Multiphase Modeling in

Automobile Industries

Hossam Metwally
1

2011 ANSYS, Inc.

June 7, 2012

Agenda
-Introduction
-Volume of Fluid (VOF)
-Mixture Model
-Eularian Model
-DPM
-Melting and Solidification
-Single phase, multi-species

-Summary and Conclusion

2011 ANSYS, Inc.

June 7, 2012

Agenda
-Introduction
-Volume of Fluid (VOF)
-Mixture Model
-Eularian Model
-DPM
-Melting and Solidification
-Single phase, multi-species

-Summary and Conclusion

2011 ANSYS, Inc.

June 7, 2012

Why Model Multiphase Flows?

There are numerous examples of Multiphase Flow problems relevant to Automotive Industries
Powertrain
Piston Cooling
Boiling in Cooling Jacket
Cavitation in Water Pump
Fuel Injector
Lubrication

Fuel System
Tank Filling
Fuel Sloshing
Fuel Vapor Emissions

HVAC System
Two-Phase Heat Exchangers
Oil Separation

External Flows
Tire Splashing / Hydroplaning
Rain Water Management
Windshield Wiper Performance

Cabin Flows
Window Deicing
Window Defogging

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June 7, 2012

Transmission System
Clutch Performance

Manufacturing Process
Spray Painting
Casting

Multiphase Flow Definition and Regimes

Flow of two or more immiscible fluids
Not for miscible fluids that mix at molecular level
Species transport models used miscible flows

Bubbly flow: Discrete gaseous bubbles in a

continuous liquid
Droplet flow: Discrete fluid droplets in a
continuous gas
Particle-laden flow: Discrete solid particles
in a continuous fluid
Slug flow: Large bubbles in a continuous
liquid
Annular flow: Continuous liquid along walls,
gas in core
Stratified/free-surface flow: Immiscible
fluids separated by a clearly-defined
interface

2011 ANSYS, Inc.

June 7, 2012

slug flow

annular flow

bubbly flow
droplet flow
particle-laden flow

free-surface flow

Multiphase Models in ANSYS CFD

Separated
flow

VOF

2011 ANSYS, Inc.

June 7, 2012

Dispersed flow

Eulerian
model

Lagrangian
models

Agenda
-Introduction
-Volume of Fluid (VOF)
-Mixture Model
-Eularian Model
-DPM
-Melting and Solidification
-Single phase, multi-species

-Summary and Conclusion

2011 ANSYS, Inc.

June 7, 2012

VOF Model : General Overview

VOF model is used to model immiscible
fluids with clearly defined interface.
Two gases cannot be modeled since they
mix at the molecular level.
Liquid/liquid interfaces can be modeled as
long as the two liquids are immiscible.

VOF is not appropriate if interface length

is small compared to a computational grid
Accuracy of VOF decreases with interface
length scale getting closer to the
computational grid scale

Typical problems:

Liquid Sloshing
Tank Filling
Jet breakup
Gear Lubrication
Cooling of piston
Steady or transient tracking of any liquidgas interface

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June 7, 2012

Volume of Fluid Model Inputs

Phases
Arbitrary number of phases are allowed
Any phase can be primary or secondary not important in
VOF model.
Usual practice is to have secondary phase which has less
presence in the domain
Three ways phases may interact in VOF:
Mass exchange
Heterogeneous reactions
Surface tension with optional wall adhesion effect
VOF Scheme
Explicit and Implicit
Controls how phase continuity equation is solved (volume
fraction through which interface is tracked)
Implicit body force (Designed for flows with large body forces)
Gravity acting on phases with large density difference.
Flows with large rotational accelerations (such as
centrifugal separators and/or rotating machinery).
The force is handled in robust numerical manner.

2011 ANSYS, Inc.

June 7, 2012

Volume of Fluid Model Schemes

Explicit Scheme

Default and used only with unsteady simulation

Explicit scheme solves the volume fraction in sub time steps.
Number of sub time steps is dictated by the value of the Courant
number.
The default value 0.25 is robust and should not be changed.
Implicit Scheme
Implicit scheme solves phase continuity equation (volume fraction)
iteratively together with momentum and pressure.
Available with both steady and unsteady simulation

Advantages
Explicit
VOF

Allows use of Geo-Reconstruct scheme

(scheme which renders a sharp interface
without numerical diffusion).
Should be used in simulation of flows
where surface tension is important
because of highly accurate curvature
calculation.

Implicit
VOF

Does not have Courant number limitation

(can be run with large time steps or in
steady state mode)
Can be used with poor mesh quality and
for complex flows (e.g. compressible flows)

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Disadvantages
Poor convergence for skewed
meshes.
Poor convergence if phases
are compressible

Numerical diffusion of
interface does not allow
accurate prediction of
interface curvature, so
accurate prediction of flows
where surface tension
is important is not feasible

Zonal Discretization
Zonal Discretization Option

This option provides diffusive or sharp interface

modeling in different fluid (cell)zones based on the
value of zone dependent slope limiter.

(Zone 1)

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(Zone 2)

June 7, 2012

(Zone 3)

Slope Limiter (Beta)

Scheme

Beta = 0

First Order Upwind

Beta = 1

Second order upwind

Beta = 2

Compressive

0 < Beta < 1 ,

1 < Beta < 2

Blended scheme

Phase localized Compressive Scheme

Phase localized compressive scheme facilitates diffusive and sharp modeling of distinct interfaces.
Phase based discretization is based on effective slope limiter in interfacial cells, where slope limiter is taken
as interfacial property between phases.
Could be effectively used for the cases where HRIC/Compressive schemes produce undesirable behavior.
It is available with VOF model and Eulerian multiphase using immiscible fluid model option.
Phase-0

Phase localized compressive scheme with all slope limiters = 2,

is same as Compressive scheme.

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Phase-1

Phase-2

Variable Time Stepping With Explicit VOF

Variable time stepping

13

Scheme for explicit VOF

Automatically adjusts the time
step based on
Global Courant number
Controls can be provided for
Max and min time steps used
Change factor for time steps
It is useful for explicit problems as
the time step determines the
stability for speed of the solution

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June 7, 2012

Coupled VOF Solver

Solves the momentum, pressure based
continuity and volume fraction equations
together.
The full implicit coupling achieved
through an implicit discretization of
pressure gradient terms in the momentum
equation and implicit discretization of face
mass flux in continuity and volume
fraction equations.
Formulation involves the following
linearization
Linearization of phase mass flux in VOF
equation
Linearization of body force due to
gravity in momentum equation
Coupled VOF solver aims to achieve faster
steady state solution compared to
segregated method of solving equations.
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Examples and Validations

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Alternative Tank Sloshing Approach

Box (20cm x 10cm x 10cm) half filled with water
2,000 hex cells used for both runs
Tank has a sinusoidal motion
Traditional method

g x V cos t

DM method

v V sin t

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Tank Sloshing Validation

A rectangular tank is 20%
filled with liquid
The periodic swaying of the
tank is studied using
FLUENT
Results are compared to
experiment1 for
General flow patterns
Pressures recorded at three
sites (shown)

1Hadzic,

et al., Numerical Simulation of Sloshing,

Proc. SRI-TUHH Mini Workshop on Numerical
Simulation of Two-phase Flows, Ship Research
Institute, Tokyo, Japan, 2001.
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Sloshing Validation

Velocity vectors colored by static

pressure
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Static Pressure comparison at pressure

taps p1,p2,p3
Red-> Experiment Blue-> FLUENT

Sloshing Validation

Reference : Simulation of Fuel Sloshing- Comparative Study, Matej

Vesenjek, Heiner Mullerschon, Alexander Hummel, Zoran Ren,

Free surface level ( t = 0.08 s)

Experimental result represented by the dotted line

Plots for total pressure vs time at a point-1
(comparison with experiment)
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Water Jacket Filling

Fill required at each start cycle
Cavity is drained after each
engine use

Initial fill is idle engine condition

for a duration of 30 seconds
Then, full throttle acceleration
ramp for an additional 30
seconds

Original Design

Cavity volume = 4.4 liters

Courtesy of Volvo Penta

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Modified Design

Evaporative Fill
Gasoline filling case with fuel evaporation
(i.e. phase change)
Liquid Phase: Gasoline (volatile liquid so it
evaporates quickly)
Gas Phase: Air/Fuel Vapor Mixture
VOF model, RNG Turbulence model
Vapor emissions reduced by 2X by modifying
recirculation tube design

Courtesy of Mark IV
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2011 ANSYS, Inc.

Original Design
June 7, 2012

Modified Design

Oil Splashing

Sliding Mesh/ Moving Deforming Mesh

(MDM) is used along with VOF Model
VOF Scheme: Implicit Compressive
scheme
Oil Splashing in Gear Systems

oil splashing off crank shaft and oil pan walls

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Similar Examples
Gear lubrication
Cooling of piston/clutch/break

Agenda
-Introduction
-Volume of Fluid (VOF)
-Mixture Model
-Eularian Model
-DPM
-Melting and Solidification
-Single phase, multi-species

-Summary and Conclusion

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Mixture Model : General Overview

The mixture model is a simplification of the Eulerian multiphase model.
Solves one set of momentum equations for the mass averaged velocity and tracks
volume fraction of each fluid throughout domain.
Derives a constitutive relation for the relative velocities based on local equilibrium over
the length scales.
For turbulent flows, a single set of turbulence transport equations is solved.
For non-isothermal flows, a single energy equation is solved based on mixture
properties.
Typical Applications :
Cavitation Model :
- Fuel Injector Cavitation
- Cavitating Flow in a Centrifugal Pump
- Cavitation in a Gerotor
Homogeneous Boiling Model
-Engine Jacket Boiling

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Mixture Model inputs :

Activate the mixture model.
Choose gas under Phase
Click on Set...

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Cavitation :
-

Generation of vapor bubbles in a liquid due to a local reduction in pressure

below the vapor pressure of the liquid at a given temperature

Cavitation= nucleation which occurs for P < Pvapor

Boiling= nucleation which occurs for T > Tsaturated

From a basic physical point of view, cavitation and boiling are similar processes.

Cavitation can cause

Physical damage
Flow blockage, unwanted unsteadiness

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Fuel Injector Cavitation

steady-state
inlet pressure 1,710 bar
outlet pressure 0 bar
fluid - diesel fuel
vaporization pressure of 55 Pa
Schnerr-Sauer cavitation models
Realizable k-e turbulence model

Vapor Volume Fractions on the Injector Surface

Mass flow rate with cavitation = 0.01287 kg/s

Mass flow rate from non-cavitating flow =0.015 kg/sec
14% of mass reduction due to cavitation
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Cavitating Flow in a Centrifugal Pump

Inlet: Flowrate of 210m3/hr

Exit: Abs pressure (600-350) kPa
Water: Vap pressure of 2620 Pa.
Schnerr-Sauer Cavitation model
Realizable k-e turbulence model
Rotational speed was 2150 rpm.
Coupled pressure based solver

Head rise coefficient

1.0
Hofmann et al [20]
CFD

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.0

0.5

1.0

Cavitation number

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1.5

Unsteady Cavitating Flow in a Vane Pump

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

User-defined function (UDF) controlling the mesh

motion.
Pressure inlet 0 bar
Pressure outlets - gauge pressure: 120 bar
The segregated SIMPLEC solver was used with
PRESTO pressure scheme, 2nd-order convective
schemes and 1st-order time stepping.
The standard k-e model with non-equilibrium wall
functions
Schnerr-Sauer cavitation model
Three cases with rotational speed of 6,000, 7,000
and 8,000 rpm.
The Zwart-Gerber-Belamri model was only used to
run 7,000 rpm case.
The liquid phase was treated as compressible oil,
while the vapor phase was assumed to be
constant.

10. Drop in volumetric efficiency!!

11. Unbalanced transient force on pump!!

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Vapor Volume Fraction Over Pump Surface

Agenda
-Introduction
-Volume of Fluid (VOF)
-Mixture Model
-Eularian Model
-DPM
-Melting and Solidification
-Single phase, multi-species

-Summary and Conclusion

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Eulerian Model Applicability

Eulerian Model applicability

Flow regime

Bubbly flow, droplet flow, slurry flow,

fluidized bed, particle-laden flow

Volume loading

Dilute to dense

Particulate loading
Low to high

Application examples

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Flows with high particulate loading

Slurry flows
Sedimentation
Fluidized beds
Risers
Packed bed reactor components
June 7, 2012

Dispersed Phase Diameter

Particle diameter is used in interaction drag

force calculations

There are three ways to calculate dispersed

phase diameter
Constant if you know the representative size
of the dispersed phase describing your size
distribution
User-defined if you know some correlation
for your particle size as function of local flow
parameters (velocity, temperature, pressure)
Using IAC or the Population Balance Model
(Sauter mean diameter)

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Heat Transfer in Eulerian Model

The Gunn correlation is frequently used for Eulerian multiphase simulations
involving a granular phase.

The Ranz-Marshall correlation is frequently used for Eulerian multiphase

simulations not involving a granular phase.

Q12 h12 T1 T2

h12

6 11 2 Nup
d 22

1/ 3
Nup 2.0 0.6 Re1p/ 2 Prprim

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Mass Transfer in Eulerian Model

Mass transfer defined through phase

34

interaction panel
Mass transfer models available with mixture
and Eulerian models
Cavitation
Boiling
Evaporation-condensation model
User defined mass transfer
Mass transfer due to heterogeneous
reactions
Nucleation and growth in population
balance models

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Boiling Models
Three boiling model options are available:
RPI Boiling Model
Applicable to subcooled nucleate boiling

Non-equilibrium Boiling

Extension of RPI to take care of saturated boiling

Critical Heat Flux

Extension of RPI to take care of boiling crisis

Bubble diameter:
Algebraic formulations and UDF options
Interfacial transfer models include:
A range of sub-models for drag and lift, and
turbulent dispersion
Liquid-vapor interface heat and mass transfer
models

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Contours of vapor volume fraction

in a nuclear fuel assembly

Dense Discrete Phase Model (DDPM)

Coupled DPM and the Eulerian Multiphase Model
Track particle in Lagrangian framework, calculate
cell volume fraction and use it in Eulerian
momentum equation of primary phase
Momentum coupling through drag force

Particle-Particle interaction options:

- Kinetic theory
- Discrete Element Method (DEM) : Soft-sphere collision
model

Typical applications
Cyclone separator
Fluidized bed
Riser
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Agenda
-Introduction
-Volume of Fluid (VOF)
-Mixture Model
-Eularian Model
-DPM
-Melting and Solidification
-Single phase, multi-species

-Summary and Conclusion

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DMP Model : Overview

Many engineering flows involve interaction

Spray Nozzle

between a gas phase and lightly loaded

particles/droplets, such as:
Cyclone separators
Pulverized coal/oil fired boilers
Internal combustion engines
Spray dryers, etc.

This interaction is computed by the Discrete Phase

Boiler

Scrubber

Model (DPM) in ANSYS CFD

ICE
Courtesy of Lurgi

Cyclones
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DPM in ANSYS CFD

Trajectories of particles/droplets are computed in a

Lagrangian frame
Exchange energy, mass, and momentum with Eulerian gas or
liquid phase

Continuous phase
flow field calculation

Discrete phase volume fraction < 10%

Mass loading can be large
No particle-particle interaction

Turbulent dispersion modeled by

Stochastic tracking
Particle cloud model

Ideally suited for situations where particles enter and

leave computational domain

Particle types:

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Inert particle heating and cooling

Droplet evaporation/boiling
Devolatilization
Char combustion

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Particle trajectory
calculation

Update
continuous phase
source terms

Discrete Phase Model (DPM) Setup

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Modeling Breakup
Breakup modeling is the key to spray and atomization simulations
Available Break-up Models in ANSYS FLUENT
Taylor Analogy Breakup (TAB)
Suitable for low-speed jet (We < 100)
Kelvin-Helmholtz Breakup model (Wave)
Suitable for high-speed jet (We > 100)
Kelvin-Helmholtz / Rayleigh-Taylor Breakup model (KH-RT)
Suitable for breakup of high-speed jet
Stochastic Secondary Droplet (SSD)
Random size of child particle

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Spray calibration for Non-evaporating sprays

Spray Penetration Length

Finer Mesh show mesh

independent results

Time-step dependence Study SSD Model

Mesh Dependence Study SSD Model

Kumzerova, E. and Esch, T., Extension and Validation of the CAB Droplet Breakup Model to a Wide Weber Number Range, Proc. of the 22nd Europ.
Conf. on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, Paper ILASS08-A132, Como Lake, 2008.
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Oil Separation Modeling using EWF Model

Pressure outlet = 0 Pa

Objective

Modeling oil separation in a

PCV oil separator
Modeling wall film drainage &
strip-off at sharp edges
Mesh:
Element type = Polyhedra

Gas flow = 5.6 kg/hr

Oil flow = 36 kg/hr

Cell count = ~118K

Models:

Oil mist particles modeled using

DPM model as inert particles
Wall film modeled using New
Eulerian Wall Film (EWF) model
Gas flow = 5.6 kg/hr
Oil flow = 36 kg/hr
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Results (Wall Film Development and

Drainage)

Film thickness of up to 1 mm was found in this case

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Results (Particle Strip-off)

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Eulerian Wall Film Model

Solves for film mass, momentum, heat transfer
Particle/Phase collection, film formation, transportation, Splashing ,Separation,
Stripping.
Eulerian wall film can be coupled with Eulerian-Lagrangian(DPM) and EulerianEulerian multiphase frame work.
Assumption:

EWF model assumes that film always flows parallel to the surface so normal
component of film velocity is zero.
The film is assumed to have:
A parabolic velocity profile &
A bilinear temperature profile
across its depth.

Limitations:

Available only with 3D solver

Compatible with stationary walls only

Not compatible with MRF zone & Periodic BCs
Heat Transfer Modeling compatible only with DPM coupling of EWFM
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Current Status
Physics

Cab be Modeled using EWF model?

Liquid Droplet Collection

Film Running on the Surface (Shear,

Gravity & Viscous Forces)

Particle Splashing

X (will be available in Future releases)

Particle Stripping

Particle Separation

Film Heat Transfer with gas and wall

Viscous & Kinetic Heating

Evaporation & Condensation

with DPM
X With Eulerian
(will be available in Future releases)

X (will be available in Future releases)

Melting & Solidification

Possible through UDF

Sublimation

Possible through UDF

Collection Efficiency Calculation

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14.0 (with a small UDF)

Erosion Modeling Example

10 %

Challenges

Equipment erosion from higher

flow rates and increased solids
concentrations
Substantial economical
maintenance and shut down costs
Quite common in many aspects
of oil and gas processing

Area of high erosion

WC Steel
100 %

WC Steel
Particle trajectories colored by velocity and
associated erosion area for two chokes
Courtesy of DNV

ANSYS CFD Solutions

Courtesy of TotalProcess and Refining Division

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CFD modeling can predict erosion rates for field

conditions over the lifetime of the equipment
Optimization of production, operation,
inspection and maintenance.
Maximum erosion in complex flows and
geometries can be predicted to within a factor of
2-3

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) Modeling :

New multi-component evaporation

Law
o Diffusion controlled
o Convection/Diffusion controlled
DPM Enhancements
o Post processing
Particle by size
Filter particles /streams
o Stability
Node based averaging

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Diffusion controlled

Convection / Diffusion controlled

Display by particle diameter

Rain Water Management

DPM Particle Tracking

Expt

Fluent

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Agenda
-Introduction
-Volume of Fluid (VOF)
-Mixture Model
-Eularian Model
-DPM
-Melting and Solidification
-Single phase, multi-species

-Summary and Conclusion

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Deicing
Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer solution, using Solidification
/ Melting model
Fluid Zones

Passenger compartment
Control panel domain
Ice layer

Solid Zone

Glass windows

Ice initially covers entire outside surface of windshield

Detailed example was presented in [1]

Courtesy Visteon Automotive Systems - Germany

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Deicing Validation Results

Courtesy Skoda Auto

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Improve Deicing Analysis

Combine Solidification / Melting with Multiphase (VOF) model

Water dripping down the windshield under gravity

Expand domain to include air layer on top of the ice

Mesh requirements to capture and track free surface of melted water

Transient solution for Flow, Turbulence, Temperature, Liquid

Fraction is required
CPU intensive

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Agenda
-Introduction
-Volume of Fluid (VOF)
-Mixture Model
-Eularian Model
-DPM
-Melting and Solidification
-Single phase, multi-species

-Summary and Conclusion

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Defogging
To remove the moisture or fog from Windshield / Windows.
Evaporation and Condensation of water from Windshield and Windows
Approach:
Species transport for dry air and water vapor
Flow inside the cabin may be steady state
Energy equation
Turbulence models
Transient solution for temperature, species concentration, and fog layer thickness
Mass transfer rate is evaluated as a function of local vapor concentration,
temperature, and partial pressure

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Defogging
Initial Fog Layer = 10 m
20 seconds of simulation

Contours of water film thickness

Cabin Defogging Model

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Courtesy Mindware Engineering

Summary
-Several ANSYS CFD multiphase capabilities were
discussed
-

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Sloshing, filling, lubrication (VOF)

Cavitation (mixture model)
Boiling (Eularian)
Spray, drying, Eularian wall film, erosion (DPM)
Solidification/melting
.

June 7, 2012

Appendix

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Challenges Involving Multiphase Flows

Engineering operations often involve non-spontaneous processes

Mixing -- Keep a mixture of components that separate naturally, mixed.

Desire to improve contact between the phases to improve and enhance

interfacial transfer processes
Separation -- Need to separate components that are difficult to separate,
such as fine dust from flue gases

Flow dynamics crucial to the efficiency of these processes

Non-linear effect of parameters and geometry on processes

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Eulerian vs Lagrangian Tracking

Multiphase flow

Dispersed flow
Yes

61

No

Eulerian tracking

Lagrangian tracking

Eulerian tracking

DPM, DDPM

Eulerian, Mixture

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VOF, Immiscible fluid

model

Separated or Dispersed ?
Sprays

Bubble

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Tank Filling

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Mixture Model Inputs :

DefinePhasesInteraction

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Cavitation in a Gerotor

Hex mesh in the gerotor core

Moving Deforming Mesh
UDF for Gerotor Motion
Schnerr-Sauer Cavitation Model
t = 2 deg.
Simulation performed for 2 full rotations

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Horizontal Boiling Validation Case

Material : 50% Aqueous Ethylene Glycol

Properties are taken from NIST Fluid
properties database
Inlet velocity : 0.25 m/s
Heated wall temperature is varied

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Wall Heat Flux (KW/m2)

Horizontal Nucleate boiling with 1

bar, 2 bar and 3 bar operating pressure
pressure

Heated wall Temperature (C)

Reference : Bo, T. , CFD Homogeneous Mixing Flow Modeling to Simulate Subcooled Nucleate Boiling Flow, SAE TECHNICAL PAPER
SERIES,
20112004.
ANSYS, Inc.
June 7, 2012

Homogeneous Boiling Model (HBM):

Heat Transfer augmentation at the wall:
-Total heat flux through a heated wall comprises of two
componenets:

q = qsingle phase + qnucleate boiling

-The nucleate boiling component is modeled by Rohsenow
correlation:

Mass Transfer :
Phase change is captured by inbuilt Evaporation-Condensation
model

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Eulerian Model Overview

Used to model particles (or bubbles/droplets) in a continuous phase.

Allows for mixing and separation of phases

Solves momentum, enthalpy and continuity equations for each phase and
tracks volume fractions

Uses a single pressure field for all phases

The interaction between the mean flow of both phases is modeled via
interaction terms
Drag, virtual mass, lift and other forces

Can model heterogeneous chemical reactions using either built-in models or userdefined functions

Can model turbulence equations for each phase

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Interphase Forces: Drag

Drag is caused by relative motion between phases and is the most important
interfacial force
Cd Re
(Correction )
24
1 d 22
12
Stokes time scale
18 1

1 2 1 f
K
(
u

u
)

0
,
K

ik i k
12
12

i 1

Correction is a function

Rep

1 d 2 v1 v 2
1

3.50E-01

Viscous

Oblate spheroid

3.00E-01

Rise velocity, m/sec

of the Reynolds number

for the dispersed phase:

4.00E-01

Cd

2.50E-01

24
(1 0.15 Re 0.687 )
Re

Cd

2d b
3

Spherical cap

g /
Cd

2.00E-01

8
3

1.50E-01
universal, paraffin oil

1.00E-01
5.00E-02

Dispersed phase diameter

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0.00E+00
0

0.005

0.01

Bubble diameter, m

0.015

0.02

Interphase Forces : Virtual Mass Force

Caused by relative acceleration between phases
u

u
Fvm , 12 Cvm 2 1 1 u1 u1 2 u2 u2
t

Significant only when mesh size is less than length scale of acceleration
This situation is very rare one example might be a gas injector in liquid at
distances very close to the injector, but in reality we rarely need to resolve
such scales when using the Eulerian model
Helps in convergence and provides physical secondary phase velocities

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Interphase Forces : Lift force

Caused by the shearing effect of the fluid on particles

FL,12 CL 2 1 u2 u1 u1

Lift forces are more significant for larger particles

Not appropriate for very small particles.

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Lift force usually insignificant compared to drag force except when there is a
large velocity gradient near the wall in continuous phase

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Heterogeneous Reactions
Reactions occurring between phases can be modeled
Options for specifying which phase temperature will be used for calculating
reaction parameters

Inbuilt inputs for specifying

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Stoichiometric coefficients
Arrhenius rate parameters
Option of user defined reaction
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Coupling Between Phases

One-way coupling vs. two-way coupling
In combustion systems, typically two-way coupling of discrete
and continuous phases
Fluid phase influences particulate phase via drag, heat transfer and
turbulence transfer
Particulate phase influences fluid phase via source terms for mass,
momentum, and energy equations
Examples include:
Inert particle heating and cooling
Droplet evaporation/boiling
Devolatilization
Char combustion

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Theory : KH-RT Model

Reitz and Bracco have outlined the existence of a

length of intact liquid near the injection nozzle.

This liquid region is approximated by packed
'blobs' with initial diameter equal to the size of
the effective nozzle diameter.
Primary and secondary droplet breakup is
predicted with the KH wave instability model
(Wave model ) within this liquid core.
Beyond the liquid core, breakup is predicted
with both the KH and RT models, whichever
causes droplets to breakup first.
The region where the liquid core (and
therefore the KH model) dominates is
described by a breakup length Lb from the
injection nozzle.
The KH-RT model depends on some adjustable
parameters that may vary from case to case.

B0

B1

CL

CRT

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Controls the size of child droplets in the KH model.

Influences the rate of change of the parent droplet's
radius in the KH model.
Increasing it increases the overall droplet size.
Controls the rate of breakup in the KH model.
Decreasing it accelerates the KH droplet breakup.
Strongly influences the momentum exchange between
dispersed and gas phases in the near nozzle region.
Strongly affects spray penetration in low Weber
number cases.
Correlated with B1.
Can be calculated with different approaches in high
Weber number regimes.
Controls the rate of breakup in the RT model, beyond
the breakup length.
Decreasing it accelerates the RT droplet breakup.
Controls the size of child droplets in the RT model,
beyond the breakup length.
Controls which droplets will breakup. Increasing it
increases the diameter of the droplets allowed to
breakup in the RT model.
Strongly affects spray penetration in low Weber
number cases.

Theory: SSD Model

Drops larger than a critical radius are

subject to breakup, Critical radius is

given by
Drops with a radius larger than the
critical radius have the breakup time
incremented. When the breakup time on
the parcel is larger than the critical
breakup time (locally calculated from
conditions in the cell and on the parcel)
breakup can occur
When breakup occurs parcels are created
with a target number in parcel (NP) set
by the user and samples are taken from
the diameter distribution at that target
NP until the mass of the parent parcel is
used up. The average NP for that event
then is scaled to conserve mass.
This methodology results in improved statistics and gives the
user control over error during a simulation. A smaller NP
will mean more parcels but lower statistical error.

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DPM Setup

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EWF setup
EWF model
input
parameters

Turning ON EWF on the

desired walls
In this case DPM tracked in
unsteady state with unsteady flow.
This is however not required as EWF
model is inherently transient and
can be run with steady flow and
steady DPM
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Results (Run time)

Time-step size = 0.05 s
Iterations per time-step size = 30
DPM iteration per flow iteration = 1

DPM time-step size = 0.05 s

~4 hours of clock time to run 10s of flow
Machine specification:
8 CPUs of a 24 CPU 48 GB RAM machine with 2.8 GHz
clock-speed

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Spray Dryer Example

Goal:
Characterize the effect of liquid feed location
and/or angle on particle trajectories to reduce the
potential of fouling
Various combinations tested
Vane angle
Spray nozzle locations
Nozzle angle settings

10 m/s injection

Moisture contours
for 2.5 m/s injection
2.5 m/s injection

Particle tracks colored by particle mass

Temperature
contours
Air flow patterns
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Moisture
content

Evaporating sprays : KH-RT Model

Data Extraction from Simulations

For evaluating the spray penetration,
90% spray mass was used
*H. Koss, D. Bruuggemann, A. Wiartalla, H. Backer, and A. Breuer, Results from Fuel/Air Ratio Measurements in an N-Heptane
Injection Spray, IDEA periodic report, RWTH Aachen, 1992.
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Deicing Validation Results

Water is dripping down the windshield under gravity as time passes.

Total simulated

Courtesy Visteon Automotive Systems - Germany

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time 20 minutes
Time step 2.5
seconds
Compare well
with test data, up
to ~15 minutes