Science Notes 2015

Topic 1 Chemistry
Atoms They are the smallest particles that make up matter. They cannot be
broken down anymore. They are made up of 3 smaller particles called protons
(+), electrons (-) and neutrons (neutral). The protons and neutrons are located in
the nucleus and the electrons are spinning around the nucleus.
Atomic mass and Atomic Number The atomic number shows that how many
protons are in the atom. Usually the electrons are the same unless they are in
ionic form. The mass number show that how many protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. To find the how many neutrons in the atom you must minus the mass
number from the atomic number. E.g. Fluorines mass number is 19 and the
atomic number is 9. So therefore there are 10 neutrons.
Elements It is only made up of one type of atom (i.e. fluorine is only made up
of fluorine atoms). There are 112 different types of elements.
Molecules and lattices - Molecules is a group atoms that bond together. A
lattice is an atom that keeps bonding until something stops them. Molecules and
lattices have the same chemical formula and shows us what type of atoms they
contain and the proportion of atom in them.
Compounds They are formed when 2 or more elements chemically combine.
Mixture A mixture is a technique such as filtration or evaporation since it is
made up if different elements or compounds simply combined together.
History of the periodic table Mendeleev arranged the known elements into
order of atomic mass, putting the known families into columns. He also left gaps
in the table, predicting that these elements were undiscovered. He also predicted
that what chemical properties these unknown elements will have. The current
periodic table was designed by Henry Mosely. He refined the previous periodic
table to come up with more accurate and fewer error one.
Features of the periodic table 80% of the elements are metal. Another
small part of periodic table are non-metals. Another set of elements which act
like metals and non-metals are the semi-metals. The most reactive metals are in
the bottom left hand corner of the table and the most reactive non-metals are in
the upper right.
Periodic Table Trends
Characteristic
Mass number and
atomic number
Atomic Radius
Melting Points

Pattern down a group

Increases

Pattern across a period

Inc3reases

Increases

Decreases

Decreases for groups 1 to 5

and increases for groups
15 to 18

Generally increases then

decreases

Reactivity

Metals become more

reactive and non-metals
become less reactive

It is high then decreases

then increases. Group 18
elements are not
reactive as they are

Metallic Character

Increases

inert.
Decreases

Electron Shells Electrons are known to spin around the nucleus. They dont
spin around anywhere instead they spin in shells or energy levels. In the first
only 2 electrons can fit. In the second shell only 8 can fit. In the third shell 18
electrons can fit but it is happy if it holds eight only.
Electronic Configuration In shells the arrangement of electrons is called
electronic configuration. For example: Fluorine has 9 electrons. Its electronic
configuration would be 2, 7.
Periods, groups and electrons The number of shells in an atom is the same
as the period number. The number of electrons in the outer shell is the same
number as the group number (excluding transition metals).
Atoms that react and dont The Noble gases are the only group of elements
which do not react as their outer shells are full which means that atom is stable.
Atoms react so they can become stable and in order to do that you must gain or
lose electrons.
Ions If an electron is lost or gained the atom becomes electrically charged and
we call that an ion. If an atom loses an electron it becomes a negatively
charged atom and if an atom gains an electron it becomes positively charged
ion.
Physical Property Physical property is used to observe and describe matter.
E.g. Colour
Chemical Property A chemical property is any of a materials properties that
becomes evident during a chemical reaction. E.g. Reactivity with water
Families of the periodic table
Family
Metal

Non-Metal

Common Family
properties
- Ductile, malleable and
shiny
- All of the elements in
this family are solid, and
relatively high in density
and also allow light to
pass through
- Conducts better heat
and electricity and heat
than non - metals
- More reactive as you
go down the group
-Not able to conduct
electricity and heat as
well
- Very brittle and dull
- Has no metallic lustre

Elements in the family

Group 1-12, Group 13
(except boron), Tin, Lead
& Bismuth

Hydrogen, Carbon,
Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Sulphur, Chlorine,
Selenium, Group 7* and
Group 8*.

Metalloid

Alkali Metals

Alkaline Earth Metals

Halogen

Noble gases

Transition Metals

Lanthanides (Rare and

Earth)

and doesnt reflect light

- Low melting points and
Low density
- Less reactive as you go
down the group
-Are semi-conductors
(conducts electricity in
certain situations)
-Ductile, malleable
- Solid at room
temperature
- Better conductors of
electricity and heat than
non-metals
-One electron in the
valence shell
- They are soft and
highly reactive metals
with distinctive metal
colours.
- Are too reactive to be
naturally in pure form
-Very reactive
- 2 electrons in the
valence shell
- Soft metals
- Found naturally
-The elements in the
group are all one
electron short in their
valence shell
- Always contain salt
- Low melting and boiling
points
-They are all unreactive
as they are inert
- Colourless, odourless,
low boiling/melting
points
-Very ductile and
malleable
- Conduct electricity and
heat
- Varying number of
electrons in the valence
shell
-Reacts easily with nonmetals
- Soft metals
- Very reactive

Boron, silicon,
Germanium, Arsenic,
Antinomy, Tellurium,
Polonium

All group one elements

All of group two

elements

All of Group seven*

elements

All of group eight*

elements

Through groups 3-12

(except lanthanides and
actinides)

Group 3-12 (second last

one in each column)

Actinides

- Burn easily in air

- High melting points
-All radioactive
- Combines directly with
non-metals
- Highly electropositive
- Dense Metals

Group 3-12 (last one in

each column)

Ionic Compounds - Ionic compounds form when negative and positive ions
attract each other and are linked together. These links are called ionic bonds. To
name ionic compounds you must: Write the positive first and the negative
second, a simple positive ion takes its name from its parent element, a simple
negative ion is named by taking the first part of the elements name and add the
suffix ide.
Metal Ions -

Metals in group 1 (alkali metals) always have a charge of +1

The alkaline metals in group 2 have a charge of +2
Metals in group 3 have an charge of +3
Transition metals have an charge of +2 usually

Non Metals Ions

-

Group 7 (Halogens) elements have a charge of -1

Group 6 have a charge of -2
Group 5 have a charge of -3

Polyatomic and Radical ions Atoms which are made up of 2 or more type of
atoms are called polyatomic and radical ions. Some common polyatomic/radical
ions include:
Ion Name

Formula

When more than one polyatomic ions is required in a formula brackets are used.
For example aluminium sulfate, Al2 (SO4)3.
Some covalent compounds include: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Carbon monoxide
(CO), Dinitrogen Pentoxide (N2O5), Carbon Tetrachloride (CCL4), NH3 (Ammonia)
and CH4 (Methane).

Balancing Equations - A chemical equation is a written symbolic representation

of a chemical reaction. The reactant chemical(s) are given on the left-hand side
and the product chemical(s) on the right-hand side. The law of conservation of
mass states that no atoms can be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction, so
the number of atoms that are present in the reactants has to balance the
number of atoms that are present in the products. When writing an equation
always add subscripts. There are 4 subscripts. They are g (gases), s (solids), l
(liquids) and aq (solution in water/Dilute).
How to write a balanced equation:
-

Write the word equation for the reaction

Directly underneath the word equation, write an unbalanced formula
equation
Add the subscripts
Balance the equation

Types of reactions:
-

Combination 2 or more compounds to form one compound. Therefore the

usual form is: A+B = AB
Decomposition These reactions are ones where a compound is broken
down into simpler substances by subjecting it to heat or electrical
currents. For example, Copper Carbonate decomposes when it is heated.
The formula would be written like this :

Copper Carbonate Copper Oxide + Carbon Dioxide

Water can be decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity in the
process of electrolysis (a chemical process which is not easily reverted back)
Precipitation When 2 solutions are added and a solid is formed, the solid is
called a precipitate. For example, when potassium iodide is added to lead nitrate,
a yellow precipitate of lead is formed. The formula is written like this:
Potassium Iodide + Lead Nitrate Lead Iodide + Potassium Nitrate
Acid Reaction Acids will react with metals towards the top of the activity
series to produce hydrogen gas. Acid will react with many carbonates to produce
carbon dioxide gas. The general word equations:
Acid + Active Metal A salt + Hydrogen Gas
Acid + Carbonate A salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water
E.g. Hydrochloric Acid + Magnesium Magnesium Chloride + hydrogen
Sulfuric Acid + Copper Carbonate Copper Sulfate + Carbon Dioxide + Water
Neutralisation: Acids will react with bases in a neutralisation reaction to
produce a salt, water and heat. The general word equation is:
Acid + Base A salt + Water
E.g. Hydrochloric Acid + Sodium Hydroxide

Sodium Chloride + Water

Combustion: These reactions involve the release of energy in the form of heat
when a substance is burnt in air. Combustion reactions include those which occur
inside a car engine, and the burning of wood or coal. Combustion reactions like
this usually occur from carbon dioxide and water as products. The general form
are:
Carbon Compound + Oxygen
Metal + Oxygen
Non Metal + Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide + Water

Metal Oxide
Non Metal Oxide

Acids Acids contain the element hydrogen in combination with other non
metals. E.g. Hydrochloric acid has the formula HCL. It contains hydrogen with the
combination of chlorine. Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 contains hydrogen in the
combination of a sulfate ion, which is made up of one sulfur and 4 oxygen atoms.
When an acid is placed in water, the hydrogen breaks away from the other
elements.
Strong or weak? With strong acids, the hydrogen breaks away easily. Weak
acids tend not the break away the acids and hold it on and very little hydrogen is
taken away. Strong acids are corrosive and will destroy living tissue and eat
through some surfaces.
Industrial Reactions - For a reaction to be carried out profitably in industry it
must occur fairly quickly, and it must give a good yield. The yield is the amount
of product obtained, and can be expressed as the percentage of the expected
product that is obtained.

Methods commonly used to improve yield include :

carrying out the reaction at a reasonably high temperature. The higher the
temperature, the greater the energy of the reactants, making the reaction more
likely to occur.
using a catalyst. Catalyst are substances that are not consumed in a reaction,
but help the reaction to proceed more quickly.
removing the products as they are formed.
Constantly adding reactants to replace those used up.
Sulfuric Acid
As an example of an industrial process, we will look at the production of sulfuric
acid, a chemical
Very important to our everyday lives. Sulfuric acid production dates back to the
early alchemists. At one stage, concentrated sulfuric acid was called oil of vitriol
because it was prepared by distilling hydrated ferrous sulfate, FeSO4.7H2O,
otherwise known as iron vitriol.
Sulfuric acid is the cheapest bulk acid, and is sometimes referred to as the king
of chemicals because it is produced in such huge quantities worldwide. A
countrys sulfuric acid production is considered an excellent indicator of its
industrial well-being.

Uses of sulfuric acid

In the nineteenth century, the German chemist Baron Justus von Liebig
discovered that when sulfuric
Acid was added to soil, it increased the amount of phosphorus in the soil for
plants to use. The current
Largest single use of sulfuric acid is in making fertilisers, both superphosphate
and ammonium
Sulfate. It is also used to make many organic compounds, including ether, nitroglycerine and dyes.
It is important in refining petroleum, making paints and pigments, processing
metals and
Making rayon (Fabric). It is found in car batteries and used in the superconductor
industry for
Cleaning.
Some properties of sulfuric acid
Strong acid
Corrosive
Colourless liquid
Density 1.85 g/cm3
Melting point 10.4C
Corrosion The process of corroding or being corroded.
Corrosion Reaction Corrosion reaction are these in which a metal is eaten
away by substances in the air or water. If you see galvanised iron you will notice
that it doesnt have a shiny surface. Galvanised iron has been coated with a layer
of zinc metal. The zinc prevents iron underneath from reacting with oxygen and
water in the air and rusting.
Factors of Corrosion
Promotes Oxygen, water and temperature
Prevents galvanising, not letting the oxygen through, boil water with oil on top,
paint and calcium chloride.
If you remove one promoting factor, corrosion will occur.
What are the 7 common characteristics of all living organisms?
The seven common characteristics of all living organisms are movement,
respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition.
Movement All living things move in some way. Plants have parts moving and
tracking the movement of the Sun.
Respiration Essential to produce energy
Growth All living things grow through the production of energy
Reproduction ability to pass on genetic information onto their offspring
Excretion Getting rid of waste
Nutrition intake and use of nutrients.

Why do living things need energy? Identify the chemical reactions that occur
in plants and animals which involve energy transformations.
All living things need energy as it is essential to perform many activities. Cells
need energy to carry out an activity, such as walking, talking, running etc. The
chemical reactions occurring in plants and animals, involving energy
transformations is respiration.
Why is photosynthesis an important chemical reaction for organisms
that live on the surface of the Earth?
Photosynthesis produces glucose, which is necessary for energy to be produced
through respiration. When animals eat plants and other animals, glucose is being
transferred which is essential for respiration. Also, photosynthesis releases
oxygen into the atmosphere, which is also essential for animals and plants to
produce energy through respiration.
Motion Topic 2
Energy What Causes change? 2 types of energy are potential (stored) and
kinetic (moving)
Speed: Refers to how fast you are going. Calculated by dividing distance by
time. Units of speed are m/sec and km/hr. Instantaneous speed is the speed at a
particular movement. The average speed is calculating by dividing with the time
taken to travel distance.
Distance: How far you have travelled from Point A to Point B. Can be a straight
or curvy line. Displacement is how far away you are from starting point.
Time: How long it takes you to travel from Point A to Point B.
Velocity: A measure of the rate of change in a position. Velocity is a direction.