Report on
Taxation & Black Money.
105
106
Be
Extra-Cautious
while
using
secondary data.
Should not be accepted as such
because the secondary data may
process,
(Bias, Inadequate Size, Substitution,
errors of definition or arithmetical
errors)
Factors to be Considered before using
the secondary Data:
(i) Suitability of Data:
make sure that the data available is
suitable for the purpose of enquiry.
(ii) Adequacy of Data:
Make sure that the data are sufficient
or adequate for the present analysis.
(iii) Reliability of Data:
107
needs
great
care
and
108
data
(Primary
collected
Data)
from
need
survey
excessive
editing.
Editing Primary Data,
(i) The data should be complete in
every respect.
(ii) The data should be accurate.
(iii) The data should be consistant.
(iv) The data should be homogenous
1. Editing For Completeness:
The editor should see that each
schedule
or
questionnaire
is
to
every
questions
is
109
should
formations
see
are
that
accurate
the
in
in
all
respects.
Arithmetic errors can be detected
easily & corrected.
If the error is due to fault information
supplied, it may be difficult to verify.
3. Editing For Consistency:
110
the
various
informants
are
Income
Weekly, Daily)
(Yearly,
Monthly,
111
by
considering
the
nature,
by
Government,
Private
112
QUESTIONNAIRE
113
Good
questionnaire
114
be
Easy,
Brief,
courteous
in
tone,
115
television.
4. Questions should be simple to
understand:
Vague & Double meaning words
should be avoided.
Example:
Price/Cost/Rate/
Capital
Income/Salary.
5.
Questions
should
be
Comprehensive(Includes Everything)
and Easily Answerable:
116
to
be
answered.
Avoid
117
Where
possible
answers
are
alternative,
additional
Questions
118
(c) Occasionally
Leading
Questions
should
be
Avoided:
Long Questions leading to several
answers should be avoided. It should
be framed into short questions.
Example: Why do you use a particular
type of car, say Maruti Car, Avoid this
continuous questions.
Instead ask,
Which car do you use ?
119
be
designed
to
provide
formations
given
by
the
respondents.
10. Pre-Testing the Questionnaire:
Try out the Questionnaire on a small
scale before using in a large scale.
The drawbacks, short comings and
problems faced in the small scale
informants
can
be
improved
or
120
SAMPLING
A carefully designed sample may
actually be better than a poorly planned
and executed census.
Merits:
1. It saves time:
121
It
provides
formations:-
more
detailed
in
122
7. More Scientific:
Results can be tested since more
scientific.
Shortcomings (or) Demerits
1. Illusory (False) Conclusion:
123
3. Lack of Experts:
If there is a lack of experts to plan,
execute and analyze the samples, the
result would be unsatisfactory.
4. Personal Bias:
There may be personal bias &
prejudice in choosing the sampling
techniques.
124
5. Size of Sample:
If the size of the sample is not
appropriate, it leads to untrue
conclusions.
Essentials of Sampling:
1. It must be the right representative:
The Sample selected should process
the similar characteristics of the original
universe.
2. Homogeneity:
Selected samples should be
homogenous with the samples & the
universe.
3. Adequate Samples:
125
is
based
principles
on
of
two
Statistics
theory
(i) Law of Statistical Regularity
126
almost
sure
to
have
the
127
128
129
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment
is
the
process
of
130
Absolute Experiment:
When
researcher
wants
to
researcher
wants
to
131
researcher
test
the
casual
132
laid
three
principles
of
Experimental Designs,
1. The Principal of Replication
2. The Principal of Randomization.
3. The Principal of Local Control.
The Principal of Replication :
The Experiment should be repeated
more than once.
The treatment is applied to many
experimental units.
The information collected and the
inference
drawn
from
these
133
No Principle of Replication is
Part I
rrrrr
rrrrr
rr
rrrrr
rrrrr
rr
rrrrr
r
rrrrr
r
Field
Part I
Treatment
134
of Paddy
Paddy.
Variety of
Experiment
several times.
can
be
repeated
135
Field
rr rr R r r
rr rr R r r
Treated
rr rr R r r
rr rr R r r
drawn.
Conclusion
rr rr R r r
Parts
136
Example:
137
rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
When
rr rr r r r
treated
138
to
vary
extensively
or
139
140
141
142
143
144
Test Area
Treatment Introduced
Level of Phenomenon (Y)
Control Area
Level of Phenomenon (Z)
No
Treatment
(3) Before And After with Control
Design:
Step.1: In this design, two areas are
selected and the dependent variables in
both the areas are measured for an
identical time period before treatment.
Step.2: Treatment is introduced only in
the test area.
Step 3 : The dependent valuable is
measured on both the areas (control
area & test area) for an identical time
period.
145
146
147
148
149
150
II
III IV
X1 A B C D E
X2 B C D E A
X3 C D E A B
X4 D E A B C
X5 E A B C D
Conclusion :
151
4. Factorial Design :
Are used in experiments where the effect
of the depended variable, when affected
by more than one variable is to be
determined.
152
153
154
OBSERVATION
Observation is defined as a planned
method of watching that involves constraints
(steps) to improve accuracy.
Characteristics of Observation :
i. Observation are direct
ii. takes place in natural situations
iii. Less Structured.
iv. Makes only quantitative study.
155
Applicable in :
1. Life styles
2. Encounters / Settlement.
3. Relationships
4. Groups / Organization.
Acc. to Block & Camion :
1. Observed in natural surroundings
2. Understands events affecting social
relations.
3. Identifies regulatives in social life.
4. Hypothesis free enquiry.
156
Observation
Technique
No such controls
Few Controls.
Not Always
Observation is natural
Conducted in smaller conducted in large
unit. Fewer subjects
units
are watched for long
No so. Study is
period .Study is
towards sharpening
directed towards
the judgment.
sensitizing the
No so.
observer / events.
Behavior observed is
157
more different.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
158
159
160
161
A1 = 2,4,6
e. Mutually Exclusive Event: A and B two
mutually exclusive event, if A prevents the
occurrence of B.
Example: When a coin is tossed once the
occurrence of Head prevents the occurrence
of Tail.
If A and B are mutually exclusive events than
the probability of occurrence of A or B is the
sum of their individuals probability.
P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B).
If A and B is joint sets, than the addition
theorem of probability can be stated as.
162
163
164
165
166
167
= (x+1) (x+1)
(x+1)
= (x2+2x+1) (x+1)
= x3 + x2 +2x2 +2x
+x+1
168
= x3 + 3x2 +3x +1
The Coefficient is
= 1. 3 .3 1
(x+1)3
1 4
4 1
(x+1)4
1 5 10 10 5 1
(x+1) 5
169
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(x+1)6
1 7 21 35 35 21 7
1 (x+1)7
Example: A coin is tossed Four Times what is
the probability of obtaining two or more
heads? .
Step I : When a coin is tossed One time, the
probability of Head of tail is equal,
(ie) P = q =1/2.
Step II : The various possibilities of Head
and tail events will be,
(p+q)4 = 1p4 + 4p3q +6p3q + 6p2q2 + 4pq3
+1q4
------------------------------------------------------------
170
171
172
173
174
= 0.180
175
Normal Equation:
The value of the random variable Y is (x u) /2
1
Y=
C (Coefficient)
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is constant (3.14159)
e is constant (2.71828)
Standard Deviation:
Represented by it means how much
variance (difference) or dispersion exist from
the average.
Example:
177
= 1 ( 4 5) = (-1) =1 (7 5)
(5 5) = (0) = 0
Rate of 9+1+1+1+0+0+4+16 38
---------------------------- = =
4/8
8
Example: An average light bulb
manufactured by Acme Corporation lasts
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179
1
=
50 x 6013 x 2.71828/100 = 1/306.5 x 271 =
884//
Y = .88 or 88%
Hence there is an 88% chance that the
bulb will last most 365 days.
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