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Inthe1860sJamesClerkMaxwellpublishedequations
thatdescribehowchargedparticlesgiverisetoelectric
andmagneticforceperunitcharge.Theforceperunit
chargeiscalleda"field".Theparticlescouldbe
stationaryormoving.These,togetherwiththeLorentz
forceequation,provideeverythingyouneedtocalculate
themotionofparticlesinelectricandmagneticfields.
Maxwell'sequationsdescribehowelectricchargesand
electriccurrentscreateelectricandmagneticfields.
Further,theydescribehowanelectricfieldcangenerate
amagneticfield,andviceversa.
Thefirstequationallowsyoutocalculatetheelectric
fieldcreatedbyacharge.Thesecondallowsyouto
calculatethemagneticfield.Theothertwodescribehow
fields'circulate'aroundtheirsources.Magneticfields
'circulate'aroundelectriccurrentsandtimevarying
electricfields,Ampre'slawwithMaxwell'scorrection,
whileelectricfields'circulate'aroundtimevarying
magneticfields,Faraday'slaw.
Electromagnetism
ElectricityMagnetism
Electrostatics
ElectricchargeCoulomb'slaw
ElectricfieldElectricflux
Gauss'slawElectricpotentialenergy
ElectricpotentialElectrostaticinduction
ElectricdipolemomentPolarizationdensity
Magnetostatics
Ampre'slawElectriccurrentMagneticfield
MagnetizationMagneticfluxBiotSavartlaw
Magneticdipolemoment
Gauss'slawformagnetism
Electrodynamics
Contents
1Maxwell'sEquationsintheclassicalforms
2Themeaningoftheequations
2.1Chargedensityandtheelectricfield
2.2Thestructureofthemagneticfield
2.3Achangingmagneticfluxandthe
electricfield
2.4Thesourceofthemagneticfield
3CovariantFormulation
Maxwell'sEquationsintheclassical
forms
Name
Differentialform
Lorentzforcelawemf
ElectromagneticinductionFaradayslaw
Lenz'slawDisplacementcurrent
Maxwell'sequationsEMfield
Electromagneticradiation
LinardWiechertpotentialMaxwelltensor
Eddycurrent
ElectricalNetwork
ElectricalconductionElectricalresistance
Capacitance
InductanceImpedanceResonantcavities
Waveguides
Covariantformulation
ElectromagnetictensorEMStressenergytensor
FourcurrentElectromagneticfourpotential
Integralform
Gauss'law:
Gauss'lawfor
magnetism
(absenceof
magnetic
monopoles):
Faraday'slawof
induction:
Ampre'slaw
(withMaxwell's
extension):
wherethefollowingtableprovidesthemeaningofeachsymbolandtheSIunitofmeasure:
Symbol
Meaning
SIUnitofMeasure
electricfield
voltpermetre
magneticfieldstrength
amperepermetre
electricdisplacementfield
coulombpersquare
metre
magneticfluxdensity
alsocalledthemagneticinduction.
tesla,or
equivalently,
weberpersquare
metre
freeelectricchargedensity,
notcountingthedipolechargesboundinamaterial.
coulombpercubic
metre
freecurrentdensity,
notcountingpolarizationormagnetizationcurrentsboundina
material.
amperepersquare
metre
differentialvectorelementofsurfaceareaA,withverysmall
magnitudeanddirectionnormaltosurfaceS
squaremeters
differentialelementofvolumeVenclosedbysurfaceS
cubicmeters
differentialvectorelementofpathlengthtangentialtocontourC
enclosingsurfacec
meters
instantaneousvelocityofthelineelement
definedabove(for
movingcircuits).
meterspersecond
and
isthedivergenceoperator(SIunit:1permetre),
isthecurloperator(SIunit:1permetre).
Themeaningoftheequations
Chargedensityandtheelectricfield
,
where isthefreeelectricchargedensity(inunitsofC/m3),notcountingthedipolechargesboundina
material,and istheelectricdisplacementfield(inunitsofC/m2).ThisequationislikeCoulomb'slaw
fornonmovingchargesinvacuum.
Thenextintegralform(bythedivergencetheorem),alsoknownasGauss'law,saysthesamething:
istheareaofadifferentialsquareontheclosedsurfaceA.Thesurfacenormalpointingoutisthe
direction,and
isthefreechargethatisinsidethesurface.
Inalinearmaterial, isdirectlyrelatedtotheelectricfield withaconstantcalledthepermittivity,
(Thisconstantisdifferentfordifferentmaterials):
.
Youcanpretendamaterialislinear,iftheelectricfieldisnotverystrong.
Thepermittivityoffreespaceiscalled
,andisusedinthisequation:
Thestructureofthemagneticfield
isthemagneticfluxdensity(inunitsofteslas,T),alsocalledthemagneticinduction.
Thisnextintegralformsaysthesamething:
Theareaof
istheareaofadifferentialsquareonthesurface .Thedirectionof
normalpointingoutwardsonthesurfaceof .
isthesurface
Thisequationonlyworksiftheintegralisdoneoveraclosedsurface.Thisequationsays,thatinevery
volumethesumofthemagneticfieldlinesthatgoinequalsthesumofthemagneticalfieldlinesthatgo
out.Thismeansthatthemagneticfieldlinesmustbeclosedloops.Anotherwayofsayingthisisthatthe
fieldlinescannotstartfromsomewhere.Thisisthemathematicalwayofsaying:"Therearenomagnetic
monopoles".
Achangingmagneticfluxandtheelectricfield
Thisnextintegralformsaysthesamething:
Here
Thisiswhatthesymbolsmean:
BisthemagneticfluxthatgoesthroughtheareaAthatthesecondequationdescribes,
Eistheelectricfieldthatthemagneticfluxcauses,
sisaclosedpathinwhichcurrentisinduced,forexampleawire,
vistheinstantaneousvelocityofthelineelement(formovingcircuits).
Theelectromotiveforceisequaltothevalueofthisintegral.Sometimesthissymbolisusedforthe
electromotiveforce: ,donotconfuseitwiththesymbolforpermittivitythatwasusedbefore.
ThislawislikeFaraday'slawofelectromagneticinduction.
SometextbooksshowtherighthandsignoftheintegralformwithanN(Nisthenumberofcoilsofwire
thatarearoundtheedgeofA)infrontofthefluxderivative.TheNcanbetakencareofincalculatingA
(multiplewirecoilsmeansmultiplesurfacesforthefluxtogothrough),anditisanengineeringdetailsoit's
leftouthere.
Thenegativesignisneededforconservationofenergy.Itissoimportantthatitevenhasitsownname,
Lenz'slaw.
Thisequationshowshowtheelectricandmagneticfieldshavetodowitheachother.Forexample,this
equationexplainshowelectricmotorsandelectricgeneratorswork.Inamotororgenerator,thefieldcircuit
hasafixedelectricfieldthatcausesamagneticfield.Thisiscalledfixedexcitation.Thevaryingvoltageis
measuredacrossthearmaturecircuit.Maxwell'sequationsareusedinarighthandedcoordinatesystem.To
usetheminalefthandedsystem,withouthavingtochangetheequations,thepolarityofmagneticfields
hastomadeopposite(thisisnotwrong,butitisconfusingbecauseitisnotusuallydonelikethis).
Thesourceofthemagneticfield
Histhemagneticfieldstrength(inunitsofA/m),whichyoucangetbydividingthemagneticfluxBbya
constantcalledthepermeability,(B=H),andJisthecurrentdensity,definedby:
J=qvdV
visavectorfieldcalledthedriftvelocity.Itdescribesthespeedsofthechargecarriersthathaveadensity
describedbythescalarfunctionq.
Infreespace,thepermeabilityisthepermeabilityoffreespace,0,whichisexactly4107W/Am,by
definition.Also,thepermittivityisthepermittivityoffreespace0.So,infreespace,theequationis:
Thenextintegralformsaysthesamething:
sistheedgeoftheopensurfaceA(anysurfacewiththecurvesasitsedgeisokayhere),andIencircledisthe
currentencircledbythecurves(thecurrentthroughanysurfaceisdefinedbytheequation:IthroughA=
AJdA).
Iftheelectricfluxdensitydoesnotchangeveryfast,thesecondtermontherighthandside(the
displacementflux)isverysmallandcanbeleftout,andthentheequationisthesameasAmpere'slaw.
CovariantFormulation
ThereareonlytwocovariantMaxwellEquations,becausethecovariantfieldvectorincludestheelectrical
andthemagneticalfield.
Mathematicalnote:Inthissectiontheabstractindexnotationwillbeused.
Inspecialrelativity,Maxwell'sequationsforthevacuumarewrittenintermsoffourvectorsandtensorsin
the"manifestlycovariant"form.ThishasbeendonetoshowmoreclearlythefactthatMaxwell'sequations
(invacuum)takethesameforminanyinertialcoordinatesystem.Thisisthe"manifestlycovariant"form:
,
and
Thesecondequationisthesameas:
Here isthe4current,
isthefieldstrengthtensor(writtenasa44matrix),
istheLevi
Civitasymbol,and
isthe4gradient(sothat
isthed'Alembertianoperator).
(The inthefirstequationisimplicitlysummedover,accordingtoEinsteinnotation.)Thefirsttensor
equationsaysthesamethingasthetwoinhomogeneousMaxwell'sequations:Gauss'lawandAmpere'slaw
withMaxwell'scorrection.Thesecondequationsaythesamethingastheothertwoequations,the
homogeneousequations:Faraday'slawofinductionandtheabsenceofmagneticmonopoles.
canalsobedescribedmoreexplicitlybythisequation:
(asacontravariantvector),
whereyouget fromthechargedensityandthecurrentdensity .The4currentisasolutiontothe
continuityequation:
Intermsofthe4potential(asacontravariantvector)
isthemagneticvectorpotentialintheLorentzgauge
whichleadstothe44matrixrank2tensor:
,whereistheelectricpotentialand
,Fcanbewrittenas:
Thefactthatbothelectricandmagneticfieldsarecombinedintoasingletensorshowsthefactthat,
accordingtorelativity,bothofthesearedifferentpartsofthesamethingbychangingframesofreference,
whatlookslikeanelectricfieldinoneframecanlooklikeamagneticfieldinanotherframe,andtheother
wayaround.
UsingthetensorformofMaxwell'sequations,thefirstequationimplies
(SeeElectromagneticfourpotentialfortherelationshipbetweenthed'Alembertianofthe
fourpotentialandthefourcurrent,expressedintermsoftheoldervectoroperatornotation).
Differentauthorssometimesusedifferentsignconventionsforthesetensorsand4vectors(butthisdoesnot
changewhattheymean).
and
arenotthesame:theyarerelatedbytheMinkowskimetrictensor :
.
ThischangesthesignofsomeofF'scomponentsmorecomplexmetricdualitiescanbeseeningeneral
relativity.
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