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Chapter 1: Measurement

Physical quantities consist of a numerical quantity and a unit.


Base quantities (fundamental, not defined in terms of other physical quantities)
Derived quantities (obtained from base quantities/units according to a defining equation)

Homogenous equation = both sides of the equation have the same units
Prefix

Symbol

Factor

Nano

10-9

Micro

10-6

Milli

10-3

Centi

10-2

Deci

10-1

Kilo

103

mega

106

Reading is a single determination of the value of a quantity.


Measurement is the result of analysis of a series of readings.
Random errors produce results that scatters about a mean value, can be +ve/-ve, can be reduced by
taking more readings and averaging. (eg parallax error, fluctuation in the count-rate of a radioactive
decay)
The random errors tend to cancel each other out and the residual error is divided by the number of
readings so it gets shared out among many readings.
Systematic errors produce results that differ from the true value by a fixed +ve/-ve amount, can
only be eliminated if source of error is known and accounted for by correct laboratory practice. (zero
error, personal error of the observer, background radiation, mistimed action)
Precision is the degree of agreement of repeated measurements of the same quantity.
Accuracy is the degree of closeness these readings are to the actual true value.
Sensitivity is defined as the change in the response to the change of the quantity measured.
Reliability is a measure of confidence that can be placed in a set of measurements.
Ways to gauge reliability:
Evaluate whether data collected follows a particular trend as predicted by theory. Look at the
scatter of points around the line of best fit
Perform statistical analysis to obtain quantitative assessment of reliability
Evaluate the closeness of the replicates of the experiment
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Scalar quantity has magnitude only.


Eg: distance, mass, speed, charge, temperature, time, volume, current, energy, power
Scalar cannot be represented by arrows & cannot add up using vector addition.
Vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
Eg: displacement, force, velocity, torque, momentum, acceleration

Chapter 2: Kinematics
Displacement is the distanced moved in a specific direction from a reference point.
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
No S
No V
No T
No A
Chapter 3: Dynamics
Newtons First Law states that a body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line unless a resultant external force acts on it.
Newtons Second Law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the
resultant force acting on it and occurs in the direction of the force.
Object have more momentum = harder to stop object (more force needed) = greater
effect/impact it will experience when its brought to rest
If change of momentum happens over a short period of time, the greater the effect/force
Newtons Third Law states that if a body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal
and opposite force on body A.
Two forces must be of the same type
Two forces act on different bodies, hence they DO NOT cancel each other out
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Two forces are of equal magnitude and opposite in direction


Inertia of a body is the reluctance to start moving, or to change its motion once it has started.
(bigger mass = more inertia)
When the state of an object remains unchanged even though two or more forces are acting upon on
it, the object is said to be in equilibrium.
Momentum of a single particle is defined as the product of its mass, m, and its velocity, v.

Newton (N) is defined as the force which produces an acceleration of 1ms-2 when it acts on a mass of
1kg.
Effective (or apparent) weight of a person/object is the total force that the object exerts on a spring
scale.
Net Initial momentum of bodies = Net Final momentum of bodies
Principle conservation of linear momentum states that when bodies in a system interact, the total
momentum remains constant, provided no net external force acts on the system
Total momentum
Total Kinetic Energy
Elastic Collision
Inelastic Collision
Completely Inelastic Collision
(particles stick together)
Relative speed of approach = relative speed of separation
Chapter 4: Forces
Weight of the body is the measure of the gravitational force acting on that body
Mass is the intrinsic property of matter
Normal contact force exists whenever two bodies are in contact with each other and is by definition
perpendicular (normal) to the surfaces of the bodies in contact
Bar in tension/compression:

Hookes Law states that the extension of a spring is proportional to the applied load if the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded.
Friction is the force that exists between any two surfaces in contact and is by definition parallel to
the surfaces
Fluid is any substance that can flow
Density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume
Pressure is defined as the magnitude of the normal force per unit surface area
Upthrust is the vertical upward force exerted on a body by a fluid when it is fully or partially
submerged in the fluid.
Archimedes Principle states that the buoyant force (upthrust) on a submerged object is equal to the
weight of the fluid that is displaced by the object
Principle of Floatation states that if a body floats, the upthrust acting on it is equal and opposite in
direction to its weight
Viscous force is the combined force exerted by all molecules on the body, acts on any body moving
through fluid. Depends on: shape, velocity, viscosity of fluid
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Moment (or torque) of a force about a point is mathematically equal to the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force
Torque (moment) of a couple = one force X perpendicular distance between forces
Conditions for equilibrium:
1. resultant force on the object is zero
2. resultant torque on the object about any axis is zero
Centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the body appears to act
Chapter 5: Work, Energy, Power
Work done by a force is the product of the force and the displacement in the direction of the force

Kinetic energy of the object is the kinetic energy associated with the objects motion. (Derivation on
pg 5)
Potential energy is the energy possessed by an object which gives it the stored ability to do work as
a result of its position or shape (Derivation on pg 7)
Gravitational potential energy is the energy of an object due to its mass in a gravitational field
Electric potential energy is the energy of an object due to its charge in an electric field
Elastic potential energy is the energy of an elastic object that is deformed under tension or
compression
Principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can
be transformed or transferred, total amount of energy in any isolated system must remain constant
Power is the rate of doing work or energy converted
Chapter 7: Gravitation
Newtons law of gravitation states that the force of attraction between two point masses is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance
apart
Gravitational field due to a body is a region in space in which another body placed in the region
experiences a force of attraction by the first body
Gravitational field strength is the gravitational force experienced per unit mass at that point (aka
acceleration of free fall at that point)

Other factors affecting g:


Earths gravitational field strength also varies as the result of its lack of spherical symmetry
Local variations in earths field caused by mountains and by mineral/oil deposits: earths
mass not distributed with perfect spherical symmetry
Harmonic Law (third law) states that the square of the orbital period of a planet is directly
proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun
Geostationary satellite is one whereby the orbit is concentric (in the same plane) with the Equator
and orbital period is exactly the same as the rotational period of the Earth
Gravitational potential energy of a mass is defined as the work done by an external agent in
bringing the mass from infinity to its present location
Gravitational potential, , at a point is defined as the work done per unit mass by an external agent
in bringing a small mass from infinity to that point (scalar)

Chapter 8: Oscillations

Simple harmonic motion is defined as the motion of a body whose acceleration is directly
proportional to the displacement from a fixed point and is always directed towards the fixed point
Damping is a process whereby energy is taken from the oscillating system
Chapter 9: Thermal Physics
Thermal equilibrium is when there is no net flow of heat between object and its surrounding,
object gains heat from its surrounding objects at the same rate as it loses heat to them
Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third object C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other if placed in thermal
contact
Thermometer
Thermometric Property
Liquid-in-glass
Volume of fixed mass of liquid
Platinum resistance
Resistance of a metal
Constant volume gas
Pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume
Thermocouple
Electromotive force produced between junctions of dissimilar metals that
are at different temperatures
Ice-point is the temperature of pure ice in equilibrium with water at standard atmospheric pressure
of 101.3 kPa and is assigned the value of 0 C
Steam-point is the temperature at which steam and pure boiling water are in equilibrium at standard
atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa and is assigned the value of 100 C
Absolute zero of temperature is the theoretical temperature at which molecules of a substance have
the lowest energy, hence, the substance has the minimum internal energy (it is also the lower fixed
point of the thermodynamic/Kelvin temperature scale)
Kelvin is defined as 1/273.16 of the temperature difference between absolute zero and the triple
point of water
Characteristics of Solid, Liquids and Gases (pg 4-5)
At melting point, molecules vibrate so violently that the attractive forces cannot hold them together,
lattice structure collapse, solid undergoes phase change. Heat supplied to solid called latent heat of
fusion will not cause further increase in temperature because the energy is used to overcome the
attractive forces between atoms and cause the lattice structure to break
Boiling is a change in phase from liquid to gas that takes place at a fixed temperature. Temperature
remains constant during boiling as heat/energy supplied, latent heat of vaporisation, is used to
completely overcome the attractive forces between molecules and break bonds completely and let
gas expand against atmospheric pressure
Evaporation is a change in phase from liquid to gas that takes place at the surface of a liquid and at
any temperature
Rate of evaporation increased by:
increasing area of the liquid surface
increasing temperature of the liquid
causing a draught to remove the vapour molecules before they have a chance of returning to
the liquid
reducing air pressure above the liquid (this decreases the probability of a vapour molecule
rebounding off an air molecule)
Heat Capacity, C, of a body is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the body by
1K. (SI unit: J/ K)

Specific Heat Capacity, c, of a material is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
kg of the material by 1K. (SI unit: J kg-1K-1)
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Specific latent heat of fusion/vaporisation of a material is the quantity of heat required to change
the phase of 1 kg of the material from solid to liquid/liquid to gas without change of temperature (SI
unit: J kg-1)
Molecular theory of matter: matter is made up of many molecules that are in constant motion
(translation, rotation, vibration) and hence have kinetic energy, they may also have attractive and
repulsive forces between molecules and also have potential energy due to the interaction between
them
Internal energy, U, of a system is determined by the state (temperature, pressure, volume) of the
system. It can be expressed as the sum of all the microscopic kinetic (translational, rotational,
vibrational) and potential energies of the molecules within the system
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules inside an object
Further distance = more potential energy

First law of thermodynamics states that the internal energy of a system depends only on its state:
the increase in the internal energy of a system is the sum of the work done on the system and the heat
supplied to the system
Isothermal process: change in pressure + volume, no change in temperature, change in internal
energy is 0
Adiabatic process: change in pressure + volume + temperature, no heat supplied
Isobaric process: change in volume at constant pressure
Isovolumetic/Isochoric process: change in pressure, no change in volume

Avogadros Constant is defined as the number of carbon-12 atoms in 12 grams (0.012kg) of


carbon-12, which is approximately 6.023 x 1023
Chapter 10: Waves
Wave is a disturbance that travels through a medium from one location to another location. Energy is
transferred from one point to another. Particles of medium do not travel between the two points
Displacement is the distance of the oscillating particle in a wave from its equilibrium position at any
instant
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the oscillating particle in a wave from the equilibrium
position
Period, T, is the time taken to complete one oscillation of the wave
Frequency, f, is the number of oscillations made by the wave per unit time
Wavelength is the distance between corresponding points in successive waveforms, such as two
successive crests or two successive troughs
Phase difference is the difference in stages of oscillation cycles between 2 waves at a point or two
points on a wave
Intensity, I, of a wave is defined as the power (energy per unit time) transported across unit area
perpendicular to the direction of energy flow
Transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of the travel of the wave
Longitudinal waves is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave
Sound waves:

Longitudinal waves, particles oscillate about their equilibrium position, direction parallel to the
direction of motion of wave. Vibrations produce a series of high and low pressure regions known as
compressions and rarefactions
Electromagnetic waves:
Transverse waves generated by oscillating electric charges, can be polarized, made up of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each other and the direction of wave
propagation, do not require a medium to propagate, can move through vacuum
Unpolarized wave is one which the vibration of the particles can take place in any direction
Polarized wave is one which the particles vibrate in the same plane at all times
Chapter 10: Circular Motion
Radius, r, is the distance from any point on the circumference to the centre of the circle
Period, T, is the time taken for a object to complete one full circle
Frequency, f, is the number of circular revolutions completed by an object in one second
Distance, s, is the length of the circular arc or path the object travels in a given time
Angular displacement, , is the angle through which the object moves when it moves a distance of
s on the circular path. It is defined as the ratio of the arc length to the radius
Speed, v, is the distance travelled by the object per unit time
Angular velocity, , is the angular displacement of the object per unit time

Chapter 11: Superposition


Principle of superposition states that when two waves of the same kind meet at a point in space,
their combined effect is given by the vector sum of the displacement due to each of the waves at the
point
Progressive waves
Stationary waves
Disturbance Propagates across space
Does not propagate across space
Energy
Transports
Does not transport
Amplitude Every point oscillates with same
Amplitude varies from 0 at nodes to 2A at
amplitude
antinodes
Phase
Neighbouring points oscillates out Within two successive nodes, every point
of phase with one another
oscillates in phase
Frequency
Particles vibrate with SHM with
Except at nodes where particles are at rest, all
the frequency of the wave
particles vibrate with SHM with same frequency

Antinodes at the open ends of the pipes are actually slightly outside the pipe resulting in a small end
correction to be included during calculations
Huygens Principle states that each point on a wave front may be regarded as a new source of
secondary wavelets
2 waves that arrive in phase = constructive interference
2 waves that arrive out of phase = destructive interference
Youngs Double Slit Experiment:

Conditions for observing interference:


1. Sources must be coherent (same frequency, constant phase difference)
2. Sources must produce waves of more or less the same amplitude (similar intensity)
3. Sources must be very near each other
4. Sources must be either unpolarized/polarized in the same plane
Diffraction grating:

Chapter 12: Electric fields


Coulombs law states that the force between two charges is proportional to each of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance, r, between them
Electric field strength, E, at a point is defined as the force per unit charge acting on a small positive
test charge placed at that point
Electric field strength of a point is numerically equal to potential gradient at that point
Electric potential of a point in an electric field is the work done by external force in moving a unit
positive charge from infinity to the point (without a change in kinetic energy)
Electronvolt is the energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a pd of one volt
Chapter 13: Current of electricity
Electric current exists when there is a net flow of charge in a conductor
Current, I, is the rate of flow of charge through any given cross section of the conductor
One coulomb is the charge flowing through a cross section of a conductor when a current of one
ampere flows for one second
Electromotive force, E, is of a source is defined as the electrical energy supplied (converted from
other forms of energy) per unit charge in driving the charge round a complete circuit
Potential difference, V, between two points in a circuit is the electrical energy dissipated (converted
to other forms of energy) per unit charge when the charge flows from one point to the other
One volt is the potential difference across a conductor when one coulomb of charge
passing through the conductor dissipates one joule of electrical energy
Resistance, R, of a conductor is the ratio of the potential difference, V, across its ends to the current,
I, through it
One ohm is the resistance of a resistor if the potential difference of one volt across the resistor drives
a current of one ampere through it
Ohms law states that the current in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across it if the temperature and other physical properties are kept constant

Chapter 14: DC Circuits

Chapter 15: Electromagnetism


Flux density B of a magnetic field is the force per unit length that acts on a wire carrying unit
current, lying at right angles to the magnetic field

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If a conductor carrying a current of 1 ampere is placed at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of
flux density of 1 tesla then the force per unit length on the conductor is 1 Newton per metre
Chapter 16: Electromagnetic Induction
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction states that whenever there is a change in magnetic
flux linkage of a circuit or coil, an emf is induced in the circuit and the magnitude is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage of the circuit or coil
Magnetic flux of an area is defined as the product of the area and the magnetic flux density that
passes through the area perpendicularly
Magnetic flux linkage of the coil is the magnetic flux passing through each turn multiplied by the
number of turn of the coil
One weber (Wb) is defined as the flux that, linking a circuit of one turn, produces an electromotive
force of one volt when the flux is reduced to zero at a uniform rate in one second
Lenzs Law states that the induced current always flows in a direction so as to oppose the change
that produced it

Chapter 17: Alternating currents

Irms is defined as the value of the steady current which would dissipate heat at the same rate in a
given resistance as the alternating current
Explain transformer:
AC flows through primary coil
Sets up varying magnetic field in the core which links the primary coil with the secondary
coil
According to Faradays Law, changing magnetic field induces an alternating emf across each
turn of the wire in both primary and secondary coil
Causes of power loss
Design feature to reduce power loss
Heating effect of the current in copper wires of the
Thick copper wire of low resistance is used
coils
particularly for the coil carrying the high
current at low voltage
Heating effect due to eddy currents induced in the
The iron core is laminated, cutting across the
iron core
path of any induced eddy currents
Energy is used in the process of magnetising the
The iron core is made of very soft iron, which
iron and reversing this magnetisation every time the can be easily magnetised and demagnetised by
current reverses. This heats up iron core
the magnetic field of the primary coil
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Some of the magnetic field lines produced by the


primary coil do not link well with the secondary
coil, reducing the emf induced in the secondary coil

The presence of the iron core maximises the


flux linkage between the primary and
secondary coil

The E-I shaped iron core, the secondary coil


is would on top of the primary coil and the
iron core forms a closed loop
Transmission of electricity use AC as it can be stepped up/down easily, power is transmitted in high
V to minimize power loss
Rectification is the process of changing an alternating current to a direct current
Chapter 18: Quantum Physics
Photoelectric emission is the emission of electrons from the surface of a metal surface when it is
exposed to electromagnetic radiation of high frequency

Threshold frequency for a metal is the minimum frequency of electromagnetic radiation which can
cause photoemission
Quantum theory states that:
Electromagnetic energy is particulate in nature
Photons travel in one direction only in a straight line
Amount of energy in each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of radiation

Work function,

, is the minimum amount of energy needed to liberate an electron from its surface

Ground state electrons occupy the lowest energy level


Excitation - electron jump to higher level on gaining its quantum of energy
Ionisation quantum of energy sufficiently high, electron escapes from atom surface
Explain why max KE of photoelectron is independent of intensity of the incident light but dependent
on frequency
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The max KE of photoelectrons is independent of intensity of the incident light as the intensity
determines the number of photons incident on target metal but not the energy of each photon which
depends on frequency. An electron can only absorb 1 photon and the photon energy is used to
liberate the electron from the surface with the remaining energy carried off as KE of photoelectron.
Hence the intensity of radiation affect the number of photoelectrons per unit time but not the max
KE of photoelectrons which depend on frequency.
Describing x-ray intensity versus wavelength graph
2 distinct components to spectrum. One is continuous broad spectrum. High speed electrons are
suddenly slowed down by target metal, large amount of energy is lost by the electron, thus giving out
photons of high energy, X rays. In emitting the photons, electrons lose varying amount of energy
thus giving rise to different wavelengths
Superimposed on the continuous broad spectrum is a series of sharp, intense lines. The sharp peaks
are produced when the incident electron is energetic enough to knock an electron out of the target
atom. Electron from n = 1 are knocked off. Electron from n = 2 or n = 3 level drop to fill up the
vacancy. The transition causes characteristic X rays to be emitted
Chapter 19: Quantum Physics II
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle states that if a measurement of the position of a particle is
made with uncertainty and a simultaneous measurement of its linear momentum is made with
precision then the product of the two uncertainties can never be smaller than h/4

Probability of finding the particle in the arbitrary interval

Explain how, by considering the wave function of the electron, rather than by considering it as a
particle, there is a possibility of the electron escaping from the potential well by a process called
tunnelling
Classically, an electron would never exist outside the potential barrier imposed by the atom because
it does not have sufficient energy. If electron is treated as a wave applying Schrodinger equation: its
wave function
Is sinusoidal with a large amplitude between the barrier
Decays exponentially without the barrier
Is sinusoidal with a much smaller amplitude outside the atom
Recalling that the square of the amplitude of the wave gives the probability of finding the electron at
the point that means that the electron has a non zero probability of existing outside the potential well

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Briefly describe the application of quantum tunnelling to the probing tip of the scanning tunnelling
microscope (STM) and how this is used to obtain atomic scale images of surfaces
Classically, since electrons are attracted to the positive ions on the tip and the material, they cannot
move across the vacuum gap between the sample and the tip due to the lack of energy. Quantum
mechanically, electrons can tunnel through the empty space barrier.
A voltage is applied between the surface an the tip to make the electrons tunnel preferentially
The electron wave function falls off exponentially with a decay length of order 0.1 nm This
exponential behaviour causes the current of electrons to depend strongly on the tip-to-surface
distance
Constant height mode (faster):
Tip travels in a horizontal plane above the sample and the tunnelling current varies depending on
topography and the local surface electron density of the sample. The tunnelling current measured at
each location on the sample surface constitute the data set.
Constant current mode:
STM use feedback to keep the tunnelling current constant by adjusting the height of the scanner at
each measurement point. Eg. when the system detects an increase in tunnelling current, it adjusts the
voltage applied to the scanner to increase the distance between the tip and the sample. The motion of
the scanner constitutes the data set
Chapter 20: Lasers and Semiconductors
LASER (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is highly coherent (light waves in
phase with each other), collimated (light emitted travels in same direction), monochromatic (very
nearly one wavelength)
Absorption is when an atom at ground state E absorbs a photon of energy equal to the energy hf, it
moves to the higher energy state E
Spontaneous Emission is after a short time (10-8 s), the atom in excited state E moves on its own
accord to its ground state E , emitting a photon of energy hf in the process
Stimulated Emission is when an atom in excited state E interacts with an incoming photon of
energy hf, the atom may be stimulated to move to its ground state E , emitting another photon of
energy hf in that process. This emitted photon has the same phase, energy, frequency, polarisation
and direction of travel as the incoming photon. We obtain two identical photons for the price of one
Metastable state is where the atoms have a much longer lifetime there
3 basic properties:
Resistivity at room temperature
Temperature of coefficient of resistivity
Number density of charge carrier
Conduction band and valence band: pg 4 onwards of notes
Methods to increase conductivity of semicoductors:
1. Increase temperature
2. Doping a small number of suitable replacement atoms (impurities) is introduced into the
semiconductor lattice (replacement atoms are those of an element of either 3 or 5)
Donor atom (P) readily donates an electron to conduction band
Acceptor atom (Al) readily accepts an electron from a neighbouring bond
Depletion layer is a result of diffusion of charge carriers across the junction in which there are no
free charge carriers
Space charge is the charge that appears in the depletion layer as a result of diffusion of charge
carriers
Chapter 20: Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
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Atomic mass unit, u, is defined to be 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom (u=1.6605402x10-27kg)
Nuclide is any particular atomic nucleus with a specific atomic number Z and a mass number A
Isotopes are nuclides having the same atomic number but different number of neutrons
Radioisotope is an isotope of an element that is radioactive
Nuclear force is:
Independent of electric charge
It is a very short range attractive force
Mass disappears when energy is released and lost from the system and mass increases when energy
is supplied to and retained in the system
Mass defect is the difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleons and the mass of the
actual nucleus
Binding energy is defined as the amount of energy needed to split a nucleus into its individual
nucleons
Binding energy per nucleon indicates the amount of energy given out per nucleon when the
nucleons are brought together to form a nucleus

Nuclear fission is a process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two or more smaller nuclei and
usually some by product particles such as neutrons, gamma ray photons, beta particles and alpha
particles
Nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple light nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus
Radioactivity is the random and spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nucleus of an atom to a
more stable nucleus by the emission of particles and/or radiation (gamma rays)
Random = completely unpredictable which nucleus or when a particular nucleus will decay in a
certain time interval
Spontaneous = radioactive atom is not affected by any environmental factor
Alpha particles helium-4 nuclei positively charged
Beta particles electrons
Gamma rays electromagnetic waves of wavelength shorter than those of X rays electrically
neutral emitted when a radioactive nuclide in its excited state returns to ground state
Atomic and mass numbers, mass-energy and momentum are conserved in all 3 types of decays!
Decay constant, , of a radioactive substance is the probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time

Activity, A, is the number of nuclear disintegrations per unit time


Half life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half a given number of radioactive nuclei
to decay

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