STUDY ELECTRICAL DESIGN OF A 220 KV

SUBSTATION
PROJECT WORK
UNDER THE ESTEEMED GUIDANCE OF
Mr. S.D. Guatam
Asst. Manager (technical) 220 KV P.P.K. I
Delhi Transco Limited

SUBMITTED BY:
Ishank bounthiyal

C.R.R.INSTITUTE OF TECNOLOGY
KANJHAWALA DELHI

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. ISHANK BOUNTHIYAL (roll no. 305119),
students of diploma in (instrumentation & control) of
C.R.R.INSTITUTE OF TECNOLOGY has successfully completed their
project work at DELHI TRANCO LIMITED on Study Electrical
Design Of a 220 KV Substation under the guidance of Mr. S.D.
Guatam.The students have performed all the related activities
during 02/07/2009 to 18/07/2009 i.e of their project duration.

Mr. S.D. Guatam

Asst. Manager (technical)
(DELHI TRANSCO LIMITED)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my gratitude to the management of Delhi Transco
Limited for providing me with this opportunity to undergo training
in this esteemed organization.
I take the prerogative to express my gratitude to Mr.A.Guruswami ,
Asst. manager(technical), for his valuable suggestions and
guidance throughout my training period.
I also like to thank the entire staff of Delhi Transco Limited for
making my brief stay in Substation a memorable one.

Ishank bounthiya ( roll no 305119)

Chotu ram rural
Institute of Engineering

Delhi Transco Limited is the State Transmission Utility of the

National Capital Territory of Delhi. It is responsible for transmission
of power at 220KV and 400KV level, besides upgradation operation
and maintenance of EHV Network as per system requirements.
After the enactment of Electricity Act 2003, a new
department under the name and style of State Load Dispatch
Center (SLDC) under Delhi Transco Limited was created, as an Apex
body to ensure integrated operation of the power system in Delhi.
SLDC Delhi started its function on the First of January 2004. SLDC is
responsible for the real time Load Dispatch function, O&M of SCADA
System and Energy Accounting.

Electricity in India
Electric power generation in India is done predominantly by
government sector entities. These are controlled by various central
public sector corporations, such as: National Hydroelectric Power
Corporation, National Thermal Power Corporation and various state
level corporations (state electricity boards - SEBs). The transmission
and distribution is managed by the State Electricity Boards (SEBs) or
private companies.
The current per capita power consumption is about 612 KWH per
year while the world average is 2596 KWH.

Generation
Grand Total Installed Capacity is 1,44,564.97 MW

Thermal Power
Current installed base of Thermal Power is 92,216.64 MW which
comes to 64.6% of total installed base.

Current installed base of Coal Based Thermal Power is

76,298.88 MW which comes to 53.3% of total installed base.
Current installed base of Gas Based Thermal Power is
14,716.01 MW which comes to 10.5% of total installed base.
Current installed base of Oil Based Thermal Power is 1,201.75
MW which comes to 0.9% of total installed base.

Hydro Power
India was one of the pioneering states in establishing hydro-electric
power plants, The power plant at Darjeeling and Shimsa was
established in 1898 and 1902 respectively and is one of the first in
Asia. Current installed base of Hydro Power is 36,033.76 MW which
comes to 24.7% of total installed base. Today Hydro sector has
turbines as large as 250 MW and single stage projects as big as 1500
MW .
Nuclear Power
Currently, seventeen nuclear power reactors produce 4,120.00 MW
(2.9% of total installed base).
Renewable Power
Current installed base of Renewable Power is 12194.57 MW which
comes to 7.7% of total installed base.

Transmission
Transmission of electricity is defined as bulk transfer of power over
a long distance at high voltage, generally of 132kV and above.
In
India bulk transmission has increased form 3708ckm in 1950 to more
than 265,000ckm today. The entire country has been divided
into five regions for transmission systems, namely, Northern
Region, North Eastern Region, Eastern Region, Southern Region
and Western Region. The Interconnected transmission system
within each region is also called the regional grid.
The transmission system planning in the country, in the past, had
traditionally been linked to generation projects as part of the
evacuation system. Ability of the power system to safely withstand
a contingency without generation rescheduling or load-shedding was
the main criteria for planning the transmission system. However,
due to various reasons such as spatial development of load in the
network, non-commissioning of load centre generating units
originally planned and deficit in reactive compensation, certain
pockets in the power system could not safely operate even under
normal conditions. This had necessitated backing down of
generation and operating at a lower load generation balance in the
past. Transmission planning has therefore moved away from the
earlier generation evacuation system planning to integrated system
planning.
While the predominant technology for electricity transmission and
distribution has been Alternating Current (AC) technology, High
Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) technology has also been used for
interconnection of all regional grids across the country and for bulk
transmission of power over long distances.

Distribution
The total installed generating capacity in the country is over
135000MW and the total number of consumers is over 144 million.
Apart from an extensive transmission system network at 500kV
HVDC, 400kV, 220kV, 132kV and 66kV which has developed to
transmit the power from generating station to the grid substations,
a vast network of sub transmission in distribution system has also
come up for utilization of the power by the ultimate consumers.
However, due to lack of adequate investment on T&D works, the
T&D losses have been consistently on higher side, and reached to
the level of 32.86% in the year 2000-01.The reduction of these
losses was essential to bring economic viability to the State
Utilities.
As the T&D loss was not able to capture all the losses in the net
work, concept of Aggregate Technical and Commercial (AT&C) loss
was introduced. AT&C loss captures technical as well as commercial
losses in the network and is a true indicator of total losses in the
system.
High technical losses in the system are primarily due to inadequate
investments over the years for system improvement works, which
has resulted in unplanned extensions of the distribution lines,
overloading of the system elements like transformers and
conductors, and lack of adequate reactive power support.

220 KV Substation

BUS BAR
A bus bar in electrical power distribution refers to thick strips of
copper or aluminium that conduct electricity within a switchboard,
distribution board, substation, or other electrical apparatus.
The size of the busbar is important in determining the maximum
amount of current that can be safely carried. Busbars can have a
cross-sectional area of as little as 10 mm but electrical substations
may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (1,000 mm) or more as
busbars.
Busbars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these
shapes allow heat to dissipate more efficiently due to their high
surface area to cross-sectional area ratio. The skin effect makes 5060 Hz AC busbars more than about 8 mm (1/3 in) thick inefficient,
so hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in higher current
applications. A hollow section has higher stiffness than a solid rod,
which allows a greater span between busbar supports in outdoor
switchyards.
A busbar may either be supported on insulators, or else insulation
may completely surround it. Busbars are protected from accidental
contact either by a metal enclosure or by elevation out of normal
reach. Neutral busbars may also be insulated. Earth busbars are
typically bolted directly onto any metal chassis of their enclosure.
Busbars may be enclosed in a metal housing, in the form of bus duct
or busway, segregated-phase bus, or isolated-phase bus.
Busbars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus
by bolted or clamp connections. Often joints between high-current
bus sections have matching surfaces that are silver-plated to reduce
the contact resistance. At extra-high voltages (more than 300 kV) in
outdoor buses, corona around the connections becomes a source of

10

radio-frequency interference and power loss, so connection fittings

designed for these voltages are used.

Protection
Bus bars are vital parts of a power system and so a fault should be
cleared as fast as possible. A busbar must have its own protection
although their high degrees of reliability bearing in mind the risk of
unnecessary trips, so the protection should be dependable,
selective and should be stable for external faults, called through
faults.

11

BUS BAR SCHEMES

Bus scheme selection criteria

System reliability
Possibility of major shut-down
Continuity of supply in the event of bus fault
Availability of bus in the event of stuck of circuit
breaker
Redundancy

Bus switching scheme

Operation flexibility

Taking a line / equipment in or out

Taking a bus bar in or out
Taking a circuit breaker in or out
Ease of maintenance
Taking out of components for maintenance without loss
of feeder and with ease of changeover
Limitation of short circuit level
Simplicity of protection arrangement
Ease of extension
Availability / requirement of land
Cost

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Double bus scheme

Most commonly used bus scheme.
Normally load will be distributed on both the buses and the
bus coupler will kept closed.
For maintenance & extension of any one of the buses the
entire load will be transferred to the other bus.
On load transfer of a circuit from one bus to the other bus is
possible through bus isolators provided the bus coupler is
closed and thereby two buses are at the same potential.
On load bypassing of any circuit for breaker maintenance is
not possible.

13

TRANSFORMER
Definition :
Transformer is
defined as A static
piece of apparatus
with two or more
windings which, by
electromagnetic
induction, transforms
a system of
alternating voltage
and current into
another system of
voltage and current
usually of different
values and at the same frequency for the purpose of transmitting
electrical power.

PARTS OF A POWER TRANSFORMER :

ACTIVE PART:
1) core
2) windings (LV,HV,regualting, tertiery)
3)tap changer
4)cleats and leads
5)tank
ACCESSORIES:

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1) radiators

AUXILLARIES:
1)bushings
2)buchholz relay/oil surg relay
3)temprature indicators
4)oil level indicator
5)pressure relief device
6)marshalling box/control cubical
7)oil preservation system
8)conservators(gas sealed ,bellows/membrane sealed)
9)silica gel breather

15

POWER TRANSFORMER (100MVA)

16

BASIC PRINCIPLE
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an
electric current can produce a magnetic field
(electromagnetism) and, second, that a changing magnetic field
within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). By changing the current in the
primary coil, one changes the strength of its magnetic field;
since the secondary coil is wrapped around the same magnetic
field, a voltage is induced across the secondary
A current passing through the primary coil creates an
electromagnet; the current and its magnetic field are
proportional to one another, so that if the current changes, so
does the magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are
wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such
as iron; this ensures that the magnetic field lines produced by
the primary current stay within the iron instead of "leaking"
out into the surrounding air and pass intact through the
secondary coil.

17

 INDUCTION LAWS
The amount of voltage induced across the secondary coil may be
calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that,
where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number
of turns in the secondary coil and equals the total magnetic flux
through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is defined as the
product of the magnetic field strength B and the area A through
which it cuts
Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and
secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage
across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic
equation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage

ENERGY LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

Transformer losses are attributable to several causes and may be
differentiated between those originating in the windings,
sometimes termed copper loss, and those arising from the
magnetic circuit, sometimes termed iron loss. The losses vary
with load current, and may furthermore be expressed as "no-

18

load" or "full-load" loss, or at an intermediate loading. Winding

resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy
currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The
no-load loss can be significant, meaning that even an idle
transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, and
lending impetus to development of low-loss transformers
Losses in transformer arise due to:
I) Winding Resistance(copper loss)
ii) Hysteresis losses (core loss)
iii) Eddy current loss
iv)Magnetostriction
V) Mechanical losses
vi) Stray losses

CONSTRUCTION
Laminated steel core
Transformers for use at power or
audio frequencies typically have cores
made of high permeability silicon
steel. The steel has a permeability
many times that of free space, and
the core thus serves to greatly reduce
the magnetising current, and confine
the flux to a path which closely
couples the windings..Later designs
constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a
principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated
from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation. The
universal transformer equation indicates a minimum crosssectional area for the core to avoid saturation

19

The core loss in transformer caused due to eddy current and

hysterisis can be delt with by utilizing the following:
For the hysterisis
The transformer cores are made up of COLD ROLLED GRAIN
OREINTED STEEL(CRGO) .the main advantages of using CRGO is
that it has a smaller hysterisis loop.hence low core loss and also
high permeability.the addition of silicon in iron increases its
magnetic properties.

For eddy current

A small addition of silicon upto 3% increases the resistivity of iron
core by 3-4 times.hence provides a more resistive path for eddy
current.
also, the magnetic cores are made of thin isulated iron sheets.using
this technique the the magnetic core is equivalent to many small
magnetic circuits,each one reciving a small fraction of the magnetic
flux.furthermore these circuits have a resistance higher than the
non magnetic core because of their reduced section.
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly
elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their
magnitud

WINDINGS
The conducting material used
for the windings depends upon
the application, but in all
cases the individual turns must
be electrically insulated from

20

each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every

turn. For small power and signal transformers, in which currents
are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is
small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire.
Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be
wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oilimpregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.
The primary and secondary windings are arraged in such a way as
to reduce the flux lekage.

windings are arraged concentrically to minimize flux lekage.

For signal transformers, the windings may be arranged in a way
to minimise leakage inductance and stray capacitance to
improve high-frequency response. This can be done by splitting
up each coil into sections, and those sections placed in layers
between the sections of the other winding. This is known as a
stacked type or interleaved winding.

TRANSFORMER OIL

21

Transformer oil is usually a highly-refined mineral oil that is

stable at high temperatures and has excellent electrical
insulating properties
Following are the functions of transformer oil:i) to insulate the windings
ii) to supress corona
iii) to supress arching
iv) to serve as coolant

The oil helps cool the transformer. Because it also provides part of
the electrical insulation between internal live parts, transformer
oil must remain stable at high temperatures over an extended
period. To improve cooling of large power transformers, the oilfilled tank may have external radiators through which the oil
circulates by natural convection. Very large or high-power
transformers (with capacities of millions of watts) may also have
cooling fans, oil pumps, and even oil-to-water heat exchangers.
Large, high-voltage transformers undergo prolonged drying
processes, using electrical self-heating, the application of a
vacuum, or both to ensure that the transformer is completely free
of water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps
prevent corona formation and subsequent electrical breakdown
under load.
Oil filled transformers with conservators (an oil tank above the
transformer) tend to be equipped with Buchholz relays. These are
safety devices that can sense gas buildup inside the transformer (a
side effect of corona or an electric arc inside the windings) and
then switch off the transformer. Transformers without conservators
are usually equipped with sudden pressure relays, which perform a
similar function as the Buchholz relay.

22

Oil alternatives :
Today, nontoxic, stable silicone-based or fluorinated
hydrocarbons are used, where the added expense of a fireresistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer
vault. Natural or synthetic Esters are becoming increasingly
common as alternative, to Naphthenic mineral oil too. Esters are
non toxic, readily biodegradable, and have higher flash points than
mineral oil. Prior to about 1970, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)
was often used as a dielectric fluid since it was not flammable

TRANSFORMER OIL SAMPLING AND TESTING

The life of a transformer is dependent upon three parametes :
1. temprature
2.oxygen
3.moisture

it is necessary to remove the moisture form the transformer

after regular interval of time there are a few tests to determine
the quality of oil .Generally we use minral oil for transfomer
winding insulation and cooling .the test given below are :
1.BDV(break down voltage test)
2.DGA(dissolved gas analysis)
3.dielectric strength of oil

EFFECT OF MOISTURE ON TRANSFORMER OIL

23

Most of the power transformwers use paper and oil as the main
form of insulation and during manufacture stringent efforts are
made to ensure that both are as dry as possible when the new
plant is set up.once in service the moisture content begins to
increase.excessive can put the life of the transformer at risk .it is
important to understand the source of this moisture .its effects and
the preventive measures.

SOURCE OF MOISTURE
Once in service the transformer is subjected to the following source
of moisture
External form the atmosphere
Internal form manufacture
Internal form cellulose ageing

1)BDV(breakdown voltage )TESTING:

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after taking the sample of transformer oil with suitable

equipment,we test the property in the BDV,DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
OF MINRAL OIL using as a coolant and insulator for transformer
winding.the BDV should be approximate around 60 kv for
transformer oil.the procedure of this experiment is given s
followes: This test is performed by advanced test kit specially design
fopr this test

In this kit we use special bucket which contains electrode,

these electrode can be one of the type
as:SPHERICAL,CYLINDRICAL,OR MUSHROOM.we use
spherical electrode in this test as per IEC STANDARDS.
First of all wash every active component of the kit with the
transformer oil for removing moisture and dust contents
from the elctrodes and buckets .
Set the gap between the elctrode at exactly 2.5mm for the
special electrode .
In this kit we have special facility to steering the oil
automatically, it is based on magnetic effect.
Set 5 min time duration for steering.it is necessary to mixed
up the oil suitably.
After 5 min stat applying voltage between electrodes .it
increases gradually.
At a perticular value of voltage oil break down.there will be
a spark flashing at this breakdown
Note down the reading of BDV .take 5 more reading
This advanced kit is well programmed to give printed
average value of all 6 observation.
Value by this experiment for UAT(unit auxillary transformer)
-2 is found -52.8kv.

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BUCHHOLZ RELAY
In the field of electric power distribution and transmission, a
Buchholz relay, also called a gas relay or a sudden pressure
relay, is a safety device mounted on some oil-filled power
transformers and reactors, equipped with an external overhead
oil reservoir called a conservator. The Buchholz Relay is used on
conservator type oil preservation systems as a protective device
sensitive to events which occurs during dielectric failure inside
the equipment.

When an electric arc or overheating develops inside the coils,

gas is generated. The relay has two different detection modes.
On a slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to slight overload,
gas accumulates in the top of the relay and forces the oil level
down. A float operated switch in the relay is used to initiate an
alarm signal. This same switch will also operate on low oil level,
such as a slow oil leak. If an arc forms, gas accumulation is
rapid, and oil flows rapidly into the conservator. This flow of oil
operates a switch attached to a vane located in the path of the
moving oil. This switch normally will operate a circuit breaker to
shut down (isolate) the apparatus before the fault causes
additional damage. Buchholz relays have a test port to allow
accumulated gas to be withdrawn for testing. Flammable gas
found in the relay indicates some internal fault such as

26

overheating or arcing, whereas air found in the relay may only

indicate low oil level or a leak. Buchholz relays have been
applied to large power transformers at least since the 1940.

27

SILICA GEL BREATHER

breather provide an economic and efficient means of controlling
the level of moisture entering electrical equipment during the
change in volume of the cooling medium and/or airspace caused by
temperature gradients.

when the volume of oil in the transformer increases the oil

expansds and moves into the consevators .hence it pushes the air
inside the consevator outwards.as the level of moisture is to be
controlled inside the transformer .therefore the excess of air is
absorbed by the breather at the time of expansion and gives of the
air when the oil contracts.

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BUSHINGS
A bushing is a transformer component that insulates a high voltage
conductor passing through a metal enclosure. Bushings appear on
switchgear, transformers, circuit breakers and other high voltage
equipment.
Description
The bushing is hollow, allowing a conductor to pass along its centre
and connect at both ends to other equipment. Bushings are often
made of wet-process fired porcelain, and may be coated with a
semi-conducting glaze to assist in equalizing the electrical stress
along the length of the bushing.
The inside of the bushing may contain paper insulation and the
bushing is often filled with oil to provide additional insulation.
Bushings for medium-voltage and low-voltage apparatus may be
made of resins reinforced with paper. The use of polymer bushings
for high voltage applications is becoming more common..

Different types of bushings:

i) oil impregnated paper(OIP)
ii)epoxy resin impregnated paper(ERIP)
Bushings with varity of external insulations are:
i)porceline in brown and grey

29

SWITCHYARD EQUIPMENTS:
The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power
system, or grid, refers to the combination of electrical disconnects,
fuses and/or circuit breakers used to isolate electrical equipment.
Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to
be done and to clear faults downstream.
Typically switchgear in substations is located on both the high
voltage and the low voltage side of large power transformers. The
switchgear located on the low voltage side of the transformers in
distribution type substations, now are typically located in what is
called a Power Distribution Center (PDC). Inside this building are
typically smaller, medium-voltage (~15kV) circuit breakers feeding
the distribution system. Also contained inside these Power Control
Centers are various relays, meters, and other communication
equipment allowing for intelligent control of the substation.
A piece of switchgear may be a simple open air isolator or it may be
insulated by some other substance. An effective although more
costly form of switchgear is "gas insulated switchgear" (GIS), where
the conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurized (SF6)sulfur
hexafluoride gas. Another common type is oil insulated switchgear.
Circuit breakers are a special type of switchgear that are able to
interrupt fault currents. Their construction allows them to interrupt
fault currents of many hundreds or thousands of amps.

Lightning arrester

30

Wire end cables

Capacitive voltage transformer(CVT)
isolators
current transformers(CT)
circuit breakers
bus-bar lines
wave trap
Battery Box

LIGHTNING ARRESTER
31

Lightning arrester is a device which is provided in the switch

yard to protect the equipments from lightning.

Lightning arresters are designed to safely channel a lightning

strike to ground without damaging equipment.
Inside the porcelain housing of an arrester, are a series of spark
gaps plus one or more silicon carbide blocks. Silicone carbide has
an unusual electrical characteristic. It has a very high resistance
to comparatively low-voltage, but a very low resistance to
extremely high voltage. When lightning strikes there is a sudden
rapid rise in voltage. The silicon carbide resistance breaks down,
allowing the current to be conducted to ground. After the surge
is passed, the resistance of the blocks increases back to normal
levels.
Hence the LA provides a low resistance path in case of high
voltage surge.
Material used: - silicon carbide
Silicon carbide has variable resistance at. It has very high
resistance at low voltage and very low resistance at very high
voltage.
Lightning arresters are generally located on both the high and
low side of a substation transformer to protect it from strikes
coming in either direction.

32

Outer insulation of LA is made up of porcelain.

WIRE CABLES
Wire cables are use to transport the high voltage transmission
lines underground in case of some physical obstruction.

CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

33

A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is a transformer used in

power systems to step-down extra high voltage signals and provide
low voltage signals either for measurement or to operate a
protective relay.

DESIGN:
In its most basic form the device consists of three parts:

two capacitors across which the voltage signal is split

an inductive element used to tune the device to the supply
frequency
a transformer used to isolate and further step-down the
voltage for the instrumentation or protective relay

The device has at least four terminals, a high-voltage terminal for

connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal and at
least one set of secondary terminals for connection to the
instrumentation or protective relay.
CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages
in excess of one hundred kilovolts where the use of voltage
transducers would be uneconomical. In practice the first capacitor,

34

C1, is often replaced by a stack of capacitors connected in series.

This results in a large voltage drop across the stack of capacitors
that replaced the first capacitor and a comparatively small voltage
drop across the second capacitor, C2, and hence the secondary
terminals.

PROTECTION :
A protective surge arrester/spark gap shall preferably be provided
to prevent break down of insulation by incoming surges and to limit
abnormal rise of terminal voltage of shunt capacitor, tuning
reactor, RF choke, etc. due to short circuit in transformer
secondary. The details of this arrangement (or alternative
arrangement) shall be furnished by Contractor for Employer's
review.

HERMETIC SEALING SYSTEM:

Each capacitor unit is hermetically sealed .a stainless steal
diaphragm (expansion bellows) is installed to preserve the integrity
of oil by maintaining the hermetic seal while allowing the thermal
expansion and contraction of the oil. The capacitor units operate is
a complete pressure free mode over a very wide ambient
temperature range. The base tank is filled with degassed mineral
oil hermetically sealed from the environment and from the
synthetic oil in the capacitor unit.

CVT SPECIFICATIONS:

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Total burden -

100 MVA

Thermal burden

750 VA

Rated voltage

220/ 3^.5 kV

Highest system voltage

245 kV

Insulation level

460 kv/1050 kV

Rated freq

50 Hz

Primary capacitance (c1)

4881 pf

Secondary capacitance (c2) 47186 pf

CURRENT TRANSFORMER
36

A current transformer (CT) is a type of instrument transformer

designed to provide a current in its secondary winding proportional
to the current flowing in its primary. They are commonly used in
metering and protective relaying in the electrical power industry
where they facilitate the safe measurement of large currents, often
in the presence of high voltages. The current transformer safely
isolates measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages
typically present on the circuit being measured.

DESIGN:
The most common design of CT consists of
a length of wire wrapped many times
around an annular silicon steel ring passed
over the circuit being measured. The CT's
primary circuit therefore consists of a
single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary
of many hundreds of turns.
The CT acts as a constant-current series
device with an apparent power burden a
fraction of that of the high voltage primary
circuit. Hence the primary circuit is largely
unaffected by the insertion of the CT.
Common secondaries are 1 or 5 amperes.
For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an
output current of 5 amperes when the
primary was passing 4000 amperes. The
secondary winding can be single ratio or
multi ratio, with five taps being common
for multi ratio CTs
Current transformers can be used to supply information for
measuring power flows and the electrical inputs for the operation
of protective relays associated with the transmission and
distribution circuits or for power transformers. These current
transformers have the primary winding connected in series with the

37

conductor carrying the current to be measured or controlled. The

secondary winding is insulate from the high voltage and can then be
connected to low-voltage metering circuits.

CT SPECIFICATIONS:
Highest system:
Insulation level:
Rated primary current:
Rated STC:
Freq:
CT ratio:

245v
460/1050 kV
600 A
27 Ka for 1 sec
50 Hz
600-300/1/1/1/1

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
38

A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch

designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by
overload or short circuit. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and
then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit
breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect
an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed
to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS :

There are many different technologies used in circuit breakers and
they do not always fall into distinct categories. Types that are
common in domestic,commercial and light industrial applications at
low voltage

1. MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more

than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable.
Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation
2. MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breaker)rated current up to
1000 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current
may be adjustable.

Electric power systems require the breaking of higher currents at

higher voltages. Examples of high-voltage AC circuit breakers are:

39

1.
2.
3.
4.

Oil circuit breaker

water type circuit breakers
air circuit breakers
vaccum circuit breakers
5. SF6 circuit breakers

40

Operating Range Of Different Circuit Breaker

DIELECTRIC STERNGTH OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

41

The main idea behind the VCB is to eliminate the medium of

contact s. vacume of the order of 10^-5 Hg is maintained .in such a
low pressure the elctron crosses the gap without any collision .arc is
formed by neutral atom,ions and electron emitted from the
electrode themselves.
Vacuum circuit
breakerWith
rated current up
to 3000 A, these
breakers interrupt
the current by
creating and
extinguishing the
arc in a vacuum
container. These
can only be
practically applied
for voltages up to
about 35,000 V,
which corresponds
roughly to the
medium-voltage
range of power
systems. Vacuum
circuit breakers
tend to have
longer life
expectancies
between overhaul
than do air circuit
breakers.
CONSTRUCTION:
The outer envelope is made up of glass which is joined with
metallic end caps .glass envelope fecilitates the examining of the
breakers from outside after operation.If it becomes milky white
from orignal finish of silver thenit is a sign of loosing vacuum.after
the envelope there is a sputter sheild made up of stainless steel to

42

prevent trhe metal vapour reaching the envelope .In side there is a
moving and fixed contact the metalic bellows are made up of
stainless steel.

SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

Current interruption in a high-voltage circuit-breaker is obtained by
separating two contacts in a medium, such as sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6), having excellent dielectrical and arc quenching properties.
After contact separation, current is carried through an arc and is
interrupted when this arc is cooled by a gas blast of sufficient
intensity.

.
Gas blast applied on the arc must be able to cool it rapidly so that
gas temperature between the contacts is reduced from 20,000 K to
less than 2000 K in a few hundred microseconds, so that it is able
to withstand the transient recovery voltage that is applied across
the contacts after current interruption. Sulfur hexafluoride is

43

generally used in present high-voltage circuit-breakers (of rated

voltage higher than 52 kV).

Characteristics of SF6 circuit breakers can explain their success:

1. Simplicity of the interrupting chamber which does not need an
auxiliary breaking chamber;
2. Autonomy provided by the puffer technique;
3. The possibility to obtain the highest performance, up to 63
kA, with a reduced number of interrupting chambers;
4. Short break time of 2 to 2.5 cycles;
5. High electrical endurance, allowing at least 25 years of
operation without reconditioning;
6. Possible compact solutions when used for GIS or hybrid
switchgear;
7. Integrated closing resistors or synchronised operations to
reduce switching overvoltages;
8. Reliability and availability;
9. Low noise levels.
SF6 specifications:
Rated lighting impulse-1050 kvp(peak voltage)
Rated short circuit current- 40 kA
Rated oprating pressure- 15 kg/cm2
Rated duration of short circuit current- 40kA, 3 sec(fault level)
Gas weight- 21 kg
Rated voltage-245 kv

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Rated freq-50 Hz
Rated normal current 3150 A
Rated closing voltage 220 V DC
Rated opening voltage 220 V DC
Gas pressure 6 kg/cm2

Relays:

Automotive style miniature relay

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the
control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch
is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets
of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a
relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the
input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of
an electrical amplifier.
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through
the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever
and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off

45

so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw
(changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be
completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage
battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit.
There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two
circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA
for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed
to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this
current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC
current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The
maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so
these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usuallly SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets
of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover
contacts are readily available. For further information about switch
contacts and the terms used to describe them please see the page
on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires
directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the
plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections.
The coil will be obvious and it may be connected either way round.
Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are
switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit.
To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the
relay coil.

46

Operation

When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field
attracts an armature that is mechanically linked to a moving
contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection with a
fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the
armature is returned by a force approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force to its relaxed position. Usually this is a spring, but
gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most
relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage
application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current
application, this is to reduce arcing.

47

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed

across the coil, to dissipate the energy from the collapsing
magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a
spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components.
Some automotive relays already include that diode inside the relay
case. Alternatively a contact protection network, consisting of a
capacitor and resistor in series, may absorb the surge. If the coil is
designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring can be
crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a
small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on
the armature during the AC cycle.[1]

Applications
Relays are used:

to control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as

in some types of modems or audio amplifiers,
to control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as
in the starter solenoid of an automobile,
to detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution
lines by opening and closing circuit breakers (protection
relays),

48

A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

to isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit

when the two are at different potentials, for example when
controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage
switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as
the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions, which
may be often moved as needs change. They may also be
controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to
conserve energy,

to perform time delay functions. Relays can be modified to

delay opening or delay closing a set of contacts. A very short
(a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk
between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current
flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time,
lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a
minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled
with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period
can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For
longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is
installed.

Overcurrent relay
An "Overcurrent Relay" is a type of protective relay which operates
when the load current exceeds a preset value. The ANSI Device
Designation Number is 50 for an Instantaneous OverCurrent (IOC),
51 for a Time OverCurrent (TOC). In a typical application the
overcurrent relay is used for overcurrent protection, connected to a
current transformer and calibrated to operate at or above a specific
current level. When the relay operates, one or more contacts will
operate and energize a trip coil in a Circuit Breaker and trip (open)
the Circuit Breaker.

49

Protective relay
A protective relay is a complex electromechanical apparatus, often
with more than one coil, designed to calculate operating conditions
on an electrical circuit and trip circuit breakers when a fault was
found. Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually illdefined operating voltage thresholds and operating times,
protective relays had well-established, selectable, time/current (or
other operating parameter) curves. Such relays were very
elaborate, using arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole magnets,
operating and restraint coils, solenoid-type operators, telephonerelay style contacts, and phase-shifting networks to allow the relay
to respond to such conditions as over-current, over-voltage, reverse
power flow, over- and under- frequency, and even distance relays
that would trip for faults up to a certain distance away from a
substation but not beyond that point. An important transmission
line or generator unit would have had cubicles dedicated to
protection, with a score of individual electromechanical devices.
The various protective functions available on a given relay are
denoted by standard ANSI Device Numbers. For example, a relay
including function 51 would be a timed overcurrent protective
relay.
These protective relays provide various types of electrical
protection by detecting abnormal conditions and isolating them
from the rest of the electrical system by circuit breaker operation.
Such relays may be located at the service entrance or at major load
centers.

50

Design and theory of these protective devices is an important part

of the education of an electrical engineer who specializes in power
systems. Today these devices are nearly entirely replaced (in new
designs) with microprocessor-based instruments (numerical relays)
that emulate their electromechanical ancestors with great precision
and convenience in application. By combining several functions in
one case, numerical relays also save capital cost and maintenance
cost over electromechanical relays. However, due to their very long
life span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels" are still
protecting transmission lines and electrical apparatus all over the
world.

Distance relay
The most common form of feeder protection on high voltage
transmission systems is distance relay protection. Power lines have
set impedance per kilometre and using this value and comparing
voltage and current the distance to a fault can be determined. The
main types of distance relay protection schemes are

Three step distance protection

Switched distance protection
Accelerated or permissive intertrip protection
Blocked distance protection

In three step distance protection, the relays are separated into

three separate zones of impedance measurement to accommodate
for over reach and under reach conditions. Zone 1 is instantaneous
in operation and has a purposely set under reach of 80% of the total
line length to avoid operation for the next line. This is due to
measurements of impedance of lines not being entirely accurate,
errors in voltage and current transformers and relay tolerances.
These errors can be up to 20% of the line impedance, hence the
zones 80% reach. Zone 2 covers the last 20% of the feeder line
length and provides backup to the next line by having a slight over
reach. To prevent mal-operation the zone has a 0.5 second time
delay. Zone 3 provides backup for the next line and has a time delay
of 1 second to grade with zone 2 protection of the next line.

51

Ground (electricity)
In electrical engineering, the term ground or earth has several
meanings depending on the specific application areas. Ground is
the reference point in an electrical circuit from which other
voltages are measured, a common return path for electric
current (earth return or ground return), or a direct physical
connection to the Earth.

A typical earthing electrode (left of gray conduit) .Note the green

and yellow marked earth wire.
Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth) for several
reasons. In power circuits, a connection to ground is done for safety
purposes to protect people from the effects of faulty insulation on
electrically powered equipment. A connection to ground helps limit
the voltage built up between power circuits and the earth,
protecting circuit insulation from damage due to excessive voltage.
Connections to ground may be used to limit the build-up of static
electricity when handling flammable products or when repairing
electronic devices. In some types of telegraph and power
transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as one conductor

52

of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate run of wire as

a return conductor. For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as
a (reasonably) constant potential reference against which other
potentials can be measured. An electrical ground system should
have an appropriate current-carrying capability in order to serve as
an adequate zero-voltage reference level. In electronic circuit
theory, a 'ground' is usually idealized as an infinite source or sink
for charge, which can absorb an unlimited amount of current
without changing its potential.
The use of the term ground (or earth) is so common in electrical
and electronics applications that circuits in vehicles such as ships,
aircraft, and spacecraft may be spoken of having a "ground"
connection without any actual connection to the Earth

AC power wiring installations

In a mains electricity (AC power) wiring installation, the ground is a
wire with an electrical connection to earth. By connecting the cases
of electrical equipment to earth, any insulation failure will result in
current flowing to ground that would otherwise energize the case of
the equipment. A proper bonding to earth will result in the circuit
overcurrent protection operating to de-energize the faulty circuit. By
bonding (interconnecting) all exposed non-current carrying metal
objects together, any fault currents in the system will not produce
dangerous voltages which could cause electric shock.
The power ground grounding wire is (directly or indirectly) connected
to one or more earth electrodes. These may be located locally, be far
away in the suppliers network or in many cases both. This grounding
wire is usually but not always connected to the neutral wire at some
point and they may even share a cable for part of the system under
some conditions. The ground wire is also usually bonded to pipework
to keep it at the same potential as the electrical ground during a fault.
Water supply pipes often used to be used as ground electrodes but
this was banned in some countries when plastic pipe such as PVC

53

became popular. This type of ground applies to radio antennas and

to lightning protection systems.
A power ground serves to provide a return path for fault currents and
therefore allows the fuse or breaker to disconnect the circuit. The
power ground is also often bonded to the house's incoming pipework,
and pipes and cables entering the bathroom are sometimes crossbonded. This is done to try to reduce the potential difference between
objects that can be touched simultaneously. Filters also connect to
the power ground, but this is mainly to stop the power ground
carrying noise into the systems which the filters protect, rather than
as a direct use of the power ground.
Permanently installed electrical equipment usually also has
permanently connected grounding conductors. Portable electrical
devices with metal cases may have them connected to earth ground
by a pin in the interconnecting plug. (see Domestic AC power plugs
and sockets). The size of power ground conductors is usually
regulated by local or national wiring regulations.

Power transmission
Some HVDC power transmission systems use the ground as second
conductor. This is especially common in schemes with submarine
cables as sea water is a good conductor. Buried grounding
electrodes are used to make the connection to the earth. The site of
these electrodes must be chosen very carefully in order to prevent
electrochemical corrosion on underground structures.
In Single Wire Earth Return (SWER) AC electrical distribution
systems, costs are saved by using just a single high voltage
conductor for the power grid, while routing the AC return current
through the earth. This system is mostly used in rural areas where
large earth currents will not otherwise cause hazards.
A particular concern in design of electrical substations is earth
potential rise. When very large fault currents are injected into the
earth, the area around the point of injection may rise to a high
potential with respect to distant points. This is due to the limited finite
conductivity of the layers of soil in the earth. The gradient of the

54

voltage (changing voltage within a distance) may be so high that two

points on the ground may be at significantly different potentials,
creating a hazard to anyone standing on the ground in the area.
Pipes, rails, or communication wires entering a substation may see
different ground potentials inside and outside the substation, creating
a dangerous touch voltage

Circuit ground versus earth

Voltage is a differential quantity, which appears between two
points having some electrical potentials. To measure the voltage of
a single point, a reference point must be selected to measure
against. This common reference point is called ground and
considered to have zero voltage. This signal ground may or may not
actually be connected to a power ground. A system where the
system ground is not actually connected to another circuit or to
earth (though there may still be AC coupling) is often referred to as
a floating ground.

Lightning protection systems

Lightning protection systems form a very specialised application of
grounding used in an attempt to lessen damage to man-made
structures caused by lightning strikes. The concept and goal of
lightning protection systems is to mitigate the extreme fire hazard
which lightning poses to some types of man-made structures,
especially those which are built of flammable materials, such as
wood, or electrically resistant materials, such as brick, stone, or
concrete. A lightning protection system is an attempt to provide a
preferred, low-resistance path for the lightning circuit to follow, in
order to lessen the heating effects of lightning's current flowing
through or around flammable structural materials, or through porous
materials which can contain water, such as brick, stone, or concrete,
as the water contained in these rain-soaked masonry elements may
explode when flashed to steam by lightning's heat.

55

To appreciate the limitations of lightning protection systems, it is

important to understand the magnitude of lightning's energy. Because
of the incredibly high electrical potential of lightning (oen exceeding
100 million volts and 40,000 amperes), no lightning protection system
can guarantee absolute safety from lightning to a structure, its
contents, or its occupants. While lightning (as all electrical current)
will tend to follow the path of least resistance, lightning will often
follow many distinct paths, and secondary side-flashes can be
enough to ignite a fire, blow apart brick, stone, or concrete, or injure
occupants within a structure or building. Nonetheless, scientists,
electrical engineers, and property insurers have accepted and relied
upon the benefits of basic lightning protection systems for well over a
century.[2]
The components of a basic lightning protection system are air
terminals (i.e. lightning rods or strike termination devices), bonding
conductors (usually heavy stranded copper or aluminum wires or
thick braided or solid copper or aluminum straps), ground terminals
(i.e. electrodes, ground or earthing rods, plates, or mesh), and all of
the proper connectors and supports to complete the system. The air
terminals are typically arranged at or along the upper points of a roof
structure, and are electrically bonded together by bonding conductors
(sometimes called "down conductors" or misleadingly called
"downloads"), which are connected by the most direct route possible
to one or more grounding or earthing terminals installed into the earth
or ground.[3]
In overhead transmission lines, a ground conductor may also be the
top most wire on pylons, poles, or towers. This ground conductor is
intended to protect the power conductors from lightning strikes.
These conductors are connected to earth either through the metal
structure of a pole or tower, or by additional ground electrodes
installed at regular intervals along the line. As a general rule,
overhead power lines with voltages below 50 kV do not have a
ground conductor, but most lines carrying more than 50 kV do.
Depending on local conditions and reliability requirements, an over
head transmission line may have two overhead ground conductors.

56

Ground mat
A ground mat or grounding mat is a flat, flexible pad used for
working on electrostatic sensitive devices. It is generally made of a
conductive plastic or metal mesh covered substrate which is
electrically attached to ground. This helps discharge any static
which a worker has built up, as well as any static on tools or
exposed components laid on the mat. It is used most commonly in
computer repair. Ground mats are also found on fuel trucks, which
are otherwise insulated from ground as they make physical contact
only with their (rubber and air) tires; obviously static discharge is
undesirable during fuel-transfer operations. Similarly, in aircraft
refueling, a ground cable connects the tanker (truck or airplane) to
the fuel-seeking craft to eliminate charge differences before fuel is
transferred.
In an electrical substation a ground mat is a mesh of conductive
material installed at places where a person would stand to operate
a switch or other apparatus; it is bonded to the local supporting
metal structure and to the handle of the switchgear, so that the
operator will not be exposed to a high differential voltage due to a
fault in the substation.

BATTERY BOX
Batteries are installed in substation to provide power to switching
components and to power the substation control equipment in
times of AC power loss. They require regular maintenance for
proper working .

57

Lead Acid Batteries are widely used for years, other alternative is
Nickel-cadmium battery

LEAD Acid Battery

Electrochemistry
Each cell contains (in the charged state) electrodes of lead metal
(Pb) and lead (IV) dioxide (PbO2) in an electrolyte of about 33.5%
w/w (6 Molar) sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In the discharged state both
electrodes turn into lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte
loses its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. Due to
the freezing-point depression of water, as the battery discharges
and the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is
more likely to freeze.
The chemical reactions are (charged to discharged):
Anode (oxidation):

Cathode (reduction):

58

Because of the open cells with liquid electrolyte in most lead-acid

batteries, overcharging with excessive charging voltages will
generate oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, forming
an explosive mix. The acid electrolyte is also corrosive.

59