+ ERM 45) Ethics, Morality and Values -I ‘There has been considerable debate.on how to my the government function in the best way, {and in particular-there has been a debate on the role df government, of regulatory institutions and of good governance in the developing world. Welfare state has been growing with state taking on many functions, With (great) power comes (great) responsibility, but how much and what form of state intervention (government regulation) is needed to achieve economic development, political accountability, poverty eradication and other objectives? This debate has given a bettér understanding of the responsibilities of the administration, and how it should interact and interface with (elected) governments, with citizens, civil society and foreign as well as. domestic corporations and private business institutions. Besides, ethies and ethical principles can help people make better dec sions, and help people evaluate the decisions of others (like. public officials). Much of this debate has focussed on “good governance”, broadly speaking. Ethics has also been a pagt of this debate, in particular the discussion on professional ethics of civil servants, and to a lesser extent the professional and personal ethics of politicians and elected office holders. Public administrators are no longer, if they ever were, expert technicians’simply implementing the policy decisions of the policy makers, Rather, public administrators exercise substantial discretion (decision-making power) on their own, discretion that affects peoples” lives in direct, lasting, and sometimes profound ways. In addtion, there can be teasons to question the legitimacy of the rules and the policy decisions that public administrators are implementing, Administrators and bureaucrats cannot avoid making decisions,.and in doing so they should attempt to make ethical decisions. Administrators have discretionary powers that go beyond the manuals, orders, job descriptions, and legal framework of their position and duties, and professional ethics will have to come in as guicelines, in addition to the format regulations, Administrators should therefore seek a thorough understanding of ethical theories and traditions, and look for methods for thinking about the ethical dimensions of their decision-making, Much the same can be said of politics. Politics is even lesser regulated than ‘the public administration (constitutions and “the people” are the regulators of politicians, with less influence the more autocratic the political system). At the same time, the formal and the discretionary powers of politicians are almost unlimited, _ The scientific debate has to a large degree been on how (or whether) the politicians and rulers can be made to rule for the benefit of the people (the nation at large, economic and-social benefits for all) or for themselves only or some special interest. Karl Marx, for instance, said that the government was nothing but the executive committee of the bourgeoisie (the economically ruling elite; the propertied classes), whereas liberal theories have been preoccupied with restricting the powers of the state (as seen for instance in the American Constitution). Earlier, for a period of time there was a “realist” School within political science that eschewed any moral component of decision-making as aaive, as a religious imposition or as plain hypocritical 187| TNs Political realism or “power politics” encompasses a variety of theories and approaches, all of which share a belief that states (governments or ruling elites) are primarily motivated by the desiré for economic power, privilege, and continuous rule (including military and territorial security), rather than ideals or ethies. Likewise in economics, the standard view has been on humans as a “homo oeconomicus”, a rational man attempting to pursue his selfish interests, with little regard for ethics. Many people still believe that ethics is too weak and too ‘nice’ to be of real importance in what is regarded as the tough, dirty and unprincipled world of polities. Ethics is sometimes viewed as ineffective. Ethics is also sometimes seen as negative (telling other people what they should not do) and impractical, because it is backed only by Conscience. ‘The era of power politics is passing, or at least it is being vigorously contested. As a section of philosophers argue: “viewing citizens as ethical actors is not the perspective of a hopeless idealist”. Ethics has re-entered political science and econotnics, albeit not without resistance. It seems clear that governance reform. through ethics alone will be ineffective; ethical standard setting needs to be coupled with legal regulation and institutional reforms. Ethical issues in political science tend to be complex, ranging from micro-level personal issues to rational, comparetive and international relations. tn polities, issues such as public vs. private interests, conflicts of interest, power abuse, and corruption have special salience. However, to prevent misconduct is as complex as the phenomenon of misconduct itself. Whit is Ethies? Ethics refers to principles by which to evaluate behaviour as right or wrong, good or bad. Bthics refers to well based standards of right and wrong, and prescribe what humans ought to do. Ethics are continuous efforts of striving to ensure that people, and the institutions they shape, live up to the standards that are reasonable and strong, It is useful to distinguish between normative and descriptive ethics; normative ethics describes the standards forthe rightness and wrongness of acts, whereas descriptive ethies is an empirical investigation of people’s moral beliefs. The law is one basic promoter of ethic behaviour. The law; however, only sets @ minimum standard for ethical conduct. Just because an act is legal, does not automatically mean it is ethical (think of the apartheid laws, for instance). Nor is an illegal act necessarily immoral (breaking an apartheid law). ‘Moral Philosophy | Traditionally, moral philosophy (also known as normative ethics and moral theory) is the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offer an overarching moral principle to which one could appeal in resolving difficult moral decisions. There are several strands of ethics, which differs on the basis (or rationale) for their various ethical considerations. The three bbest known. normative theories are virtue ethics, consequentialism (in particular utilitarianism) and deontological ethics (and in particular Kantianism). . 188ERA) Virtue Ethics Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the agen{ rather than on the formal rules for or the consequences of actions. The key elements of virtue ethical thinking are based on the approaches to ethical thinking of the ancieiit and medieval periods. The roots of the Western tradition lie in the work of Plato and Aristotle, but virtues are important also in traditions of Chinese moral philosophy. Both Buddhist and Confucian morality can be conceived as virtue ethics roughiy similar to Aristotle and his doctrine.of the mean, Mahatma Gandhi's ethics of non-violence is the most formidable ‘contribution of virtue ethics in contemporary times, Virtue theory returned to prominence in Western philosophical thought in the twentieth century, and is teday orie of the three dominant approaches to normative theoties. Virtue ethics includes an account of the purpose of huiman life, or the meaning of life, To Plato and Aristotle, the purpose was to live in harmony with others, and the four Cardinal Virtues were defined as prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance, Proponents of virtue theory sometimes argue that a.central feature of a virtue is that itis universally applicable. ‘Consequentialism Consequentialism refers to those moral theories, which hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action. Thus, in other words, descriptive ethics would try to determine what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethies is concemed to determine whether it is correct to hold such a belief. From a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right action is one that produces @ good outcome, or consequence. Utilitarianism is.a specific strand of consequentialist ethics. Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall utility, that is, its contribution to happiness or pleasure as summed up among all persons. The more happiness or pleasure for the more people, the better. It is consequentialist because the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome, and that the ends justify the means. Utility — tie good to've maximized — has been defined by various thinkers, as happiness or pleasure (veisus sadness or pain). ‘| Deontological Bthies Deontological ethics has also been called “duty” or “obligation” based ethics. Deontologists believe that ethical rules “bind you to your duty”, and they look at the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those actions. Deontological ethics looks at our conformity/fidelity to principle and disregatds the consequences of a particular act, when determining its moral worth. Kantianism (or Kantian ethical theory) is deontological, revolving entirely around duty rather than emotional feelings or end goals. The core concept is “duty”, or what one ought to do in certain situations. Kantianism states that truly moral or ethical acts are not based on self-interest or the greatest utility, but on a sense of “duty”. Kantian theories are based on the work of the 189EXT 45) German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804), to whom the “categorical imperative” is a core element Kant thought that human beings occupy a special place in the world, and that. morality cait’be summed up in one, ultimate commandment of reason, or imperative, from which all duties and-obligations derive. categorical imperative denotes an absolute, unconditional requirement thet exerts its authority in all circumstances, Kant argued against utilitarianism and other motal philosophy of his day, because for example an utilitarian would say that murder is allowed if it does maximize good for the greatest number of people. As an example of these ‘categorical imperatives or duties, philosophers have listed a few basic duties. One should: tell the truth; act justly; help others in respect to virtue, intelligence, and happiness; improve oneself with respect to virtue and intelligence; and avoid injury to others. In ‘Kant’s words; “Act so 4 to treat others as ends and not merely as means”. Take cotruption as an example. Virtue categorical imperatives, including to avoid injury and to act justly, because corruption is to favour certain people. Likewise, deontological ethics (Kantianism) will look at your commitment to principle (and disregard the consequences of a particular act), and will argue that corruption involves deception and undermines the rational and moral capacity of those involved, and therefore deem- corruption as unethical. Consequentialist theories like utilitarianism, however, may see corruption as ethical. Some observers have argued that corruption is to “grease the wheels” and can make bureaucracies work more efficiently (which is useful to most people). Although this argument is rarely seen today (the immediate efficiency gain is ruined by the long- term damage made to the administrative system), the argument can exemplify a perspective from, which corruption can be seen as ethical. ‘Modern Moral Philosophy In the 20th century, moral theories have become more complex and are no longer concemed solely with righthess and wrongness, but is increasingly revolving around claims-based or rights- Based ethics, which are ethicai theories based on the fundamental principle of human rights and ‘other rights or claims of the individual. Rights-based theories argue that people have a claim to certain freedoms and rights, like liberal theories which focus on people’s claim ta, freedoms like the freedom of speech, association, religion, ete. ‘These modern theories are focussing on people's claim to rights like human rights, civil rights, * political rights and social/economic rights. One example is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations, Another example of rights-based theories is “welfareism”, argues that people have a claim toa welfare state that can provide them with security, basic health services, education, jobs, housing, ete. ‘An important characteristic of claims-based ethics is that it implies that people have claims against somebody, and that this somebody consequently has some obligations. ‘Thus, for a person to have a legitimate and meaningful claim to something, others must face a corresponding obligation. Somebody's ethical ‘rights or rightful claims therefore give other people ethical obligations or rightful duties and responsibilities. Rights are ultimately claims 190, ethics will consider corruption as a break of several ~against others, and rights-claims generate correlative duties on the part of others. These others can be individuals, other members of society, various groups and usually — and in the ease of legal rights, the state. . There are tivo basic divisions of rights. Natural rights pertain to everybody by virtue of being a human being. Natural rights apply to all persons, like our right to life. Other people, organisations, governments and the international community has all a duty to secure everybody's natural rights. Conventional rights (or legal rights) generally apply within the context of social and political organizations. Conventional rights apply to ail members of a group, like all citizens of a state which has constitutionally granted citizen rights, like for instance the right to free association. Why Public Sector (Government) Ethics? ‘The “others” that are the carriers of the duties and obligations to provide us with our legal and moral rights, freedoms and welfare are usually understood as the state or the public sector. The state is not only the foremost provider of rights and welfare, but the state is also the main provider of rights. In other words, negative duties are an obligation for everybody, whereas positive obligations are the duty of some particular group or institution, usually the state, ‘The public sector or the state is the government with all its ministries, departments, services, central/provinciaV/local administrations, parastatal businesses and other institutions. The public, sector is composed of two core elements; at the political level there are the political institutions where policies are formulated and the (major) decisions are made, aud at the administrative level there is the public sector administration, which is in charge of implementing these policies and decisions. This implementing level is also galled the civil service or state administration or bureaucracy, | Public sector activities range from delivering social security, administering urban planning and organising national defence to the provision of health, schools and roads. In principle, there is no limit to what the state can do. There is, however, much debate on how much the state should intervene, likt’in the economit sectors and in the private life of their citizens. This is a political question, and the debate about the role and the size of the state and the public sector (as opposed to’the private sector) is probably the single most important dividing line in political philosophy, with the socialists preferring greater state involvement, libertarians favouring only minimal state involvement (security and property protection), whereas conservatives and liberals are favouring, state involvement in some aspects of the society but not others, Ethics is rarely a matter of concem in the ideology debate on the role of the state, but ethics is a natural concern in the discussion on the actual role of the politicians and the state administration, No matter how big and what role the state is playing, both politicians and civil servants have discretionary powers; they make decisions that affect a fot of people. Therefore, these decisions ought to-be based on some form of ethics. For instance, the public (a nation’s citizens) will normally expect the country’s politicians and public servants to serve in the public. interest, and to serve in a rational and efficient way. They will not want them to pursue narrow private, personal, or group interests. 191RN's) Professional, public sector ethics of civil servants and politicians are somewhet different from the personal ethics of individuals. In addition to the personal ethical values and principles of individuals (like respect for others, honesty, equality, faimess, etc.), the professional. public servant faces another context and an additional set of values and principles. Although the public sectot is a labyrinth of agencies with different tasks, reporting lines, levels of responsibility and ethical cultures, we are looking for these “universal” or basic principles of public service. There are also some differences between public sector ethics and private sector (business) ethics. ‘The aim of thé private corporation or business is, in general, to make money, whereas the public sector is meant to perform functions for the society as a whole, according to general and political priorities. For instance, a private company can chodse to donate some of its profits to charity, but a public agency may be prohibited from such latgesse with public funds (without @ specific mandate to do 30). The context is different, and the principles of operation between the public and business sectors differ. The ethics'of public service is (should be) based on. five basic virtues; faimess, transparency, responsibility, efficiency and no conflict of interest. There are, however, other principles in operation, and public servants face several dilemmas, for instance when the bureaucrats” private ethics collide with his professional public work ethics or organisational cultures. ‘The ethical character of an official may be unpredictable and tenuous, but a weak ethical basis of an individual can be overcome and his ethics become meaningful and directional, when a particular setting and structural pressures converge. There can, however, be a conflict between the belief system (ethical character) of the individual andthe actions that the individual is ordered to take (the context pressure). For some, this may lead to profound frustration and cognitive dissonance. One example is when a public official, who believes in the standards of openness, fairness and accountable governance is being pushed into making decisions and serving people in disregard of these principles. ] ‘The contextual ‘standards and principles can also be ambiguous and contradicting in themselves. Lofty principles can collide with mundane expectations, and high-flying political objectives can collide with implementation constraints. The ambiguity of public ethics is particularly apparent ‘when values ard obligations lodged within international conventions collide with: national sovereignty and national political priorities, and when national politics céflide with the socio- cultural norms of the local society. Several examples can illustrate this conflict. Take for instance the employee of the Bangladeshi ministry of higher education, whose job was to distribute stipends and scholarships from foreign sources to the best applicants among local students. These stipends were “commodity” in yery short supply, which students and their families were willing to pay up large sums of money to obtain. The public servant at the ministry, however, was absolutely “clean”; he distributed the stipends according to merit by reviewing the exam papers and other credentials of the students, and accepted ‘no bribes, to the satisfaction of the stipend providers and overseas universities. This came with & personal cost, because his salary Wwas so meagre, he could only afford the rent of a single room, and he could not afford to marry. ‘And more importantly, in the eyes of his family, he behaved shamefully unethically; his extended family had collected money for his education over years, but now he was a “wasted investment”, he did not give the family anything in return. He was finally cut off from his own family, who looked upon him with disgrace. 192ENT is) ‘A number of researchers have béén looking at the moral stress facing civil servants who are living in two “different worlds” We all have an image of our better selves-of how we are when we act ethically or are “at our best." We probably also have an image of what an ethical community, an ethical business, an ethical government, or an ethical society should be. Ethics really has to do with all these levels- acting ethically as individuals, creating ethical organizations and governments, and making our society as a whole ethical in the way it treats everyone. What Ethies is and is not Simply stated, ethies tefers to standards of behavior that tell us how human beings ought to act in the many situations in which they find themselves-as friends, parents, children, citizens, businesspeople, teachers, professionals, and so on. Itis helpful to identify what ethics is NOT: Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important information for our ethical choices. Some people have highly developed habits that make them feel bad when they do something wrong, but many people feel good even though they are doing something wrong. And often our feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to do the right thing.if itis. hard. Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most religions do advocate high ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the types of, problems we face. Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does incorporate many ethical standards, but law can deviate from what is ethical. Law can become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have made it. Law can be a function of power alone and designed to serve the interests of narraw groups. Law may have a difficult time designing or enforcing standatds in some important areas, and imay be slow to address new problems Ethics"is not following culturally accepted norms. Some cultures are quite ethical, but others becorie corrupt -or blind to certain ethical concerns (as the United States was to slavery béfore the Civil War). "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is not a satisfactory ethical standard. Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide important data to help us make better ethical choices. But science alone does not tell us what we ought to do. Science may provide an explanation for what humans are like. But ethics provides reasons, for how humans ought to act. And just because something is scientifically ot technologically possible, it may not be ethical to do it 193Determinants of ethies Individual Ethies Legal cont8xt cmnntha Factors Individuai¥Factors + Stage of Moral Development ‘+ Personal values and Personality ‘+ Family influences ‘= Peer influences + Life Experiences tuatipnal Factors Factors influencing ethical behavior include: = The person + Family influences, religious values, personal standards, and personél needs \ = ‘The organization 1 + Supervisory behavior, policy statements and written rules, and peer group norms and behavior = The environment +. Government laws and regulations, societal norms and. values, and competition climate in an industry Organizational Factors that i pact on ethics 1. Can affect influence participants behavior 2. One of the key sources of organizational influence is the degree of comt organization’s leader to ethical conduct 3. This commitment can be communicated through a code of ethics, policy statements, speechies, publications, ete. nitment of the How can high ethical standards be maintained? > Ethics training: — Structured programs -that help participants to understand ethical aspects of decision making — Helps people incorporate high ethical standards into daily life. = Helps people deal with ethical issues under pressure, 194> Whistleblowers = Expose misdeeds of others to + Preserve ethical standards + Protect against wasteful, harmful, orillegal acts > Laws protecting whistleblowers vary. > Barriers to whistle blowing include: = Strict chain of command =» Strong work group identities = Ambiguous priorities > Organizational methods for overcoming whistle blowing barriers: — Ethics advisors — Ethics staff units = Moral quality circles > Ethical role models: = Top managers serve as ethical role models, = All managers can influence the ethical behavior of people who work for and with them. — Excessive pressure can foster unethidal behavior. = Managers should be realistic in settirlg performance goals for others. > Codes of ethic — Official written guidelines on how to behave in situations susceptible to the creation of ethical dilemmas. > Areas often covered by codes of ethics: = Workforce diversity Bribes arid kickbacks Political contributions ‘Honesty of books or records Customer/supplier relationships : Confidentiality of corporate information ' ' Ethical dilemma situations( in addition to what has been said above) > An ethical dilemma occurs when ctoices offer potential for personal. and/or organizational benefit but may be contidered unethical >. Ethical dilemmas include: — Discrimination — Sexual harassment = Conflicts of interest A recently survey of 2,000 majér US corporations revealed that the following ethical problems soncerned managers:- 1. Drug and alcohol abuse 2. Employee theft 3. Conflicts of interest 195Quality control issues Discrimination in Hiring and promotion Misuse of proprietary information : ‘Abuse of confpany expense accounts : lant closings and lay — off Mistise of company assets, and Envitohmental pollution Inappropriate gifts Sea ans » How organizational e1 ies can respect core or universal values: Respect for human dignity + Create culture that values employees, customers, and suppliers. + Keep a safe workplace. + Produce safe products and services. Respect for basic rights + Protect rights of employees, customers, and communities, Avoid anything that threatening safety, health, education, and living standards. Be good citizens, + Support social institutions, including economic and educational systems. ‘Work with local government and institutions to protect environment. ive Sources of Ethical Standards ‘The Utilitarian Approach ‘ Some ethicists emphasize that the ethical action is the one that provides thé most good or does the least harm, or, to-put it another way, produces the greatest balance of good over harm. The ethical corporatéiaction, then, is the one that produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who are affected-customers, employees, shareholders, the community, and the environment. Ethical warfare balances the good achieved in ending terrorism with the harm done to all parties through death, injuries, and destruction. The utilitarian approazh deals with consequences; it tries both to increase the good done and to reduce the harm done. ‘The Rights Approach Other philosophers and ethicists suggest that the ethical action is the one that best protects and respects the moral rights of those affected. This approach starts ftom the belief that humans have ‘a dignity based on their human nature per se or on their ability to choose freely ‘what they do with their lives. On the basis of such dignity, they have a right to be treated as ends and not merely as means to other ends. The list of morel rights including the rights to make one's own choices about ‘what kind of life to lead, to be told the truth, not to be injured, to a degree of privacy, and so on-is widely debated; some now argue that non-humans have rights, too. Also, it is often said that rights imply duties-in particular, the duty to respect others’ rights. ‘The Fairness or Justice Approach Aristotle and other Greek philosophers have contributed the idea that all equals should be treated equally. Today we use this idea to say that ethical actions 196TAS treat all human beings equally-or if unequally, then fairly based on some standard that is defensible. We pay people more based’ on their harder work or the greater amount that’ they contribute to an organization, and say that is fair. But there is a debate over CEO salaries that are hhundteds of times larger than the pay of others; many ask whether the huge disparity is based on a defensible standard or whether it is the result of an imbalance of power and hence is unfair. ‘The Common Good Approach The Greek poses have-also contributed thé notion that life in community is a good in itsélf and our attions should contribute to that life. This approach suggests that the interlocking relationships of society are the basis of ethical reasoning and that respect, and compassion for all. others-especially the vulnerable-are requirements. of such reasoning. This approach also calls attention to the eomman conditions that are important to the welfare of everyone. This may be.a system of laws, effective police and fire departments, kealth care, a public edutational system, or even public recteational areas. ‘The Virtue Approach A very ancient approach to ethics is that ethical actions ought to be consistent with certain ideal virtues that provide for the full development of olwr humanity. These virtues are dispositions and habits that enable us to act according to the highest potential of out character and. on behalf of values: like truth and beauty. Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, tolerance, love, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control, and prudence are’ all examples of virtues. Virtue ethics asks of any action, "What kind of person will | become if I do this?” or "Is this action consistent with my acting at my best?" Ethies and morals . Both relate to “right” and “wrong” conduct. However, ethies refer to the series of rules provided to an individual by an external-source. e.g. their profession, On the other hand, morals refer to an individual's own principles regarding right and wrong, Improve this chart What is it?: Source: Why we do it?: ‘What if we don't do it?: Ethies The rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group, culture, etc, It defines how thing are according to the rales. Social systenvExternal Because society says it isthe right thing to do. We will face peer/societal disapproval, or even be fired from ayr job, Morals Principles or habits with respect to right or wrong conduct. It defineshow things should work according to an ‘+ individuals’ ideals and . principles. Largely Individual/Internal Because we believe in something being right or wrong. Doing something against one's morals and principles can have different effects on different people, they may 197c 5 JAS Morals | Improve this chart, Icthies + feel uncomfortable, remorse, depressed etc. | Flexibility: Ethics are dependent on Usually consistent, although others fordefinition, They. can change if an individual's | tend to be consistent within a beliefs change. certain context, but can vary between contexts. n held by some that ethics "isthe same as morality”. This needs to be the field of ethies is 2 conversation that has arisen inorder to answer the question, “What ought cone to do”, then moralities (and they are various) are voices in that conversation. Each voice belongs to a tradition or theory that offers a framework within which the question might be contemplated and answered. So there is a Christian voice, a Jewish voice, an Islamic, voice, a Buddhist voice, a Hindu voice, a Confucian voice and so on. Bach voice has something, distinctive'to say - although they may all share certain things in common. Morals are the general sense of right and wrong. The basic ideas. Ethics are more well defined sets of ideas. Another view that ethics is the stvdy of morals as can be understood from the’ conversation analogy given above. Ethics can also be understood as a code of conduet, for example, lawyers” and doctors’ ethics. Ethics are external standards, provided by fe institutions, groups or culture to which ‘an individual belongs. For example, lawyers, politemen and doctors all have to follow an.ethical code laid down by their profession, regardless of their own feelings or prefererices. Ethics can also be considered asa framework for acceptable behavior Morals may also be influenced by culture or society, but they are personal principles created and upheld by the individuals themseives, Example of aconflict between ethics and morals ‘One professional example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of a defense attorney. A lawyer's morals may tell her that murder is reprehensible and that murderers should be punished, but her ethics as a professional lawyer, require her to defend the client to the best of her abilities, even if she knows that the client is guilty. Similarly, a doctor may not like a violent person who committed a crime but has to attend to him if he's harmed. 198SEN 11s) Values Values and Governance Values have been an important concept in public Administration particutarly since the 1980s when. the concept of values hasbecome increasingly central to the study and practice of public administration in many countries around the world. There are several reasons for this increased concern about values. First, the private sector’s emphasis in the 1980s on the concept of corporate culture and the accompanying emphasis on values had a spillover effect’on public organizations; many of these organizations developed a statement of values} sometimes as a stand-alone document but usually as an integral part of a strategic plan. Second, some public organizations have been successfully transformed by focusing on a change in their values rather than in their structures (Denbard¢, 1993). Third, the increased emphasis of reformers on holding public servants relatively more accountable for results than for process led to a focus on values as a possible alternative to rules, directives and guidelines. Fourth, and more recent, has been the upsurge of concem about public service vaiues,, already noted, that, has resulted: from the perceived neglect or undermining of traditional public service values by certain proponents of public sector reform. A fifth and final explanatory factor has been the steadily rising interest since the late 1960s in public service ethies — a concept so tightly intertwined with that of public service values that many commentators use the terms values and ethics interchangeably. As a result, many writings oon public service ethics deal explicitly or implicitly with values issues, and many writings on public service values deal in part with ethics issues. It is important to distinguish between these two concepts Values are enduring beliefs that influence the choices we make from among available means and ends. Clearly, not all values are ethical values, that is, not all values relate to questions of right and wrong, good or evil. It is helpful, therefore, to distinguish ethical values from other types of values, Efficiency, efficacy, expertise, loyalty, and accountability, citizenship, public interest, social equity, Political neutrality, competence, innovation, performance, honesty, integrity, self less service, bravery are some of the values : | 199SAS) Ethics-2: Abortion and Medicat/Bio ethics The abortion debate refers to the ongoing controversy surrounding the moral and legal status of abortion, The two main groups involved in the abortion debate are the self-described " “choice” movement (emphasizing the right of women to choose whether they wish to’ brifig an ‘embryo or fetus to term) and the self-described "pro-life" movement (emphasizing the right of the embryo or fetus to be born), Both of these af considered loaded terms in general media where terms such as "abortion rights" or "anti-dbortion” are preferred. Each movement ha, with * varying results, sought to influence public opinion and to attain legal support for its position. Abortion law varies between jurisdictions. For example, in India abortion is available to women without any significant legal restrictions while in Ireland abortions are illegal except when & woman's life is at imminent risk Ethics refers to "moral philosophy", or the ste of values and the analysis of right and wrong. The ethical debate over abortion usually surtounds the issues of whether a fetus has rights, in particular a right to life, and whether the pregnant woman's rights over het own body justify abortion even ifthe fetus has a right to life, For many, there is a strong association between religion and abortion ethics. Ethica) question regarding abortion usually include: +> Are embryos, zygotes and fetuses "persons" worthy of legal protections? j + Should the potential to be a person give embryos, zygotes and fetuses a right to life? + Does a fetus gain rights as it gets closer to birth? + Does 4 woman have an absolute right to determine what happens in and to her body? + Isabortion acceptable in cases of rape or contraception failure? + Isabortion acceptable in cases where the fetus is deformed? + Is abortion acceptable in cases where if the pregnancy were to continue, it would pose a direct théeat to the life of the mother? Question of personhood Establishing the point in time when a zygote/embryo/fetus becomes a "person’ since the definition of personhood is not universally agreed upon, open to debate Philosophers have traditionally declared that some characteristic of reason ought to be included in the definition of person, and the term "person" is not defined in standard science texts. Peter Singer argued that something can only be a persoo if it is self-aware-and has temporal awareness. . Therefore, abortion is morally acceptable, because a fetus does not meet this definition of personhood,, Singer alsc: concluded that infanticide would be permissible until the 3rd. month after birth, because, at that point, self-awareness has still not been acquired. Additionally, the term "person" has many different definitions in law, specifically with children being defined in many ways. For instance, children are not considered persons until they reach the age of majority and are able to enter into legally binding contracts and sue or be sued. For the purposes of Offenses ageinst the person law, however, they are considered to be persons. 200ERMAs) ‘Aboition and the Death of Sayita eee ‘Savite Halappanavar, an Indian woman living in Ireland, had died from blood poisoning after doctors in: Galway hospital refused her request'to abort the fetus that she was told she was miscarrying. Ms. Halappanavar was 17 weeks pregnant. In October 2012, she went t0 @ hospital in Galway complaining of back pain. Upon examination, she was told that she was having @ miscarriage, and that it would soon be over. This did not happen. Instead, her ordeal continued for several more days. After a full day of “severe” pain carrying a child that was certain to die, Ms. Halappanavar asked that her pregnancy be terminated. Physicians were reported to have said ‘hat since they were in Ireland and the fetus had a heart beat they could not terminate the pregnancy. in Ireland, the unborn have a constitutional right to life. Ms. Halappanavar continued t0 suffer for a further two and a half more days before her fetus died and was removed from her’ body. By this time she was quite ill. She was then transferred to an Intensive Care Unit but she did not recover, dying some days later of complications due to septicaemia (blood poisoning.) ce 1992 it has been legal in Ireland to terminate a pregnancy that poses a “substantial” danger to a Woman’s life. But there is quite a bit of uncertainty surrounding just what this implies jn practice, since there are a range of ways one can interpret the notion “substantial”. This may be why doctors were reluctant to cede her request. Unsurprisingly, given the legal “situation, itis in their interest to interpret this notion conservatively. This lack of clarity imposes serious costs on women. It imposed the ultimate sacrifice on Ms. Halappanavar. Indeed, the costs of forcing a woman to sustain the life of a fetus with no hope of survival are vastly greater than any benefit (direct or indirect) one might see in sustaining such a fetus. ‘Three serious costs are worthy of note. The first of which is the cost of dying against one’s wishes in a way that appears to have been entirely preventable. Related to this harm and pethaps a consequence of imposing them are two further harms. ‘The first is the harm of forced intimacy. The American moral philosopher Margaret Little has brought this harm to light in her powerful and fuanced article “Abortion, Intimacy, sind the Duty to Gestate.” Little argues that pregnancy is a kind of intimacy. It involves being physically intertwined with, “inhabited” and “obcupied” by, another being, Most will agree that being forced t6 be intimate with another beifg is harmful. It follows from this that forcing a woman to remain pregnant without her conseht is harmful to her. It is therefore wrong to force women to sustain unwanted pregnancies. The final kind of harm is one that involves being forced to live according to a religious, doctrine that one reasonably rejects. This harm was done to Ms. Halappanavar, a Hindu, in the ‘most overt Way. It was reported that she was told that she was in Ireland and that therefore she had to abide by the religion of its majority. Ireland is a Catholic country and its laws reflect that, But it is-also increasingly a pluralistic and multicultural society. Approximately twenty percent of its population are not Cathalic. This means that in its borders are people who reject on entirely plausible grounds its predominant religion but who are norietheless bound by its laws. Forcing someone to live by religious code that they reasonably reject offends against 201RNAs), their liberty and their equality because it involves coercing them by mechanisms that they do not see as legitimate. it does violence to a woman’s liberty to make her live by a religious doctrine that is not justified to her with reasons that she can accept ftom her own point of view. ‘It was wrong to impose these costs on Ms. Halappahavar in order to sustain the life of g fetus for a few extra days. No law should ask for such a sacrifice from any woman, The premature death of Sarita led to so much furore that Ireand changed its abortion laws, The rights of ‘women and religious minorities require it In July 2013, Ireland President Michael D. Higgins signed the Protetion of Life During Pregnancy Bill Ireland's head of state has signed the country’s first bill on abortion into law, legalising the practice in exceptional cases where doctors deem a woman’s life at risk The law permits abortions to alleviate life-threatening conditions, including a woman’s own ‘threat to.commit suicide if refused a termination Until now, Iretand’s only legislation on abortion was a handed-down British law from. 1867, outlawing the practice with a maximum penslty of life imprisonment, The new maximum sentence is 14 years, ‘The debate around the European nation’s stringent anti-abortion Laws was reignited following the ‘death of 31-year-old Savita Halappanavar, who died from septicaemia following a miscarriage in October 2012. . Euthanasia and ethics ‘The term ‘euthanasia’ (or ‘mercy killing’) comes from the Greek word meaning ‘good death.’ It refers to the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve painand suffering. There are different euthanasia laws in each country. Euthanasia is categorized in different ways, which clude voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary. As of 2013, euthanasia is the most active area of research injcontemporary bioethics. Involuntary -euthanasia occurs when euthanasia is performed on a person who is able to provide informed consent, but does not, either because they do not choose to die, or because they ‘were not asked, Involuntary euthanasia is contrasted with voluntary euthanasia (euthanasia performed with the patient's consent) and non-voluntary euthanasia (where the patient is unable to give their informed consent, for example wheh a patient is comatose or a child). Involuntary euthanasia is ‘widely opposed and is regarded as a crime in legal jurisdictions, Cred tebEsag Corde Historically, ‘the euthanasia debate has tended to focus on a number of key concerns. Proponents ° of euthanasia have presented four main arguments: a) that people have a right toselt determination, and thus should be allowed to choose their own fate; b) assisting a subject to die might be a better choice than requiring that they continue to suffer; c) the distinction between passive euthanasia, which is often permitted, and active euthanasia, which is not substantive) is unreasonable or unsound); and d) permitting euthanasia will not necessarily lead to unacceptable consequences. Pro-euthans activists often point to countries like the Netherlands and Belgium, and states like Oregon, where euthanasia has been legalized, to argue that it is mostly Abe Euctinenanes 202 Cassie Gatronaow ~ wes | ofeod de [kicks of ¢SRIZAM’S TES unproblematic. Further, the reallocation of costs of medicines to those who have achnac to live is rational. Also, the financial burden on the fan ly isa relevant factor Similarly, that there are four major arguments presented by opponents of euthanasia: a) not all deaths are painful; b) alternatives, such as cessation of active treatment, combined with the use of effective pain relief, are available; c) the distinction between active and passive euthanasia is morally significant; and d) legalising euthanasia will place society on aslippery slope, which will lead to unacceptable consequences. A slippery slope argument states that a relatively small first step leads to a chain of related events culminating in some significant effect, much like an object given a:stall push over the edge of a slope sliding all the way to the bottom. Ci of euthanasia sometimes claim that legalizing any form of the practice will lead to a slippery slope effect, resulting eventually in non-voluntary or even involuntary euthanasia. An argument against is the general religious one : that god created life and only god has the right to take it away, that no man should have the legal power to take away life for whatever reason. Aruna Shanbag The Supreme. Court in 2011 allowed passive mercy killing of a patient in a permanent vegetative state (PVS) by withdrawing the life Support system with the approval of a medical board and on the directions of the High Court concerned. A Bench of Justices Markandey Katju and Gyan Sudha Misra, however, did not accept the plea of Pinky Viranai seeking petmission to withdraw life support to her friend, Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug,, who has been lying in a PVS in the KEM hospital Mumbai-for 37 years. Apex court allowed passive euthanasia and laid down guidelines. ‘The Bench, however, held illegal active mercy killing of a patient suffering acute ailment with a poisonous jijection or by other means. Writing the judgment, Justice Katju said: “There is no statutory provision in our country as to the legal procedure for withdrawing life support to a person in PVS or who is otherwise incompetent to take a decision. We agree that passive euthanasia shauld be permitted in our country in certain situations.” The Bench pointed out that in the absence of a law against sexual harassment at work places, the Supreme Court.in the Visakha cas¢ had! laid dows guidelines, Similarly, “we are laying down the Jaw in this connection which will continue to be the law until Parliament makes‘a law on the subject. A decision has to be taken to discontinue life support [to a patient in PVS] either by the parents or the spouse or other close relatives, or in the absence of any of them, such a decision can be taken even by a person or a body of persons acting as a next friend. It can also be taken by the doctors attending the patient. However, the decision should be taken bona fide inthe best interest of the patient.” ‘The Bench said: “If we leave it solely to the patient's relatives or to the doctors or the next friend to decide whether to withdraw life support to an incompetent person, there is always a risk in our country thet this inay be misused by some unscrupulous persons who wish to inherit or otherwise grab the property of the patient. Considering the low ethical levels prevailing in our sociéty today and the rampant commercialisation and corruption, we cannot rule out the possibility that unserupulous persons with the help of some unscrupulous doctors may fabricate material to show that itis a terminal case with no chance of recovery.” 203Whistle blowing _ A.whistleblower is a person who exposes misconduct, alleged dishonest of illegal activity occurring in an organization. The alleged misconduct may be classified in many ways; for example, a violation of a law, rule, regulation and/or a direct threat to public interest, such as fiaud, health and safety violations, and corruption. Whistleblowers may make their allegations internally (for example, to other people within the accused organization) or externally (to regulators, law enforcement agencies, to the media or to groups concerned with the issues). Whistleblowers frequently face reprisal, sometimes at the hands of ihe organization or group which they have accused, sometimes from related organizations, and sometimes under law. Questions about the legitimacy of whistle blowing, the moral responsibility of whistle bio Be and the appraisal of the institutions of whistle blowing are part of the field of political ethics, Whistleblowing is a valuable tool in any organisation's corporate governance strategy as it empowers employees to act on incidences of misconduct and help mainttain a safe workplace, while protecting profits and reputation. But is whistleblowing ethical? Surely at base level, altruistically reporting wrongdoing must be ethical? The act of whistleblowing can cause a conflict of interest between the personal, organisational and societal spheres. Much of this conflict stems from the context that one views a whistleblower — 2s someone sharing knowledge of misconduct for the benefit of others or ‘someone who is acting ‘disloyal’ to their organisation. ‘What does whistle blowing have to do with ethics? Whistle blowing has to do with ethics because it. represents a person’s understanding, at a deep level, that an action his or het organization is toking is harmful—that it interferes with people’s, rights or is unfair or detracts from the common good. Whistle blowing also calls upon tie virtues, especially courage, as standing up ia principles can be 2 punishing experience. Even though laws are supposed to protect whistle blowers from retaliation, people who feel threatened by the revelations can ostracize the whistle blower, marginalizing or even forcing him ot her out of public office. On the other hand, there have been occasions when the role of whistle blower has actually catapulted people into higher office and has earned the respect of constituents, ‘What ethical dilemmas does whistle blowing present? ‘When a person encountets wrongdoing in the public sphere, his or her first step should probably be to use the organization’s internal whistle blowing mechanisms. Whistle blowers in the public sector often face the unique problem that their disclosure-may constitute a crime. This can create an ethical dilemma when the ongoing misconduct is severe and there is no reasonable prospect that the abuse will end absent blowing the whistle. All government bodies should have fairly straightforward lines of authority. For example, if a subordinate officer has a problem, he or she would go to next level manager. It’s always best to start with the mechanisms the organization has set up to deal with problems because these represent the best chance at an amicable solution 204 Pblre geect fadfeit Prey of for. fi* EEN) If wrongdoing is not being addressed within the organization, it may be time to blow the whistle. The first thing @ potential leaker should ask is the status of the information itself. Is the information “classified,” “proprietary,” or otherwise “protected?” Is there a system in place which clearly considers this information restricted? If the information is clearly intended to be protected, then the leaker must meet a stiff test if he or she wants to leak ‘The second consideration is whether the potential leaker has a specific obligation, legal or ethical, to protect the information. If'so, then it is a much mote serious matter to reveal ‘The third consideration is whether the information is about public or private matters, Information about another’s sexual orientation, about his or her private financés, or about personal phone calls has more of a claim to privacy than information about a person's actions as @ corporate executive ot a government official. The difficult cases, of course, are those where the private life of individuals arguably influences their public actions. Potential leakers must assess the good and harm their leak may do. When lives are at stake or crores of rupees are being misappropriated, those concetns for the public good trump the harm to personal privaey or government secrecy. On the other hand, a leaker must determine if the conduct he or she is exposing represents actual wrongdoing or if itis simply represents a policy disagreement. is not absolute; it is a prima facie duty that can [be overridden in certain circumstances. These conditions are: + That the act of whistleblowing stem from appropriate moral motive of preventing unnecessary harm to others; + That the,whistleblower use all available internal procedures for rectifying the problematic behavior before public disclosure, although special circumstances may preclude this; + That thétwhistleblower have ‘evidence that would persuade a reasonable person”; + That the whistleblower perceive serious danger that can result from the violation; + That the wihistleblower's action have some reasonable chance for success. ‘An employee has a significant obligation ce to a company. However, the duty of loyalty Ranbaxy settled an 8-year long battle with the US Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) for 500 million US dollars. Dinesh Thakur pursued legal battle with drug maker Ranbaxy before the US FDA. He was director and global head of Research Information and Portfolio Management at Ranbaxy Laboratories between 2003-2005. He went on to become the man who unraveled the most high profile generic drug violation case in the US to date.[t began in 2005, when he first reported falsified data from Ranbaxy’s Ponta Sahib and Dewas plants to the management and when no steps were taken, took his concerns over these falsified records and violations of US Drug manufacturing rules to the US FDA. This led to civil and criminal charges against Ranbaxy and some of its senior directors. After 8 years, his efforts have been rewarded. With Ranbaxy pleading guilty to felony charges and agreeing to pay a fine of 500 million dollars to settle the civil and criminal cases, Thakur has received a 48.5 million dollar payment under the whistleblower provision in the US False Claims 205MMs ‘Act. Thakur's identity as the whistle blower was revealed by the US Departinent of Tustice after the settlement was reached. Dinesh Thakur, former Ranbaxy-employee turned whistleblower says, “ It took us'eight years to help government authorities unravel a complicated trail of falsified records and dangerous manufacturing practices that threatened to compromise the quality and safety of Ranbaxy drugs. This case highlights the need for effective regulation that applies to drugs sold in the United States, regardless of where they are manufactured.” Edward Snowden is another case, Julian Assange and Manning went before him in 2011 An engineer, Satyendra Dubey, was killed in 2003; Dubey had blown the whistle in a corruption case in the National Highways Authority of India’s Golden Quadrilateral project. Two years later, an Indian Oil Corporation officer, Shanmughan Manjwnath, was musdered for sealing a petrol pump that was selling adulterated fuel. ‘How can government encourage whistle blowing? In an article about whistle blowing in a business context , scholars make a useful distinction between external and intemal whistle blowing. They argue that companies should encourage internal whistle blowing so that problems are solved within the organization before employees feel they must go-outside to get action. The same is true for government bodies, which need-to know about problems early~before illegal contracts must be renegotiated or aquifers have been. polluted oF tie public’s money has been squandeted or unethical behavior has become front-page news, They make several suggestions about how to encourage internal whistle blowing Create a policy about reporting illegal or unethical practices, wisich should includ Formal mechanisms for reporting violations, such as hotlines and mailboxes + -Clear communications about the pracess of voicing concerns, such.as a specific chain of command, or the identification of a specific person to handle complaints Clear communications about bans on retaliation Get endorsement of the policy from top officials— © Investigate and follow up promptly on all allegations ef misconduct. . The Public Interest Disclosure and Protection to eee Making the Disclosures Bill, 2010 Commonly known as the Whistleblowers Bill, it seeks to establish a mechanism to register complaints on any allegations of corruption or wilful misuse of power against a public servant. The Bill also provides safeguards against victimisation of the person who makes the complaint. Key features: + The Bill seeks to protect whistleblowers, i.e. persons making a public interest disclosure related'to an act of corruption, misuse of power, or criminal offence by a public servant. + Any public servant or any other person including @ non-governmental organization may make such a disclosure to the Central or State Vigilance Commission. + Every complaint has to include the identity of the complainant. + The Vigilance Commission shall not disclose the identity of the complainant except to the head of the department if he deems it necessary. The Bill penalises any person who. has disclosed the identity of the complainant, 206+ The Bill prescribes penal for knowingly making false complaints. Analysis ns ‘The Bill aims to balance the need to protect honest officials from undue harassment with protecting persons making a public interest disclosure. It punishes any person making false complaints. However, it does not provide any penalty for victimising a complainant. + The CVC was designated to receive public interest disclosures since 2004 through a government resolution. ‘There have been only a few hundred complaints every year. The provisions of the Bill are similar to that of the resolution. Therefore, itis unlikely that the number of complaints will differ significantly + The power of the CVC is limited to making recommendations. Also it does not have any power to impose penalties. This is in contrast to the powers of the Karnataka Lokayukta and the Delhi Lokayukta. + The Bill has a limited definition of disclosure and does not define victimisation. Other countries such as US, UK, and Canada define disclosure more widely and define victimisation. + The Bill differs on many issues with the proposed Bill of the Law Commission and the 2nd Administrative. Reform Commission's report. These include non-admission of. anonymous complaints and lack of penalties for officials who victimise whistleblowers. The Indian Companies Act 1956 does not yet make it mandatory for companies 10 have whistleblowing policies and any moves to rectify this have come to nothing. Under Clause 177 of the Act every listed company must establish a vigil mechanism for directors and employees to report genuine concerns. Such a channel is a pasitive step, though effective implementation and protection mechanisms are the true litmus test of a well-functioning whistleblowing or speak- up process. Conflict of interest interests, one of which could possibly corrupt the motivation for an act in another. A conflict of interest (COl) occurs when an wot or organization is involved in raultiple The: presence of a conflict of interest is independent from the execution of impropriety. Therefore,- a conflict of interest can be discovered and voluntarily defused before any corruption occurs. A widely used definition is: "A conflict of interest is a set of circumstances, that creates a risk that professional judgement or actions regarding a primary interest Will be unduly influenced’ by a secondary interest.” Primary interest refers: to the principal goals of the profession or activity, such as the protection of clients, the health of patients, the integrity of research, and the duties of public office. Secondary interest includes not only financial gain but also such motives as the desire for professional advancement and the wish to do favours: for family and friends, but conflict of interest rules usually focus on financial relationships because they are relatively more objective, fungible, and quantifiable. ‘The conflict in a conflict of interest exists whether or not a particular individual is actually influenced by the secondary interest. It exists if the circumstances are reasonably believed (on the basis of past experience and objective evidence) to create a risk that decisions may be unduly influenced by secondary interests, The following are the most common forms of conflicts of interests: 207BOs) + Self-dealing, in which an official who gontrols an organization causes it to enter into a transaction with the official, or with anothdr organization that benefits the official. The official is on both sides of the "deal." + Outside employment, in which the interests of one job contradict another. + Family interests, in which a spouse, child, or other close relative is employed (or applies for employment) or where goods or services are purchased from such a relative ora firm controlled by a relative. For this reason, many employment applications ask if one is related to a current employee. If this is the case, the relative could then recuse from any hiring decisions. Abuse of this type of conflict of interest is called nepotism. + Gifts from fiends who also do business with the person receiving the gifts. (Such gifts moy include non-tangible things of value such as transportation and lodging.) Regulating conflict of interest in government is one of the aims of political ethics. Public officials are expected to put service to the public and their constituents ahead of their personal interests. Conflict of interest rules are intended to prevent officials from making decisions-in circumstances that could reasonably be perceived as violating this duty of office. Rules in the ‘executive branch tend to be stricter and easier to enforce than in the legislative branch Polities is dominated in many ways by political campaign contributions. Candidates are often not considered “credible” unless they have a campaign budget far beyond whet could reasonably be raised from. citizens of ordinary means. The pernicious impact of this money can be found in elections. There is negative impact of these contributions on legislative behavior. In many cases money helped elect candidates an the legislators in reciprocation help the contributors- various lobbies. When such large sums become virtwally essential to a politician's future, it- generates a substantive conflict of interest. Beyond this, governmental officials, whether elected or not, often leave public service to work for companies affected by legislation they helped enact or companies they used to regulate or companies affected by legislation they helped enact. This practice is called the Revolving door. Former legislators and regulators are accused of (a) using inside information for their new employers or:(b) compromising laws and regulations in hopes of securing lucrative employment in the private sector. This possibility creates a conflict of interest for all public dfficials whose future may depend on the Revolving door. Public service is always about protecting the common’ good, which may be defined. as the common conditions that are important to the welfare of everyone-police, fire, patks, libraries, and other services, A public servant must always put the common good ahead of any personal, financial, or political benefit they might receive ftom a decision about such matters as where to situate a park or who should collect the “t Also, conflicts of interest interfere with the asic ethical principle of fairmess-treating everyone the same. A public official should not take unfair advantage of his or her position by voting on a matter that could benefit them at the expense of others: Finally, conflicts of interest undermine trust. They make the public lose faith in the integrity of goyerrimental decision-making processes. -208ce DE phat woe i “a Winsis pl tp confltet of v terest1AS Ethics-3 : Ethies of Lobbying . : Lobbying "means the deliberate attempt to influence political decisions through various forms of advocacy directed at policymakers on behalf of another person, organization or group." There are also points at which the definition of lobbying blurs with other activities. What, for example, is the difference between a consultant and a lobbyist, especially when the person called in to consult is employed by a group an interest in the policy being debated? If a union official spends a fair percentage of his or her time working to influence labor policy, is that lobbying? Periodic scandals make many Indians skeptical about the role of lobbying in a democracy. Right to try to influence legislation is protected under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Congress shall make no law abridging the right of the people "to petition the government for a redress of grievances." This protection assumes that people should be involved in the deci that affect them and that advocacy for a variety of causes is @ crucial part of good decision making. What ethical dilemmas does lobbying present? Since the ethical foundation of lobbying is the vigorous public debate necessary for informed decision making, ethical dilemmas related to lobbying tend to arise when various behaviors by lobbyists and lawmakers undermine the fairness and transparency of that process and do not contribute to the common good. Fairness ‘The most obviously unethical (and illegal) practice associated with lobbying is paying a policy maker to vote in a favorable way or rewarding him or her after a vote with valuable considerations. If this practice were allowed, people and organizations with money would always win the day. But even with outright gifts to lawmakers outlawed, there are subtler ways to "buy" undue influence. There should be law to disallow lobbyists paying for travel and lavish lodging of the officials.. Local officials are faced with similar temptations-tickets to games or concerts, dinners in expensive restaurants, etc. Faimess questions also arise when some lobbyists have easier access to lawmakers than others. Frequently discussed is the problem of revolving door lobbyists-those people who once served as public officials who then go into the private sector and work to influence their former colleagues. Tn addition to relationships with lawmakers, they may, for example, still have access codes to offices, use lawmakers’ exercise facilities, or otherwise have easier entrée to the corridors of power. Regulatory capture is also talked about. ‘Transparency One Way to improve the fairness of the lobbying process is to make sure that possible sources of influence are visible to the public. This goal is behind various state and federal requirements that lobbyists register and file reports on the issues they have discussed with lawmakers. Various proposals have been offered to strengthen these transparency provisions, increasing the 209 akfrequency of reporting and the number and variety of organizations that qualify as lobbyists. On the local level, some groups are calling for access to lawmakers’ appointment books so that the public can see who they met with and what they discussed. In the USA, at the federal level, transparency has come up in reference to "earmarks." These are provisions benefiting particular industries or organizations that lawmakers insert into appropriations bills, often at the behest of lobbyists who have made significant campaign contributions. These earmarks are usually added at the last minute so that other members of congress do not have sufficient time to study them. Some reformers have advocated increasing transparency by requiring that earmarks-and the names of their sponsors-be published online at least 24 hours before a bill comes to a vote. Common Good . Lobbyists are advocates. That means they represent a particular side of an issue. The role lobbyists play in the legislative arena can be compared to that of lawyers in the judicial arena, ust as lawyers provide the trier of fact Gudge or jury) with points of view on the legal issues pertaining to a case, so do lobbyists provide local, state, and federal policymakers with points of sw on public policy issues. But what is the lobbyist’s obligation to be fair to the other side? In 2 courtroom, two equally powerful attorneys go before an impartial judge. In the corridors of power, the lobbyist often represents powerful interests, while other people have no representative. An ethical approach to lobbying must enswte that someone stands up for the common good. Lawmakers have an obligation to solicit the views of those who are nat represented by powerful lobbying groups. Lobbying is a meaningful and powerful industry, and should only be considered unethical if certain boundaries are crossed. The action of businesses lobbying is ethical if respect is given to the people involved and the surrounding environment. Groups’ lobbying against the Government by means of releasing researched information and sharing statistics is certainly ethical, Consequentialism is pethaps the best method of measuring the ethicality of lobbying. Businesses lobbying Government will generally show utilitarianism or altruism, especially if the subject calls for a legislation change. Lobbying is ethical if the outcome of the action will benefit not only the group but is also in the interest of others, including future generations. ‘Some lobbyists have casier access to the Government than others, and in rare cases money is paid to policy makers by lobbyists to influence that policy maker's decision/vote. Some smaller businesses are unable to do this, and the act of lobbying is unfair in this case. This is where Jobbying becomes unethical, When bribery and the abuse of power come into play, it certainly is not ethical. Businesses should have a sense of social responsibility, be honest and possess other essential moral virtues, and have a vision of what outcome they want to achieve from their ‘lobbying. 210E45) Lobbying is a basic part of modem democracy and whilst recent acts have proven unethical, the regulated there is a need to make for the Government for setting up a register to track all actions made by lobbyists. The lobbyist should be as transparent as possible. Many rules require lobbyists to register before making contact or very soon after first contact. Some countries have laws to authorize the arrest of an unregistered lobbyist if he or she is caught lobbying. Sometimes lobbyists attempt to influence policy in luxurious locations. Sometimes lobbyists make campaign contributions and then ask their clients and friends to also make campaign contributions. The ethical problem is that most people view the involvement of money in the system as inherently corrupt. Further, most of the time the relationship between lobbyists and elected officials is opaque. Faimess questions also arise when some lobbyists have easier access to lawmakers than others. Friends, former employees and colleagues ail may appear to have special access to a policy maker. Ethically, all lobbyists have an obligation to consider the common good. Regulation of lobbying: India In 2013, Kalikesh Narayan Singh Deo, a Lok Sabha MP from Orissa introduced a Private Members Bill to regulate lobbying activities. The Bill required lobbyists to register themselves and defined lobbying as “communication with and payment to a public servant with the aim of influencing” a legislation or securing an award of a contract. Such a definition however blurs the distinction between lobbying and bribery. It may even have the unintended consequence of legitimising bribery prohibited under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988. While lobbying without the use of extortive and corrupt means furthers democratic ideals of participation and should be legitimised, bribery is illegal because it prioritises personal gains over public interest. Most countries require lobbyists to register with an authority and disclose certain information about their clients and the methods they employed to carry out lobbying. Lobbying in India is unregulated but not illegal. Many interest groups actively lobby with the government for change in laws and policy decisions. Interest groups not only include corporates, but also farmers’ associations, women’s organisations, trade unions and environmental groups. For example, women’s groups campaigned for the Domestic Violence Act; MKSS, a coalition of NGOs, campaigned for a Right to Information Act; Greenpeace lobbies against use of nuclear power plants and other technologies that degrade the environment. However, the public remains unaware of the special interest or advocacy groups that may have influenced a policy decision. Regulation would bring in much-needed transparency in the process but should guard against creating barriers to access for ordinary citizens wanting to engage with theit political representatives. Some questions that India needs to consider before drafting a lobbying law are given below. First, who should be termed as a lobbyist and what kinds of activities should be deemed as lobbying? Given the proliferation of NGOs and advocacy groups, should they be exempted from the law? What is the fallout if they are exempted — would it restrict their access to legislators or 211give them undue advantage over groups representing more commercial interests? Should making representations to parliamentary committees be excluded from the definition of lobbying? Second, how should lobbying be regulated? Should India adopt the mechanism used in most countriessi.e., maintain a register of lobbyists or should it explore alternative options better Suited to the country’s needs? Which body should be entrusted with the task of registering and regulating lobbyists? ‘Third, keeping in mind the argument that high disclosure requirements may drive the activity underground, what type of information should lobbyists disclose? Should there be a corresponding requirement for elected officials and govemment servants to disclose their engagement with lobbyists? Fourth, what kind of penalties should be imposed on lobbyists for flouting the norms? Would de- registration be sufficient deterrent or is there a need for higher sanctions? Should there be corresponding penalty for the lobbied also? While formulating a law, lobbying should be treated as a legitimate right of every citi representative democracy. The focus of the law should'be to ensure that competing groups have reasonably equal access to policy makers by incentivising groups to register. Such an approach would allow citizens from across the spectrum to participate in the policymaking process thereby strengthening the democratic roots and ensuring transparency in the decision-making process. The term "lobbyist" comes from a time when people representing special interests comered lawmakers in the lobby of a legislative chamber to present their case. Nowadays, a lobbyist is an individual or a firm, not a group, who has access to lawmakers and presents the case of individuals or groups interested in legislation at hand. A lobbyist might seek to visit with lawmakers, testify before committees or any other means to get the message across. The term lobbyist has something of an unsavory connotation because of news reports and even criminal action against \ohbyists and their lawmaking friends for bribery, etc. In fact, however, there is nothing wrong with the principle of lobbying and usually one finds lobbyists working both sides of an issue. In the U.S., most states have enacted laws to control lobbyists and attempt to avoid abuses. How is a lobbyist different from a pressure group? The former is defined and described above. ‘The latter, however, is as the name implies, i.e. a group. They may hire a lobbyist; might institute letter-writing campaigns, media advertising, word-of-mouth campaigns, etc. As an extreme, they might even organize mass marches on capital cities. Ethics of cloning In bioethics, the ethics of cloning refers to a variety of ethical positions regarding the practice and possibilities ofcloning, especially human cloning. While many of these views are religious in origin, the questions raised by cloning are faced by secular perspectives as well. As the science of cloning continues to advance, governments have dealt with ethical questions Cloning, particularly human cloning is highly controversial. 212Se Sika EY Advocates of human therapeutic cloning (cure) believe the practice could provide genetically identical cells for regenerative medicine, and tissues and organs for transplantation. Such cells, ssues, and organs would neither trigger an immune response nor require the use of munosuppressive drugs. Both,basic research and therapeutic development for serious diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and diabetes, as‘ well as improvements in burn treatment and reconstructive and cosmetic surgery, are areas that might benefit from such new technology. Some believe that "children cloned for therapeutic purposes" such as "to donate bone marrow to a sibling with leukemia” may someday be viewed as desirable. Proponents claim that human reproductive cloning also would produce benefits. Some scientists hope to create a fertility treatment that allows parents who are both infertile to have children with at least some of their DNA in their offspring. At present, the main non-religious objection to human cloning is that cloned individuals are often biologically damaged, due to the inherent unreliability of their origin; for example, researchers currently are unable to safely and reliably clone non-human primates. However, it should also be noted that physical abnormalities occur in naturally born humans as well Article 11 of UNESCO's Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights asserts that the reproductive cloning of human beings is contrary to human dignity. Scientists pointed out that there is a clear danger of producing clones which are defective. Other arguments against cloning-come from various religious orders (believing cloning violates God's will or the natural order of fife), and a general discomfort some have with the idea of "meddling" with the creation and basic function of life. This unease often manifests itself in contemporary novels, movies, and popular culture, as it did with numerous prior scientific discoveries and inventions. Various fictional scenarios portray clones being unhappy, soulless, or unable to integrate into society. Furthermore, clones are often depicted not as unique individuals but as “spare parts," providing organs for the clone's original (or any non-clone that requires replacement organs) US. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the consumption of meat and other products from cloned animals. Cloned-animal products. were said to be virtually indistinguishable from the non-cloned animals. Companies would not be required to provide labels informing the consumer that the meat comes from a cloned animal. Critics have raised objections to the FDA's approval of cloned-animal products for human consumption, arguing that the FDA's research was inadequate and of questionable scientific validity. Several consumer-advocate groups are working to encourage a tracking program that ‘would allow consumers to become more aware of cloned-animal products within their food. India entered the clone age having successfully cloned a buffalo (Garima) in 2009 which raised concerns on whether India should indulge in cloning, is it morally and ethically correct to carry out animal or human cloning. India currently has some well drawn out guidelines in place, but a suitable legislation that can regulate this area of research has been taking time. In essence should humans start playing God! 213EEN 5) Scientists at the National Dairy Research Institute in Kamal created Garima, the country's first. cloned animal, But its birth has also raised many questions: Have indians also started playing God? Are there regulations in place? Should human cloning be permitted? In 1996, ‘Dolly’ the sheep was the first animal to be cloned in Scotland, since then many other animals have been cloned \ike mice, monkey and even a cat. Most of the genetically identical animals unfortunately have been known to die young as they suffer from accelerated aging, India permits cloning of animals, and encourages regulated research in this area, ‘A few days back when scientists inched closer to reviving an Australian frog species that has, been extinct for the last 30 years, they also revived the world’s fascination for de-extinction -- a concept that has walked the thin line between science fiction and reality. Bringing to life spi that have been wiped off the face of earth is a dream many geneticists have pursued for years, Cloning research in India is working on reviving at least three extinct species: Asiatic cheetah that went extinct in India soon afier Independence; pink-headed duck and tke mountain quail. Indian geneticists have been attempting to clone the Asiatic cheetah - a favourite animal of the Mughal emperor Akbar who reportedly had an army of 1000 cheetahs accompany him on his, hunting expeditions. But efforts to recreate the majestic predator have encountered several roadblocks. The biggest hurdle is procuring the cell-tine of the cheetah and defining protocols for somatic cell transfer. Once this happens, we have a realistic chance of reviving the cheetah in India: according to the scientists at Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology {CCMB), Hyderabad. Somatic cell transfer involves creating a clone embryo with a donor nucleus in a laboratory and is considered as the first step in reproductive cloning. India has revently imported a few cheetahs whose cell lines, CCMB is trying to get. After that, it would be a case of attempting again and again - success rates in reproductive cloning are just about 5% till an Asiatic cheetah cub is born. De-extinction itself is a subject that has drawn diverse opinions., Those opposing it say that if a species Went extinet over a period of time -- Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest propounds this is nature's way of balancing itself -- is it prudent to re-introduce it in an ecosystem where ‘some other species may have taken over its role? However, de-extinction proponents continue to be optimistic about its prospects. But what about cloning of humans? over it is considered undesirable. Il date nobody has succeeded in doing it and the world India has guidelines that prohibit any cloning of whole humans. On an allied research subject, the government has no objections to the use of embryonic stem cells and does allow research on what is called therapeutic cloning, a technique that offers hope for organ replacement. 2140 fpr ERENT 45] The LV Prasad Eye Institute in Hyderabad was the first to create eye tissues from stem cells to * cure blindness, later the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi carried out trials for repairing damaged heart muscles using stem cells. . Ih 2006, the Indian Council of Medical Research formulated some far-reaching guidelines on biomedical research. In 2007 another set of guidelines that regulate stem cell research were issued, this specifically bans cloning of humans. Surrogacy: law and ethics Surrogacy refers to a contract in which a woman carries a pregnancy “for” another couple. ‘Number of infertile couples from all over the World approach India where commercial surrogacy is legal. Although this arrangement appears to be beneficial for all parties concerned, there are certain delicate ethical and legal issues which need to be addressed through carefully framed laws in order to protect the rights of the surrogate mother and the intended parents. The ever-rising prevalence of infertility world over has lead to advancement of assisted reproductive techniques (ART). Herein, surrogacy comes as an alternative when the infertile ‘woman or couple is not able to reproduce. Surrogacy is an arrangement where a surrogate mother bears and delivers a child for another couple or person. In gestational surrogacy, an embryo, which is fertilized by in vitro fertilization, is implanted into the uterus of the surrogate mother who carries and delivers the baby. In traditional surrogacy, the surrogate mother is impregnated with the sperms of the intended father artificially, thus making her both genetic and gestational mother. Surrogacy may be commercial or altruistic, depending upon whether the surrogate receives financial reward for her pregnancy. Commercial surrogacy is legal in India. In Australia, which recognize only altruistic surrogacy. In contrast, countries like Germany, Sweden, Norway, and Italy do not recognize any surrogacy agreements. India has become a favorite destination of fertility tourism. Each year, couples from abroad are attracted to India by so-called surrogacy agencies because cost of the whole procedure in India is as less as one third of what itis in United States and United Kingdom. Ata glance, surrogacy seems like an attractive alternative as a poor surrogate mother gets very much needed money, an infertile couple gets their long-desired biologically related baby and the country earns foreign currency, but the real picture reveals the bitter truth. Due to lack of proper legislation, both surrogate mothers and intended parents are somehow exploited and the profit is earned by middlemen and commercial agencies. There is no transparency in the whole system, and the chance of getting involved in legal problems is there due to unpredictable regulations governing surrogacy in India. In 2005, ICMR issued guidelines for accreditation, supervision, and regulation of ART clinics in India, Frustration of cross border childless couples is easily understandable who not only have to cope up with language barrier, but sometimes have to fight a long legal battle to get their child. Even if everything goes well, they have to stay in India for 2-3 months for completion of formalities after the birth of baby. The cross border surrogacy leads to problems in citizenship, 215| ERMA) motherhood, parentage, and rights of a child. There are occasions where children are denied nationality of the country of intended parents and this results in either a long legal battle like in case of the German couple with twin surrogate children (Refer to the Chapter on Citizenship in the Polity Book). ‘There are incidences where the child given to couple after surrogacy is not genetically related to them and in tur, is disowned by the intended parent and has to spend his life in an orphanage. If we look upon the problem of surrogate mothers, things are even worse and unethical. The poor, illiterate women of rural background are often persuaded in such deals by their spouse or middlemen for earning easy money. These women have no right on decision regarding their own body and life. in India, there is no provision of psychological screening or legal counseling, which is mandatory in USA. After recruitment by commercial agencies, these women are shifted into hostels for the whole duration of pregnancy on the pretext of taking antenatal care. The real motive is to guard them and to avoid any social stigma of being outcast by their community. ‘These women spend the whole tenure of pregnancy worrying about their household and children. They are allowed to go out only for antenatal visits and are allowed to meet their family only on Sundays. The worst partis that in case of unfavorable outcome of pregnancy, they are unlikely to be paid, and there is no provision of insurance.or post-pregnancy medical and psychiatric support for them. Rich career women who do not want to take the trouble of carrying their own pregnancy are resorting to hiring surrogate mothers. There are a number of moral and ethical issues regarding surrogacy, which has become more of a commercial racket, and there is an urgent need for framing and implementation of laws for the parents and the surrogate mother. Assisted reproductive technology legislation The Indian government has drafted legislation: ART Regulation draft bill 2010. The bill is still pending with Government and has not been presented in the Parliament. ‘The proposed law has taken consideration of various aspects including interests of intended parents and surrogate mothers. The proposed draft needs to be properly discussed, and its ethical and moral aspect should be widely debated by social, legal, medical personal, and the society before any law is framed. The bill acknowledges surrogacy agreements and theic legal enforceability. The surrogacy agreements are treated at par with other contracts under the Indian Contract Act 1872 and other Jaws applicable to these kinds of agreements. Both the couple/single parent and surrogate mother need to enter into a surrogacy agreement covering all issues, which would be legally enforceable. Some of the features of proposed bill are that an authority at national and state level should be constituted to register and regulate the ILV.F. clinics and A.R.T centers, and a forum should be created to file complaints for grievances against clinics and ART centers. The age of the surrogate mother should be 21-35 years, and she should not have delivered more than 5 times including her own children, Surrogate mother would not be allowed to undergo embryo transfer more than 3 times for the same couple. If the surrogate is a married woman, the consent of her spouse would be required before she may act as surrogate to prevent any legal or marital dispute. A surrogate should be screened for STD, communicable diseases and should not have received blood transfusion in last 6 month as these may have an adverse bearing on the pregnancy 216OC args 57 * ln ERMA) outcome, All the expenses including insurance of surrogate medical bill and other reasonable expenses related to pregnancy and childbirth should be borne by intended parents. A surrogacy =» Contract should include life insurance cover for surrogate mother. The surrogate mother may also * receive monetary compensation from the couple or individual as the case may be for agreeing to act as such surrogate. It is felt that to save poor surrogate mothers from exploitation, banks should directly deal with surrogate mother, and minimal remuneration to be paid to the surrogate mother should be fixed by law. ‘The surrogacy arrangement should also provide for financial support for the. surrogate child in case the commissioning couple dies before delivery of the child, or divorce between the intended parents and subsequent willingness of none to take delivery of the child so as to avoid injustice to the child. A surrogate mother should not have any parental rights over the child, and the birth cettificate of the baby should bear the names of intended parents as parents in order to avoid any legal complications. Guidelines dealing with legitimacy of the child born through ART state that the child shall be presumed to be the legitimate child of the married/ynmarried couple/single parent with all the attendant rights of parentage, support, and inheritance. ‘The ART clinics should not be allowed to advertise for surrogacy for its clients, and couples should directly seek facilities of ART Bank. The intended parents should be legally bound to accept the custody of the child/children irrespective of any abnormality in the child/children. Confidentially should always be maintained, and the right to privacy of the donor as well as surrogate mother should be protected. If a foreigner or NRI is seeking surrogacy, they should enter an agreement with written guarantee of citizenship for the child from their government, and they should also appoint a local guardian who would be legally responsible for taking care of the surrogate during and after the pregnancy till the child is delivered to the foreigner couple or reaches their country. Sex-selective surrogacy should be prohibited, and abortions should be governed by the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971. 217Soe hr actu OF a rend SW 145) NSEL. National Spot Exchange Limited or NSEL is the national level, institutionalized, demutualised and transparent Electronic Spot Exchange set up by Financial Technologies India Limited (FTIL) and National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India Limited (NAFED) to create a delivery based pan India spot market for commodities. In India, Spot Exchanges refer to electronic trading platforms which facilitate purchase and_sale of specified commodities, including agricultural commodities, metals and bullion by providing spot delivery contracts in these commodities. Under the Forward Contracts (Regulation) Act 1952 (FCRA),Spot contracts are also known as Ready delivery Contracts. Under the FCRA, a ready delivery contract is one, which provides for the delivery of goods and the payment of price therefore, either immediately or within sych period not exceeding 11 days after the date of the contract, subject to such conditions as may be prescribed by the Central Govemment. A ready delivery contract is required by law to be fulfilled by giving and taking the physical delivery of goods. In market parlance, the ready delivery contracts are commonly known as "spot" or "cash" contracts. This definition is used by FCRA for defining the forward contracts on which Forward Markets Commission has been given regulatory powers. Thus, FCRA defines a commodity derivative / forward contract as “a contract for delivery of goods which is not a ready delivery contract". This market segment functions like the equity segment in the main stock exchanges. Alternatively, this can be considered as a guaranteed direct marketing by sellers of the commodities. Spot Exchanges leverage on the latest technology available in the stock exchange framework for the trading of goods. This is an innovative Indian experiment in the trading of goods and is distinct from what is commonly known as “commedity exchanges” which trade in futures contracts in commodities. “Spot Exchange” means a body corporate incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956 and engaged in assisting, regulating or controlling the business of trading in electronic warehouse receipts.(WR is receipt used in markets to guarantee the quantity and quality of a particular commodity being stored within an approved facility.) However present day spot exchange deals with not just warehouse receipts. This is an electronic market where a farmer or a ttader can discover the prices of commodities on a national level and can buy or sell goods immediately to anyone across the country. All contracts on the Exchange are compulsory delivery contracts i.e., here all outstanding positions at the end of the day are marked for delivery, which implies that seller has to give delivery and buyer has to take delivery, but on anet basis. (ie., intra-day squaring off is allowed.) ‘The facilities provided by the spot exchange, like a normal stock exchange, include clearing and settlement of trades, Trades are settled on guaranteed basis (i.¢., in case of default by any person exchange arranges for the payment of money / good) and the exchange collects various margin payments, to ensure this. The exchange also offers various other services such as quality certification, warehousing, warehouse receipt financing, etc. OG An commodity eahange He may exchange olla. rig Whe actual Aivuny Fake pace (future exchaye ). Controle / eae slUUM 14S] Advantages of Spot Exchanges It can lead to efficient price determination as price is determined by a wider cross-section of people from across the country, unlike the present scenario where price discovery for commodities happens only through local participation. This also ensures transparency in price discovery. Spot Exchanges can also usher in some best Practices in commodity trading like, system of grading for quality, creating network of warehouses with assaying facilities, facilitating trading in relatively smaller quantities, lower transaction cost ete. Bank finance available against the goods in the warehouse on easier terms improves holding capacity and can actually in centivize farm production and hence reduce rural poverty. Since the trades are guaranteed, counter party tisk is avoided. Spot Exchanges in India As on July 2013, there are four spot exchanges currently operating in the country. These exchanges are: ‘The National Spot Exchange Ltd (NSEL) is a national level commodity spot exchange promoted by Financial Technologies (India) Ltd (FTIL) and National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Limited (NAFED). NSEL commenced “Live” trading on October 15, 2008. 2. NCDEX Spot Exchange Limited. (established in October 2006) 3. Reliance Spot Exchange Limited. (Yet to be operationalized) 4, Indian Bullion Spot Exchange limited (they have described themselves as online over the counter spot exchange) Regulatory status of Spot Exchanges in India Even though Spot exchanges are trading in commodities, the spot trades are not covered under the Forward Contracts (Regulation) Act 1952 (in short FCRA). This Act only covers forward contracts / commodity derivative contracts traded in a commodity derivative exchange like MCX or NCDEX. Spot Exchange is_presently recognized by Ministry_of Consumer _A\ Food_& Public Distribution, Goverment of India. Further the spot exchanges have to obtain licenses from various state governments to facilitate online detivery based trading in various agri-commodities (Spot transactions in commodities comes under the regulatory purview of provincial / state governments. In that sense the Exchange operations will be regulated in each state by the respective state governments and will be subjected to various laws of the land like the Companies Act, 1956 Stamp Act, Contracts Act, 1876, APMC Act and others which impinge on its working.) ‘The Spot contracts of one day duration are exempted from the provisions of Forward Contract (Regulation) Act, 1952 (FCRA), by Government of India. Though the spot trades are not covered under the FCRA, the activities of the exchange are monitored by the Forward Market Commission (FMC). For this purpose, the spot exchanges submit a monthly report io FMC about the trading and, delivery and settlement data. However, there does not appear to be any legal or statutory backing for the monitoring by the FMC. 6 teclebeadonce of vil geuenh@ 8 Hlitization ft B 2 219GENERAL STUDIES MAINS ATTITUDE PAPER-IV 11A/22; 1* Floor; Old Rajender Nagar;New Delhi -60 . Ph. 011-25825591; 42437002; 9958671553 ‘ 73-75; 1" Floor; Ring Road ;Beside GTB Metro Station Kingsway Camp;New Delhi. Ph. 08447273027ATTITUDE. Syllabus:- Content, structure, function; its influence on thought and behavior. Moral and political attitudes. Social influence and persuation. An attitude is a Jeamed and relatively enduring tendency or predisposition. to evaluate a tson, event, or situation in a in way and to act in accordance with that evaluation. It constitutes, then, a social orjentation-an underlying inclination to respond to something either favorably of unfavorably. As such, an attitude is a state of mind. Consequently, if we wish to influence other people's behavior, one way to g0 about itis to influence their state of mind. We may seek to win their support for programs of social change, to persuade them to favor the political candidates of our choice, to prefer our taste in television programs, to stop polluting the water, to quite smoking, or to donate money to our favored cause. And others likewise attempt to persuade us to adopt their views, Given the impsrtance of some of these matters, it is hardly sueprising that the process by which people go about forming, maintaining, and changing attitudes has attracted considerable research interest. In the past two decades more than 1,600 articles treating some aspect of the process have appeared in professional journals. Components of Attitudes Social psychologists distinguish three components of an attitude-the cognitive, the affective, and the behavioral. The cognitive component is the we perceive an objects, event, or situation-our thoughts, beliefs. and ideas about something. In its simplest form the cognitive element is a category that we employ in thinking, Thus the category car includes station wagons, convertibles, Jaguars, Hondas, Cadillacs. and so on, Statement of the form “cars are this or that” and “cars have this or that” express ideas that are a part of this component. » Wier a'tiuman being is the objéct of the attitude, the cognitive component is'fréquent! stereotype-the mental picture we have of a particular people. Walter Lippmann, to whom we ‘owe the term stereotype, observed that since the world is filled with “so much subtlety, so much variety, so many permutations _and_combinations.....we have to construct it ona simpler model before we can manage with if”. Jn brief, we find it Virtually impossible to weigh every reaction of every person we encounter, minute-by-minute, in terms of its particular, individual meaning. Rather, we type individuals and groups in snap-judgment style: the “fighting Irish,” the “Inscrutable Orientals,” the “Stolid Swedes”, the “grasping Jews”, and the:“Emotional Italians”. Although stereotypes are convenient, they lack the ‘important virtue of accuracy. ‘They’are the unscientific and hence unreliable generalizations that we make about people either as individuals or as groups. ‘The affective component of an attitude consists of the feelings or emotions that the actual objects, event, or situation or its symbolic representation evoke within an individual. Fear, sympathy, pity, bate, anger, envy, love, and contempt are among the emotions that may be excited by a given individual or group. The ideas of using the same washroom as someone of another race, of drinking from glasses handled by, or of shaking hands with, a Black, Jew, White, or Chinese produce disgust or discomfort in some individuals. The prospect of having 1Blacks move into an all-White neighborhood may arouse fear and anxiety among some White. The social standing of Businessmen or doctors may elicit envy some Gentles. Although the emotional level is distinct from the cognitive, the two may appear together. The behavioral component of an attitude is the tendency or disposition of act in certain ways with reference to some object, event, or situations. The emphasis falls upon the tendency to act, not lipon the action itself. Some people may favor barring given groups from’ their social clubs, athletic associations, neighborhoods, and business and. professional organizations-that is, they may be disposed toward discriminatory behavior. But as we shall shortly see, simply because people would like to act in certain ways does not necessarily mean that they in fact do act in these ways; they may fail to translate their inclinations into overt action, For example, some prejudiced individuals, recognizing the legal penalties attached to discriminations, may not in fact discriminate. The Functions of Attitudes All human beings harvor a wide variety of need. Some needs are primarily biological (such as hunger, thirst, and the needs for sex and sleep); other are social (the needs or status, recognition, privilege, power). Daniel Katz has advanced a functionalist theory of attitudes that is premised upon this fact. He takes that view that our attitudes are determined by the’ functions they serve for us. In brief, people hold given attitudes because these attitudes help them achieve their basic goals. Katz distinguishes four types of psychological functions that attitudes meet: * The adjustment function: Human beings typically seek to maximize rewards and minimize penalties. According to Katz, people develop attitudes that aid them in accomplishing this goal. We tend to favor a political party or candidate that will advance our economic lot-if we are businessperson, one that will hold the line on or lower corporate taxes: if we are unemployed, one that will increase unemployment and_social welfare benefits. And we are likely to seek as a lover someone who provides us with a variety or fewards-a sense of self-worthy, recognition, security, and so on-vhile avoiding someone who produces the opposite effect. * The ego-defense function: Some attitudes serve to protect us from acknowledging basic truths about owselves or the harsh realities of life. They serve as defense mechanisms, shielding us from inner pain. Projection is such a device: we attribute to others traits that we find unacceptable in ourselves, and in 0 doing: we dissociate ourselves from the traits. To the alcoholic it may be the other fellow who overindulges; to the failing student it may be the teacher who is incompetent, to thie hostile and aggressive child it may be the other child who started the fight. © The value-expressive function: While ego-defensive attitudes prevent_us_from revealing unpleasant realities to ourselves, other attitudes“ help give positive expression to our central value and to the type of person we imaging ourselves to be. ~ a’ self-image of our-self as an “enlightened conservative” or a “militant radical” and therefore cultivate attitudes that we believe indicate such a core value, or we may see 2 L 5 Such attitudes reinforce.a sense of self-realization and self-expression: We may-have |.EEL As) our-self as a “swinger” or “someone really with it” and hence cultivate attitudes that reinforce this perspective. ‘+ The knowledge function: In life we seek some degree of order, clarity and stability in our personal frame of reference, we search for meaning in and understanding of the events that impinge upon us. Attitudes help supply us with standards of evaluation. It provides us with order and clarity with respect to. the great and bewildering complexities of life that are due to human differences. Katz’s functionalist theory also helps to explain attitude change: . The most general statement that can be made about the conditions conductive to attitude change is that the expression of the old attitude or its anticipated expression no longer gives satisfaction to its related need state. In other words, it no longer serves its function and the individual feels blocked or frustrated, Modifying an old attitude or replacing it with a new one isa process of learning, and learning always starts with problem, or Being thwarted in coping with a situation. A case in point is an adjustment need. A Honda owner who undergoes a change to a higher social status may also undergo a change of attitude toward his old car. He may decide that he now wants a Mercedes, because he believes a Mercedes to be more in keeping with his new social_status. Thus attitude change is achieved not so much by changing a person's information about or perception of an object, but rather by changing the person's underlying motivational and personality needs. Formation of Attitudes As mentioned earlier, we are not born with attitudes, A newborn. baby has no attitude towards a snake. If not stopped by elders. It will have no problem in playing with a snake. Only when it grows little older than a child it leams to fear and avoid a snake. We can also ask a question, ‘how. do people acquire an attitude toward the Chinese food”? Can we acquire an attitude about something we are not exposed (0? Why do people have different attitudes? The term attitude formation refers to the movement we make from having no attitude toward an attitude object to having a positive or negative attitude. Lets examine what factors contribute to the formation of attitudes, The attitudes are acquired through different types of learning. You have already studied about the basic processes of learning in Class XI. Therefore, the relevangg of learning process in relation to attitude formation is only briefly indicated. The three basic leaming procedures inyolved in the acquisition of attitudes are as follows: Classical Conditioning: As you kiow this kind of learning shows how a neutral object gets associated with an already established stimulus ~ response connection. Any attitude object, which is repeatedly associated with a stimuli capable of evoking positive or negative feeling, will acquire the ability to evoke a similar response, For example, you may develop a positive attitude about a person who has present whenever you won a match. Players often develop @ strong liking for the bat by which they made good runs.Instrumental conditioning: It applies to the situations when people learn attitudes which are systematically rewarded by significant others, such as parent, teachers or friends. In fact, children are taught certain attitudes and behaviars by controlling reward and punishment and systematically reinforcing certain kinds of attitudes. While the specific form of such rewards may vary greatly, ranging from praise, affection, approval to offering monetary rewards, jobs and positions. It has been observed that people quickly come to express specific point of views when they are rewarded for their expression. _ x Observational learning: It suggests that huinan beings are capable of acquiring new responses simply by observing the actions and their outcomes, Children are Keen observers and learn a whole fot of things from their parents and othér family members. They learn many of their attitudes about other ethnic groups, neighbours, and ideologies simply by observing the behaviors of adults. Factors Influencing Formation of Attitudes The formation of attitude takes place in our social environment, The different aspects of environment shape the development of attitudes. Some of the important aspects of environment, relevant to the formation of attitudes are described below. ‘Family: Parents have an all — encompassing influence on the way their children come (o form attitudes. Children get their first exposure (0 the social world through their parents and other family members. They acquire initial knowledge about the people and places from their parents and very often imbibe their values and observation. The young children learn by observing and imitating their elders in the family. Parents provide categories, which their children pick up to form attitudes. Children often learn to categories supplied by their parents. ‘They form attitudes about other social and religious groups on the basis of such categories defined by their parents. Thus, families constitute the primary source’ of information for children. imagine how much young children learn about the world from the stories told by their grand parents! Reference Groups: As thé children grow older the diversity of influences on their lives increases. They form opinion ‘about many more people and objects. They come in contact with teachers, policemen, vendors, and more importantly with peers. These groups constitute the reference groups for children. The children leam a great deal from these reference groups. They imbibe attitudes about occupations, social and religious groups, consumer products, national leaders, etc., which are endorsed by such references groups. If their reference group is biased about some religious group, probability is high that the child will also show similar kind of bias. . Direct Persoiial’ Experience: How do you form an attitude. about an army personnel? It laigely depends on your personal encounter with such a man in the past. If he was very kind and helpful to you, you tend to have a favourable attitude towards the army men. If an army ‘man for trespassing has roughed you up, your attitude may not be favourable toward all army men. We tend to generalize. ‘Apart from day ~ day ~ day life experiences, there are other unique significant life events and situations. Meeting Rambrishna Paramhans changed Narendra and his whole attitudes toward. life and people. From a skeptic, he became a believer and went on to address the World 4Religions’ Congress and became a legend as Swami Vivekanand. We all have such tuming points, which significantly. shape our attitudes in a particular direction. It is undérstandable that those who are born in extreme poverty conditions and have had many bitter experiences, * their attitudes about others are not likely to be positive. The victims of criminal assault and social discrimination can hardly be positive in their judgment of the groups.to which the perpetrators belong. Media Exposure: Today’ s life media has assumed a prominent place. Think-how many hours you and yours friends watch the T.V. On an average, urban middle school children watch T.V. for at least 4 — 5 hours and this exposure has become a potent way to Jean about the world T.V. commercial tell us which products we should buy! Since children are more impressionable, they tend to believe what they see on the T.V. screen. They rarely question, what they see on T.V. Several studies have reported that high — school children rate the mass media as their most important source of information. Maintenance of Attitudes Once formed, attitudes persist. The social environment including people, the pattem of interaction, and the distribution of reward and punishment, remains stable to a large extent. They help to maintain attitudes. People like to have consistency in their attitudes and they do this in many ways. Motivational bias : We discount the contradictory information. If they are confronted with information, which is against their present attitude, they either consider that information as not very relevant or important, or believe that it is coming from a dubious source. One can thus ignore such information. Rewards and Punishment: ur reference group may be exerting influence to maintain the attitude, which is important for the smooth functioning of the group. The reference group resists any change the people succumb to the group pressure. If the membership of the reference group is important to the person, he or she is more likely to retain his / her former attitude even in the face of contradictory information, Maintaining a particular attitude may be beneficial for the person. For instance, if someone is very hélpful to you in achieving your goals, even if you come to know about his negative qualities you justify his actions and maintain your existing attitude. ‘Once we make a piblic commitment, or take a position, it becomeswery difficult to change that. For example, if someone has participated in a protest march against the reservation policy, it will be very difficult to take a favourable position about it. If one changes one’s attitude in such a situation, he or she may find it difficulty to justify it. Attitudes greatly shape our identify. One’s identity is largely determined by the attitude one holds about people, issues, and objects that matter. Changing attitudes would, therefore, amount to changing one’s notion of self and identifyThe relationship between attitudes and behavior ‘The social psychologist Gordon W. Allport once-observed that the concept of altitudes “is -probably:themost distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary American social psychology”. The reason for this is not difficult to discern. Many investigators have assumed that attitudes occupy a crucial position in our mental makeup and as a result have consequences for tht way we act. Viewed from this perspective, attitudes serve as powerful energizers and directors of or behavior-they ready us for certain kinds of action. Hence, to understand our attitudes is to understand our behavior. Indeed, the assumption is frequently made that our attitudes serve as rather accurate predictors of our actions. To a considerable extent, however, this basic assumption has not been borne out by observation. In fact, many studies have revealed a lack of correspondence or, at best, a low correspondence between verbally expressed attitudes and overt behavior. The findings of a classic study by Richard T. LaPiere are frequently cited as providing a striking example of such a discrepancy. LaPiere traveled throughout the United States- covering some 10,000 miles altogether-with a Chinese couple. He kept a list of hotels, auto camps, tourist homes, and restaurants where they were served and took notes on how they were treated. Only once were they denied service, and LaPiere judged that their treatment was above average in nearly half of the restaurants they visited. Several months later, he mailed questionnaires to the proprietors of these various establishments asking if members of the Chinese race would be accepted as guests. Approximately 92 percent indicated they would not accept Chinese, which was clearly in contradiction to their actual behavior. Critics have faulted LaPiere’s study because his presence with the Chinese couple undoubtedly had a biasing effect. Also, it is quite probable that, whereas the Chinese couple dealt with waitresses and desk clerks, the questionnaires were completed by proprietors. Since.the time of LaPiere’s. study, however, a large number of additional studies have.also, failed to find a consistent relationship between people’s attitudes and their behavior. In one study undertaken in the period immediately prior to the civil rights movement, G. ‘Saenger and E. Gilbert compared the attitudes of White customers buying from Black clerks with the attitudes of White customers buying from White clerks in.a large New York department store. Customers were followed out of the store, where they were then rviewed. In both groups 38 percent either disapproved of Black clerks or wanted them excluded from some of the departments in the store. Despite this fagt, a number of women who had insisted a short time previously that they would not buy from Blacks later returned to the store and were observed buying from Black clerks. Thus a considerable gap existed ‘between what people said and what they did. ‘Various researchers have attempted to resolve these matters by suggesting that behavior is a function of at least two attitudes-an attitude toward the object and an attitude toward the situation. Indeed, multiple, diverse, and even contradictory attitude may be activated in given situationsERR As) Saenger and Gilbert, for instance, suggest a number of situational factors that might have accounted for the discrepancy between what White people in the study of department-store shoppers said about Black clerks and the way they acted toward them. First, prejudiced individuals were caught in a conflict between two contradictory motivations: their prejudice, on the one hand, and their desire to shop where they found it most comfortable ahd convenient, on the other. They tended to resolve their dilemma by acting contrary to their prejudice and completing ‘their shopping ‘as: quickly as possible. Second, prejudiced individuals were caught in still another conflict: whether to follow the dictates of prejudice or to act in accordance with America’s democratic ideals. Third, people prefer to conform with prevailing public opinion; the fact that Blacks were serving as clerk tended! to suggest to many Whites that the public approved of their presence (and that, by the same token, the public would disapprove of “racist” acts). Thus because of the intervention of situational factors, there is no simple way in which the behavior of one person toward another can be accurately’ predicted solely on the basis of knowledge of that person’s attitudes toward. the other. Other factors besides the situational interfere with prediction of behavior on the basis of attitudes alone. For example, Blacks differ from each other in such social properties as age, education, occupation, sex, and marital status; and attitudes toward these properties affect White behavioral interaction with Blacks. And attitudes vary not only, in their direction-that is, in being either positive or negative-but also in extremity, intensity, and the extent of the person’s ego involvement with the attitudes. Further, attitudes that we form on the basis of our own direct experience predict our actions better than those attitudes we form indirectly through hearsay. Teek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein have, proposed a further refinement for conceptualizing the relationship between attitudes and behavior. They say that our attitude toward an object influence our overall pattern of responses to the object. However, our attitude does not predict any specific action toward that object. Ajzen and Fishbein concern themselves with the behavioral intentions underlying our actions. They view our intentions as shaped by three factors: (1) our attitude toward performing the act in question; (2) the beliefs we hold about the like-hood that others expect us to perform the particular act; and (3) our motivation to comply with these beliefs. Mark Snyder and Deborah Kendzierski direct our attention to still another matter. Before we can employ. attitudes as guides to action, we first must activate these attitudes. More specifically, we must define certain attitudes as relevant to the action choices that confront us. In_other words, we need to link mentally the elements in the situation in which we find ourselves with particular attitudes before we can bring these attitudes into play in guiding our action. For instance, we may have positive attitudes toward affirmative-action programs for minorities. Yet it may not occur to us that the under representation to minorities in our school of profession calls for the implementation to-affirmative-action policies in these areas. We fail to see the relevance of the attitudes, for the situation at hand. Consequently, believing does not guarantee doing. Social psychologists, then, are coming to see the telationship between attitudes and behavior in increasingly complex terms-as involving multiple factors and mediating variables. They no longer ask whether or attitudes can be used to predict our overt actions, but when, In any ‘event, attitudes offer a convenient starting point for examining people’s behavior as they enter situation and begin to construct their actions.EET As) ORGANIZATION OF ATTITUDES Underlying_much_social_psychological theory and research is the notion of attitude Consistency-the idea that people tend to organize their attitudes in a harmonious manner so that their attitudes are not in conflict. Thus civil-rights activists do not ordinarily contribute to the Ku Klux Klan; Christian Scientists do not usually enroll in medical schools; and liberal and radical reformers seldom vote for conservative Republican candidates. The concept of attitude consistency presumes aid underscores human rationality. It assumes that people experience inconsistency as a noxious state that they are impelled to eliminate'or reduce. The basic prediction to be derived from the principle of attitudes consistency is that people typically seek to reconcile their conflicting attitudes-that the direction of attitude change will, be from a state of inconsistency toward a state of consistency. Assume by way of example that you strongly support abortion laws, believing that a woman should have the right to terminate an unwanted pregnancy. Indeed, you feel so strongly about the matter that you have recently begun to campaign for proabortion political candidates and to raise funds to support a local abortion clinic. Also suppose that your best friend vigorously opposes abortion, believing it to be an act of murder. How can you have deep and abiding ties with a person whose opinions about abortion are so different from you own? You may conclude that you really do not feel so strongly about pro-abortion legislation after all; or you may decide that, you do no like your friend all that much; or you may attempt to delude yourself into thinking, that your friend is not really opposed to abortion. In any event, the chances are that you will changes an attitude so as to bring about consistency. There are several varieties of consistency theory, three of which we shall review here: balance theory, congruity theory, and cognitive dissonance theory. Balance Theory ‘The initial formulation of the principle of attitude consistency came from Fritz Heider’s balance theory of attitudes. Heider was concerned with three elements in attitude change: (1) the person who was the focus of attention, labeled P; (2) some other person, labeled O; and (3) an impersonal entity-an object, idea, or event-labeled X. His primary interest was an discovering how relations among P, O, and X are organized by the person P. Heider’s theory can be applied to the illustration involving abortion. In the illustration you would be-P, your friend would be O, and support for abortion legislation would be X. The situation can be diagrammed according to Heider’s version of balance as follows: INDIVIDUAL SOCIAL BEHAVIOR P (You) o x ‘Support for Abortion - (Your Friend)TAS ‘Since you favor abortion, the link between you and abortion has a positive value, indicated by a plus sign. Further, since you and your friend have a close relation, the link between you and your friend has a positive value (#). Finally, since your ffiend opposes abortion, the link ‘between your friend and abortion has a negative, of minus, value (-). In mathematics, the multiplication of two positives and one negative produces a negative: er = Heider terms a minus state of affairs imbalance. This state is characterized by stress, discomfort, and unpleasantness, Hence you would be motivated to reduce the imbalance. ‘One way you might accomplish this would be to change your attitude toward abortion: P (You) “e- x ° ‘Support for Abortion (Your Friend) In this case you would multiply two negatives and one positive, which in mathematics gives you a plus sign: toe Ke =+ Since the sign is positive, balance has been restored. Instead of changing your attitude toward abortion, you could reject your friend: P (You) ‘Support for Abortion (Your Friend) In this case you would also have restored balance: : 0 hee heCognitive dissonance theory There are those who would misteach us that to stick in a rut is consistency- and a virtue, and that to climb out of the rut is inconsisteney-and a vice. Mark Twain, Consistency “Few theories “in ‘social psychology have" had=the. impact_of-Leon Festinger’s theory: of cognitive dissonance, Since its initial formulation in 1957, it has stimulated a vast amount of controversy, research, and theoretical development. And although severely challenged, the theory has overall shown considerable versatility, resilience, and predictive ability. In his theory Festinger replaces the concept of consistency or balance with that of consonance, and inconsistency or imbalance with that of dissonance. As viewed by Festinger, there is “pressure to produce consonant relations among cognitions and to avoid dissonance”. A cognition is any bit of knowledge, belief, or opinion that people have about themselves, their ‘behavior, or their environment. Festinger developed his theory as a tool for interpreting some ‘bizarre rumors that had ‘appeared after an earthquake in India, Included among the rumors were the following: “There will be a severe cyclone in the next few days”; “There will be a severe earthquake arose in an area where people had felt tremors but had not experienced personal injury or destruction of property. This seemed to contradict the prevalent psychological notion that people seek to avoid unpleasant things, such as anxiety and the prospect of pain. interestingly enough, comparable data revealed that people in an actual disaster setting-an area of death and destruction ~did not create rumors predicting further disaster, ‘The explanation arrived at by Festinger was that the rumors in the undamaged community had derived from cognitive dissonance. The people had a strong and persistent fear reaction to the tremors; yet in the absence of an adequate reason for fear was dissonant-nonfitting, or out of balance. The rumors of impending disaster provided explanation that were consonant with being afraid; the rumors functioned to justify fear and thus to reduce dissonance. The people, then, undertook to reduce dissonance by adding new consonant elements-the fear justifying rumors added new cognitions that were consistent with being afraid. Sfill another method for reducing dissonance is to change given cognitions. Here Festinger uses the example of people who believe that cigarette smokifig causes cancer and who simultaneously know that they themselves smoke. Such people experience dissonance. ‘The most efficient way to reduice dissonance would be to stop smoking, but many people find this the most difficult solution. Instead, they undermine the other cognition-that cigarette smoking causes cancer. They may belittle the evidence that links smoking to cancer. Festinger cites a survey which found ‘that 29 percent of nonsmokers, 20 percent of light snfokers, but only 7 percent of heavy smokers believed that a relationship had been™:: established between smoking and lung. cancer. Or dissonance-experience smokers might switch to filter-tipped cigarettes, deluding themselves that the filter traps all the cancer- producing materials. Or they might convince themselves that cigarette smoking is worth the price- “I'd rather have a short but enjoyable life than a long, un-enjoyable one.” In taking any of these approaches, individuals seek to reduce dissonance by reducing the absurdity involved in making themselves cancer-prone. The boxed insert provides another account of a. ‘change in a cognition when the world was not destroyed as the members of a doomsday cult 10SRIRAM’S FANS believed it would be. Of interest, alcoho! also reduces the unpleasant feelings associated with cognitive conflict, an effect that may reinforce alcohol consumption. Reward and Dissonance: Pursuing this matter further, dissonance theory makes it prediction that is surprising because it runs counter to common sense thinking: the less the reward for engaging in behavior contrary to an attitude, the greater will be the resultant attitude change. ‘And further, the less the coercion employed to force commitment, the-greater the chance of attitude change. Presumably, the greater the chance of attitude change. Presumably, people who by virtue of a large reward or coercion behave in a way that conflicts with their attitudes can deny responsibility for their behavior by saying, “How could I refuse such a large reward?” or “They made me do it!” This is illistrated by a classic experiment of Festinger and J, Merril Carlsmith. They had subjects perform an exceedingly boring task for two hours. After the subjects had completed the task, most of them were instructed by the experimenter to tell the subjects who replaced them that the experiment had been fun and exciting; others, who served as a control group, were not asked to lie. Some of the subjects who lied were paid $ 1 for their compliance; other received $ 20. The subjects were next referred to the psychology department office, where they evaluated the experiment. The evaluations were actually part of the experiment, although the subjects were led to believe that the experiment was finished. Among other ‘questions, the students were asked the degree to which they had enjoyed the task they performed. The subjects who were paid $1 rated the task more positively than those paid $20. These findings are in keeping with dissonance theory. The subjects who received only $2 found it necessary to rationalize their falschood; for a trivial sum they had lied, and hence they undertook to resolve their dissonance by coming to believe that they really had liked the dull task. In contrast, the subjects who received the $20 experienced little dissonance and thus had little reason to alter their unfavorable attitudes toward the boring task. Self Concept and Dissonance: Elliot Aronson (1968, 1969), among others, has suggested a still further refinement in dissonance theory. He indicates that Festinger mislocated the source of dissonance. What is critical, he argues, and what Festinger overlooks, is the conflict between people's selconceptions and their cognitions about a behavior that violates these self-conceptions. According to this view, dissonance does not arise between just any two cognition; rather, it arises when one’s behavior threatens to diminish the positive feeling one has about oneself. Aronson argues that in the Festinger-Carlsmith ‘experiment cited aljve, the dissonance did not occur, as Festinger anr Carlsmith insisted, between the cognition “I believed the task is “dull” and the edgnition “I said the task js interesting”. What. instead was dissonant, according to Aronson, was the cognition “I am a good and decent human being” and the cognition “I have committed an indecent act; I have misled a person”. Some of his research lends confirmation to this altemative view of dissonance, at least within the settings in which Aronson has studied it,ERs) FACTORS INFLUENCING DISSONANCE Commitment and Volition: Research findings have led to various modifications of Festinger’s original formulations. One of the most notable of these modifications has been proposed by Jack W. Brehm and A. R. Cohen. They note that the theory holds only under sertain conditions. Two key conditions-are commitment and volition. Commitment.is a,state of being bound to or inio a position or a course of action. It implies that people, Closing the door to alternative behavidrs, have to “live with” their decisions. Accordingly, they need to reduce any dissonant elements deriving from their irreversible commitment. Assume, by way of illustration, that a high school student praises Ivy League schools and ridicules the scholarly attributes of state universities. Later, he finds that no Ivy League school will accept him, and he then decides to enter a state university. By his actions, he how committed himself to a state university. According to dissonance theory, it can be predicted that he will reduce dissonance by bringing by bringing his attitudes into line with his behaviors his attitudes toward state universities will become moré favorable, and, possibly, his attitude toward Ivy League schools will become more negative. Volition refers to the degree of freedom individuals believe they possess in making a decision or choice. For individual to experience dissonance, they must believe they acted voluntarily so that they feel responsible for the outcome of their decision. If, in contrast, they are compelled to act contrary to their beliefs, they can avoid dissonance by reasoning, “I was forced to do this; I really did not have any choice.” If the student in the above illustration felt himself forced to attend the state university, he presumably would experience less dissonance-and thus less pressure to change liis attitudes about state university-then if he saw himself making a free choice. Closely associated with the processes of commitment and volition is that of reactance, a matter examined in the boxed insert on the next page. PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE Persuasion. is a deliberate attempt on the part of one party to influence the attitudes or behavior of another party so_as.to achieve some predetermined end. Earlier in chapter communication requires that a sender and a receiver become. “tuned” together for a given message, Consequently, for permission to occur, three elements must be fitted together within some viable arrangement: the communicator, the message, and the target. The communicator sends a message to a target person hoping to evoke a particular response. Of course not all. messages succeed in eliciting the desired outcome. Let us consider the communicator, the message, and the target"in tum, examining the part each plays in“persuasion_ and attitude change. ~ [A] The Communicator Aristotle’s observation is in keeping with common sense notions: we are inclined to believe ‘people-anid-be influenced by people ‘whom we judge to be honorable and trustworthy: But~ logical research? Do sodial psychologists find that we take~the characteristics of the communicator into account in assessing his or her message to us? 12 L‘Additionally, what characteristics maké a communicator more fully and more readily believable? Much research has been directed to these matters. ‘Trustworthiness: Marketing agencies seem to share the belief that the character to the communicator has a considerable effect on the persuasiveness of their appeals, Advertisers select consumers whom they feel typify the target audience to present testimonials on their satisfaction with the advertiser's product. Manufacturers often attempt to win the seal of approval from independent product-testing agencies {0 substantiate their product claims, And politicians running for office commonly solicit the endorsement of prestigious individuals. Common . sense also suggests _that_untrustworthy communicators are_not_effective as trustworthy ones. Presumably, if we think the communicators are attempting to advance their ‘own self-interests, we view them as biased-as having ulterior motives-and, therefore, we are less incliried to be influenced by them. Yet research on this matter has produced mixed results. While high-credibility sources often produce more opinion change than_low- credibility sources, the high or low credibility of the source hias not been found to affect message leaning, Neutral sources produce an amount of opinion’ change halfway between that produced by high-and low-credibility sources, but neutral sources produce more learning. of the message content. When people know that the source is trustworthy, they can evaluate the conclusion without paying attention to the arguments; when people are unable to evaluate the source, they must evaluate the arguments themselves, and consequently are more likely to eam them. Further, when the communicator is seen as arguing against his or her own best interests the person’s influence may be increased. In one study social psychologists found that when a criminal argued in favor of more individual freedom and against greater police powers, he produced little attitude change in his listeners. But when he argued in favor of a stronger police force, he produced considerable attitude change. Additionally, rapid speech functions are a credibility cue and as such enhances persuasion. Fast speakers are perceived as more knowledgeable and more trustworthy. And a message is perceived as more complex but clearer and easier to understand when presented by a fast speaker. We should not assume, however, that a high credibility source is always superior to a low credibility sources. Under some circumstances high credibility may be a liability. Some evidence suggests that a low credibility sources induces grater persuasion than a high credibility source when the issue is one toward which we have a positive initial disposition. Presumably, when we encounter a highly credible source articulating a position we favor, we let the individual do all the work. We feel no need to retrieve supporting cognitive responses from our long-term memory. It is otherwise, however, when a low credibility source expounds our position. Under these, circumstances. we feel mentally. compelled to. seek ‘arguments that will support the position, in the process strengthening our initial opinion. Expertness: Research reveals that experts afe more persuasive than nonexperts. Elliot Aronson and his colleagues had students who had negatively evaluated nine stanzas of poetry read the evaluation of someone who praised the poetry. The favorable evaluation read by one group of students was by the distinguished poet T.S. Elliot, the one read by the other group was by “Agnes Steams, “a student at Mississippi State Teachers College”. The subjects then reevaluated the poetry. Perhaps it is not surprising that considerably more attitude change BBRA) occurred among those who read the evaluation by T.S. Elliot, the expert, than among those who read the one by Agnes Steams, the nonexpert. Overall, studies that have been made of credibility suggest that the expertness or perceived competence of the communicator increases persuasive impact more than trustworthiness does. Liking: Research reveals that the more we like the source of a persuasive message, the more likely we are fo“change our belief in accordance with that advocated’ by”the ‘source: This finding is in keeping with thé predictions of Heider’s balance theory and of Osgood’s congruity theory. However, in some studies based on dissonance theory, the opposite relationship has béen predicted and at times confirmed. As dissonance theorists explain this outcome, people who listen to a disliked person can find little justification for agreeing with the person. Accordingly, they are likely to have to justify their listening by saying that the. meséage itself was worthy of attention and, hence, to be more influenced. Similarity: We tend to be influenced more by people who are similar to us than by people who are different, Presumably, If we perceive the communicator as being like ourselves we assume that he or she also shares with us common needs and goals, We conclude that what the source advocates is good for “our kind of people” and align our attitude accordingly. Further, similarity tends to produce liking for a source, and, as noted above, if we like a source, we are inclined to change our-attitude to coincide with that advocated by the liked Source. The impact is strengthened by an additional factor: liking also enhances our perception that the person is similar to ws. Multiple Sources: Common sense seemingly dictates that multiple sources are more persuasive than one source along. At political conventions, several noteworthy supporters typically nominate a candidate. Television and magazines advertisers frequently expose their audiences to multiple testimonials for their product. And in couttrooms, attorneys commonly present multiple witnesses to verify or dispute a defendant’s good character. The social psychologists Stephan G. Harkins and Richard E, Petty find merit in these approaches. Their experiments reveal that people have to “gear up” anew each time they encounter a new speaker. Consequently, increasing the number of sources compels listeners to think more intently about the message. Should each of the communicators present compelling arguments. fot'a position, listeners typically generate more positive thoughts about the position than they do“when the same high-quality arguments are provided by a single person. But multiple soiirees can also boomerang. Should each communicator present weak arguments, listengrs find the messages more negative and less persuasive then they do if the same weak arguments are supplied by one source. [B] The Message “ to the persuasive process is the message. A communicator wishe; achieve some ‘goal-an attitude or behavior change. To be persuasive, the communicator must put some idea or feeling into a form in which it can be transmitted to the target. Social psychologists have been interested in the factors that contributed to a communication’ effectiveness. Fear-appeals:~ One of the most interesting and provocative lines of research dealing with message Was initiated by the work of Irving Janis and Seymour Feshbach on fear appeals. - Three groups of high school students were exposed to different forms of a communication on 14EAs) dental hygiene. The first group received’a strong a fear appeal, which emphasized the pain caused by tooth decay and gum disease; the second group received a mote moderate appeal: and the third group received an appeal that focused on completely healthy teeth. Eight percent of the students who had been exposed to the fear appeal changed their dental-care practices, compared with 22 percent of those who had received the moderate appeal and 36 percent of those who received the low fear appeal. In sum, as the amount of fear arousing ial incteased, conformity to recommended actions decreased. Stimulated by the Janis-Feshbach study, other researchers have investigated the fectiveness of fear appeals in prorhoting a wide variety of healthy and safety measures giving up smoking, obtaining tetanus injections, using auto seat belts, and so on. It most of these studies the findings have contradicted the Janis-Feshbach results: the higher the fear level of the appeal, the greater the acceptance of the recommendations. This contradictory evidence suggests that other factors must be taken into account, especially the circumstances under which fear facilitates or inhibits persuasion. One consideration is that fear produces two parallel but independent reaction. One reaction is the strong emotional response of fear, the other is a readiness to cope with the danger. The arousal of fear in and of itself does not giarantee that people will undertake action to cope with the danger. Instead, they may think up counterarguments to the fear appeal, stop thinking about the danger, or develop various rationalization for not worrying. It appears that high-fear arousing messages result in greater persuasiveness than low-fear-arousing message if the high-fear message contains recommendation for reducing fear-that is, for coping with danger by stopping smoking, getting a tetanus injection, or wearing an auto seat belt. Indeed, the antismoking ‘campaign has paid large dividends. Per capita cigarette consumption in the United States has declined annually since 1973. in the absence of the antismoking- campaign, cigarette consumption in 1978 would have exceeded the 1973 level by a third. Conclusion drawing: Is it more effective when presenting arguments to state the conclusion explicitly or to leave it unstated? Social psychologists have debated this matter. If the conclusion is stated, the possibility that the audience may misinterpret the argument is avoided. On the other hand, by not stating the conclusion, the speaker may give the impression of having no ulterior motive and, therefore, may appear more credible. Further, if the audience members draw the conclusion for.themselves, they may be more strongly persuaded than if the conclusion is drawn for them. On the basis of his survey of the literature, concludes: “In communication, it appears, itis not sufficient to lead the horse to water; one must also push his head underneath to get him to There does appear, however, to be an exception to this general principle. With relatively well-informed, cophisticated audiences or where the issue.is a very simple one, it is usually more effective to let the audience draw the conclusion for itself One-sided versus two-sided communications: Is it more effective for'a speaker to acknowledge the opposing arguments and refute them or simply ignore the opposing view? If the message includes mention of arguments in support of the opposing view, the speaker has the advantage of appearing less biased, more knowledgeable, and les intent om trying to persuade, In brief, the speaker appears more credible, since the message comes across less like propaganda and more like a dispassionate talk. On the other hand, a one-sided ‘communication is less compticated and easier for the hearer to grasp. 15Research findings suggest that whether the one-sided or the two-sided communication is more effective depends partly on the audience, The one-sided communication appears more effective when the audience is poorly informed and pgorly educated. To present such an audience with both sides of the issue serves merely to confuse the listeners and to provide them with counterarguments that they would not. otherwise consider. Qne-sided communications appears to be more effective also when the audience already agrees. with the ‘message: Then such comiffiuni¢ation: simplify matters and strengthen existing attitudes.’ But where audience are well informed and well educated or are initially opposed to:the message, a two-sided communication appears to be the more effective. Personal Involvement: Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo distinguish between central_and_ peripheral routes to persuasion. The central route aims to change people’s attitudes by involving them in a diligent consideration of issues and arguments. This approach ‘emphasizes comprehension, learning and retention of the message argument. In contrast, the peripheral route does not necessarily entail issue-relevant thinking. Instead, attitude change is promoted through “cues” that link the persuader to the issue. These cues are associated with the nature of the communicator; for instance, the communicator is credible, attractive, or powerful. Petty and Cacioppo find that changes that are induced through the central route and that activate personal involvement are more enduring and predictive of subsequent behavior than changes induced through the peripheral route. [C] The Target Our daily observations suggest that_some_peaple are gullible “pushovers” while others stubbomly “stick to their guns”. Do people in fact differ in their susceptibility to persuasive communications? Evidence suggests that there is such a trait as general persuasibility-that there is some consistency in the degree to which a person can be persuaded by certain kinds of appeals and on certain kinds of issues. But although there appears to be an underlying general trait of susceptibility to certain kinds of influences, a host of situational factors nonetheless intervene to moderate the impact of any given appeal. Thus the relationship between personality and persuasibility cannot be determined without taking account of the source and nature of the appeal and the nature of the issue. The more a person’s attitude is “anchored” through linkage and integration with logically related beliefs, the more resistant is the individual to a change in the belief. And the grater the individual's involvement with the issue and stake in the outcome, the greater the person’s resistance to persuasion, Role Playing: Under some circumstances role playing appears to be,an effective device for altering attitudes and behavior. Leon mann and Irving Janis had a sample of young women who were heavy cigarette smokers play the role of a cancer patient in an experimental group. After an eighteen-month interval, these young women smoked significantly less than. the ‘women in a control group who had not acted in the play. Public Position: Making public one’s position on an issue and then finding one’s position attacked tends to make a person more resistant to counterpropaganda and more dedicated to the cause. In one study, women who favored the dissemination of birth control information ‘and who had signed a petition in support of such-a program were sent a leaflet attacking their stand. Follow-up investigation revealed that these women-when compared with a control 16SRIRAM’S FENG) group who had signed the petition but who did not receive the leaflet-increased their commitment to the cause and were subsequently more willing to do volunteer work on its behaif. Forewaming people of an upcoming communication that runs counter to their current position increase their resistance to persuasion. Warnings motivate people to consider more fully their own positions and fo generate anticipatory counterarguments for the impending attack. A person forewarned is forearmed, However, over time some individuals either forget or dissociate the forewarning, thus permitting the full impact of the message to emerge. Social psychologists term this outcome the sleeper effect-a delay occurs before the impact of a communication is felt. ‘Voluntary. exposure to information tends to be highly selective. We seek out information that supports Gur beliefs and avoid information that challenges our position. This behavior allows us to minimize dissonance. However, there are exceptions to this principle. For instance, our attention is also affected By the novelty and utility of the information. Additionally, norms of intellectual honesty and faimess can léad us to expose ourselves io information supporting the “other side” despite the dissonance aroused by such material. People who hold strong opinions on social issues accept information confirming their own views at face value. Moreover, they remember it better than they do opposing information. Hence, individual respond to topics like compensatory education, water fluoridation, and energy conservation with biased mind sets, Indeed, a “rebound effect” often operates-people encountering opposing viewpoints and criticisms of their position not only stick with their original position but claim: to be even more convinced than they were previously. Consequently, exposing contending factions in a dispute to an identical body of information may increase rather than decrease their polarization. Clearly, the effectiveness of communications that are designed to persuade depends on a regarding an individual's susceptibility to persuasion are difficult to make. Reactance In the United Stafes we place a premium upon freedom. For many Americans, freedom is ‘what their country is all about- “the land of the free and the home of the brave.” Anything that jeopardizes freedom is seen as a menace to the American way of life-as “un-American.” We like to believe that we control our own destinies. We experience anything that lessens our freedom to act as highly unpleasant. Indeed, compelling us to act against our wishes often boomerangs-we become “contrary” and attempt to reassert our freedom. If we feel prevented from doing something, commonly we will want to do it even more; if forced to do something, ‘we will want to do it even less than we did before. Jack W. Brehm undertakes to analyze these matters with his theory of reactance. Reactance theory assumes that people view themselves as possessing a set of free behaviors, any one of which they might engage in at any given time. When any of these behavioral, freedoms is climinated or threatened with elimination, psychological reactance is aroused. Reactance i$ a motivational state directed toward restoring or safeguarding the threatened freedom. ‘The greater the importance of that freedom. The greater the magnitude of the aroused reactance. Many laboratory studies have shown that when reactance is aroused, people display an 7To EDEN is) increased appreciation of and desire for the threatened or eliminated freedom. Further, reactance leads to an increased tendency to exercise the threatened freedom. Michael B. Mazis has tested reactance theory in a marketplace situation where consumer's freedom of choice was restricted by government action. Mazis was able to study this kind of situation 6f Miami, Florida. As an antipollution measuré, the county is which Miami is situated prohibited:the scale, possession, or use of laundry detergents containing phosphates: Only-a small number of populai brands were available in no-phosphate form. ‘Thus shoppers found their choice of detergents drastically reduced. Seven to nine weeks after the antiphosphate statute became effective, interviews were conducted among a sample of housewives in a middle-class Miami neighborhood and a similar neighborhood in Tampa, Florida. As predicted by reactance theory, Miami. housewives expressed more positive attitudes toward the eliminated alternative than women did in Tampa. Further, the women who were forced to switch brands expressed less favorable attitudes about their no-phosphate detergents than the women who did not have to switch (one leading manufacturer quickly began distributing no-phosphate, versions of al its existing brands). This finding is also in accordance with reactance theory, since women who were compelled to switch brands should have experienced more psychological choice deprivation. ‘Thus reactance theory provides insight into violations of law and opposition to new laws restricting what people believe to be their freedom of action. A classic example is the dismal failure of Prohibition to prevent the manufacture, transportation, and scale of alcoholic beverages in the 1920s. Sometimes anti-pomography and anti-drug laws have also had boomerang consequences. Immunization against Attitude Change Following the Korean War, Senate investigator’s were alarmed by the lack of resistance to Chinese Communist “brainwashing” that had been displayed by American prisoners of war. A congressional committee concluded that if Americans received more instruction in “Americanism” at hone and at school, they would be less vulnerable to enemy propaganda in future wars. Various church groups have adopted a similar stance, calling for stepped-up training of young people in various moral precepts. Research by William McGuire, a psychologists, and his associates suggests, however, that a more effective spprosch we would be to expose people to opposing viewpoints as an immunization device. ‘When we wish to develop people’s biological resistance to disease agents, we inoculate them with a weakened form of the infectious material so as to stimulate their defense mechanisms prior to massive exposure. McGuire suggests that, analogously, ipdividuals can be made immune to propaganda by being exposed to weakened forms of the oppositions arguments before they experience the main attack. To test this hypothesis, McGuire had subjects parcipate in two experimental sessions. During the first session, they were exposed to four cultural truisms regarding various health ‘measures, including frequent tooth brushing to prevent dental decay and the use of X-rays to detect tubertulosis. For example, the subjects were told that “Everyone should brush his teeth afier every meal ifat all possible.TAS In the initial session, one of the truisms was accompanied by supportive information-for example, that brushing teeth improves their appearance and eliminates decay-causing bacteria. A second truism was followed by the equivalent 6f inoculation-weak counterargument and its regulation: some people say that brushing injures the gums, but dental evidence suggests that brushing stimulates and improves gum condition. The counterargument was designed to be strong enough to threaten the individuals slightly and so stir up resistance, but not so strong as {0 overcome their weak defenses. The other two truisms were control truism and were neither attacked nor supported, In another experimental session a few days later, subjects were confronted’ with a strong attack against three of the truisms-the truism receiving supportive information. The truism with which inoculation was provided, and one control truism. A follow-up assessment of the subjects of attitudes revealed that the undefended truisms were highly vulnerable to the subsequent attack. In contrast, both supportive defense and, inoculation defense helped subjects to resist the counter-attitudinal propaganda. But of most interest is that the inoculation defense conferred considerably more immunity that did the supportive defense. Apparently, as in the case of medical inoculation, people who experience an earlier weak attack bolster their defenses: they prepare arguments to support their position, construct counterarguments, belittle opposing views, and so on. 19GENERAL STUDIES EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (PAPER-IV) 11A/22; 1* Floor; Old Rajender Nagar;New Delhi -60 Ph. 011-25825591; 42437002; 9958671553 73- 755 J* Floor; Ring Road ;Beside GTB Metro Station Kingsway Camp;New Delhi. Ph. 08447273027Contents A 8 cl C2 cs cA cs C6 ca INTELLIGENCE. EMOTIONS Ability model. Mixed model Trait model. El versus IQ as a Predictor of Workplace Performance... {EMOTIONAL COMPETENCY. we aanaen ewe MANAGEMENT OF EMOTIONS... L Page 2 of 10SRIRAM’S BEN) A. INTELLIGENCE Intelligence is a term that is difficult to define, and it can mean many different things to different people. in fact, it has divided the scientific community for decades and controversies still rage over its exact definition and form of measurement. Intelligence is often defined as the general mental ability to learn and apply knowledge to manipulate your environment, as well as the ability, to reason and have abstract thought. intelligence include adaptability to a new environment or to changes in the current environment, the ability to evaluate and Judge, the ability to comprehend complex. ideas, the capacity for original and productive thought, the ability to learn quickly and learn from experience and even the ability to comprehend relationships. Researchers asked about the aspects of intelligence felt that factors like problem-solving ability, mental speed, general knowledge, creativity, abstract thinking and memory all played important roles in the measure and standard of intelligence. Most agree that intelligence is an umbrella term which covers a variety of refated mental abilities. While there are a number of different methods for measuring intelligence, one of the most widely accepted method is by measuring a person's ‘intelligence quotient’ or IQ.” Based on a series of tests which assess various types of abilities such a mathematical, spatial, verbal, logic and memory. The results from such tests done on a group that is representative of the wider popular shows the classic ‘bell-shape’ distribution, meaning that most people are of average intelligence with a few at the extreme ends of the scale. IQ, scores are used as predictors of educational achievement, special needs, job performance and income. They are also used to study IQ distributions in populations and the correlations between IQ and other variables. IQs the most researched attempt at measuring intelligence and by far the most widely used in practical setting. However, although IQ attempts to measure some notion of intelligence, it may fail to act as an accurate measure of “intelligence” in its broadest sense. 1Q tests only examine particular areas ‘embodied by the broadest notion of "intelligence", failing to account for certain areas which are also associated with “iteligence" such as creativity or emotional intelligence. B, EMOTIONS The emotion is defined as ‘a strong mental or instinctive feeling such as‘love or fear’ (Oxford English Dictionary, 1996) involving many bodily processes, and mental states. An emotion combines cognition, bodily arousal and behaviour in a readymade formula for responding in line with the way the situation has been interpreted. There is a huge difference in the ways of feeling emotions by human beings and animals although both of them experience anger, fear, sadness, and joy. Emotion can be defined as the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterised by certain ‘physical arousal, a certain behaviour that reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings. Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality and disposition and motivation.

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