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MetaphysicsByBranch/DoctrineTheBasicsofPhilosophy
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A huge subject broken down into manageable chunks

RandomQuoteoftheDay:Moralityisnotthedoctrineofhowwemaymakeourselveshappy,butofhowwemaymakeourselves
worthyofhappinessImmanuelKant

ByBranch/Doctrine>Metaphysics
Introduction|ExistenceandConsciousness|MindandMatter|ObjectsandtheirProperties|IdentityandChange|SpaceandTime|ReligionandSpirituality|
NecessityandPossibility|AbstractObjectsandMathematics|DeterminismandFreeWill|CosmologyandCosmogony|MajorDoctrines

Introduction

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Metaphysicsisthebranchofphilosophyconcernedwiththenatureofexistence,beingandtheworld.Arguably,metaphysics
isthefoundationofphilosophy:Aristotlecallsit"firstphilosophy"(orsometimesjust"wisdom"),andsaysitisthesubjectthat
dealswith"firstcausesandtheprinciplesofthings".
Itasksquestionslike:"Whatisthenatureofreality?","Howdoestheworldexist,andwhatisitsoriginorsourceofcreation?",
"Doestheworldexistoutsidethemind?","Howcantheincorporealmindaffectthephysicalbody?","Ifthingsexist,whatistheir
objectivenature?","IsthereaGod(ormanygods,ornogodatall)?"
Originally,theGreekword"metaphysika"(literally"afterphysics")merelyindicatedthatpartofAristotle'soeuvrewhichcame,in
itssequence,afterthosechapterswhichdealtwithphysics.Later,itwasmisinterpretedbyMedievalcommentatorsonthe
classicaltextsasthatwhichisaboveorbeyondthephysical,andsoovertimemetaphysicshaseffectivelybecomethestudy
ofthatwhichtranscendsphysics.
Aritstotleoriginallysplithismetaphysicsintothreemainsectionsandtheseremainthemainbranchesofmetaphysics:
Ontology(thestudyofbeingandexistence,includingthedefinitionandclassificationofentities,physicalormental,the
natureoftheirproperties,andthenatureofchange)
NaturalTheology(thestudyofGod,includingthenatureofreligionandtheworld,existenceofthedivine,questions
aboutthecreation,andthevariousotherreligiousorspiritualissues)
UniversalScience(thestudyoffirstprinciplesoflogicandreasoning,suchasthelawofnoncontradiction)
Metaphysicshasbeenattacked,atdifferenttimesinhistory,asbeingfutileandoverlyvague,particularlybyDavidHume,
ImmanuelKantandA.J.Ayer.Itmaybemoreusefultosaythatametaphysicalstatementusuallyimpliesanideaaboutthe
worldortheuniverse,whichmayseemreasonablebutisultimatelynotempiricallyverifiable,testableorprovable.

ExistenceandConsciousness

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Existence(thefactorstateofcontinuedbeing)isaxiomatic(meaningthatitdoesnotrestuponanythinginordertobevalid,
anditcannotbeprovenbyany"morebasic"premises)becauseitisnecessaryforallknowledgeanditcannotbedenied
withoutconcedingitstruth(adenialofsomethingisonlypossibleifexistenceexists)."Existenceexists"isthereforeanaxiom
whichstatesthatthereissomething,asopposedtonothing.
Consciousnessisthefacultywhichperceivesandidentifiesthingsthatexist.Inhisfamousformulation"Cogitoergosum"
("IthinkthereforeIam"),RenDescartesarguedthatconsciousnessisaxiomatic,becauseyoucannotlogicallydenyyour
mind'sexistenceatthesametimeasusingyourmindtodothedenying.
However,whatDescartesdidnotmakeclearisthatconsciousnessisthefacultythatperceivesthatwhichexists,soitrequires
somethingoutsideofitselfinordertofunction:itrequires,andisdependentupon,existence.Theprimacyofexistencestates
thatexistenceisprimaryandconsciousnessissecondary,becausetherecanbenoconsciousnesswithoutsomethingexisting
toperceive.Existenceisindependentof,makespossible,andisaprerequisiteofconsciousness.Consciousnessisnot
responsibleforcreatingreality:itiscompletelydependentuponreality.

MindandMatter

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Earlydebatesonthenatureofmattercentredonidentifyingasingleunderlyingprinciple(Monism):waterwasclaimedby
Thales,airbyAnaximenes,Apeiron(meaning"theundefinedinfinite")byAnaximander,andfirebyHeraclitus.Democritus
conceivedanatomictheory(Atomism)manycenturiesbeforeitwasacceptedbymodernscience.
Thenatureofthemindanditsrelationtothebodyhasalsoexercisedthebestbrainsformillennia.Thereisalargeoverlap
herewithPhilosophyofMind,whichisisthebranchofphilosophythatstudiesthenatureofthemind,mentalevents,mental
functions,mentalpropertiesandconsciousness,andtheirrelationshiptothephysicalbody.
Inthe17thCentury,DescartesproposedaDualistsolutioncalledSubstanceDualism(orCartesianDualism)wherebythemind
andbodyaretotallyseparateanddifferent:thementaldoesnothaveextensioninspace,andthematerialcannotthink.
Idealists,likeBishopGeorgeBerkeleyandtheGermanIdealistschool,claimthatmaterialobjectsdonotexistunlessperceived
(IdealismisessentiallyaMonist,ratherthanDualist,theoryinthatthereisasingleuniversalsubstanceorprinciple).
BaruchSpinozaandBertrandRussellbothadopted,indifferentways,adualaspecttheorycalledNeutralMonism,which
claimsthatexistenceconsistsofasinglesubstancewhichinitselfisneithermentalnorphysical,butiscapableofmental
andphysicalaspectsorattributes.
Inthelastcentury,science(particularlyatomictheory,evolution,computertechnologyandneuroscience)has
demonstratedmanywaysinwhichmindandbraininteractinaphysicalway,buttheexactnatureoftherelationshipisstillopen
todebate.Thedominantmetaphysicsinthe20thCenturyhasthereforebeenvariousversionsofPhysicalism(orMaterialism),a
Monistsolutionwhichexplainsmatterandmindasmerelyaspectsofeachother,orderivativesofaneutralsubstance.

ObjectsandtheirProperties

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Theworldcontainsmanyindividualthings(objectsorparticulars),bothphysicalandabstract,andwhatthesethingshavein

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commonwitheachotherarecalleduniversalsorproperties.Metaphysiciansareinterestedinthenatureofobjectsandtheir
properties,andtherelationshipbetweenthetwo(seethesectionsonRealismandNominalism).
Theproblemofuniversalsariseswhenpeoplestarttoconsiderinwhatsenseitispossibleforapropertytoexistinmorethan
oneplaceatthesametime(e.g.aredcarandaredrose).Itseemsclearthattherearemanyredthings,forexample,butis
thereanexistingpropertyof'redness'?Andifthereissuchathingas'redness',whatkindofthingisit?Seethesectionon
Realismforafurtherdiscussionofthis.
Anyobjectorentityisthesumofitsparts(seeHolism).Theidentityofanentitycomposedofotherentitiescanbeexplained
byreferencetotheidentityofthebuildingblocks,andhowtheyareinteracting.Ahousecanbeexplainedbyreferencetothe
wood,metal,andglassthatarecombinedinthatparticularwaytoformthehouseoritcouldbeexplainedintermsofthe
atomsthatformit(seethesectionsonAtomismandReductionism).

IdentityandChange

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Identityiswhatevermakesanentitydefinableandrecognizable,intermsofpossessingasetofqualitiesorcharacteristics
thatdistinguishitfromentitiesofadifferenttype(effectively,whatevermakessomethingthesameordifferent).Thus,
accordingtoLeibniz,ifsomeobjectxisidenticaltosomeobjecty,thenanypropertythatxhas,ywillhaveaswell,andvice
versa(otherwise,bydefinition,theywouldnotbeidentical).
Aristotle'sLawofIdentity(ortheAxiomofIdentity)statesthattoexist,anexistent(i.e.anentitythatexists)musthavea
particularidentity.Athingcannotexistwithoutexistingassomething,otherwiseitwouldbenothinganditwouldnotexist.
Also,tohaveanidentitymeanstohaveasingleidentity:anobjectcannothavetwoidentitiesatthesametimeorinthesame
respect.Theconceptofidentityisimportantbecauseitmakesexplicitthatrealityhasadefinitenature,whichmakesit
knowableand,sinceitexistsinaparticularway,ithasnocontradictions(whentwoideaseachmaketheotherimpossible).
Changeisthealterationofidentities,whetheritbeastonefallingtoearthoralogburningtoash.Forsomethingtochange
(whichisaneffect),itneedstobeactedon(caused)byapreviousaction.Causalityisthelawthatstatesthateachcausehas
aspecificeffect,andthatthiseffectisdependentontheinitialidentitiesoftheagentsinvolved.
Weareintuitivelyawareofchangeoccurringovertime(e.g.atreelosesaleaf).TheAncientGreekstooksomeextreme
positionsonthenatureofchange:Parmenidesdeniedthatchangeoccursatall,whileHeraclitusthoughtchangewas
ubiquitous.
Currentlytherearethreemaintheorieswhichdealwiththeproblemofchange:
MereologicalEssentialismassumesthatanobject'spartsareessentialtoit,andthereforethatanobjectcannot
persistthroughanychangeofitsparts.
Perdurantismholdsthatobjectsareeffectively4dimensionalentitiesmadeupofaseriesoftemporalpartslikethe
framesofamovie(ittreatsthetree,then,asaseriesoftreestages).
Endurantism,ontheotherhand,holdsthatawholeobjectandthesameobjectexistsateachmomentofitshistory,
(sothatthesametreepersistsregardlessofhowmanyleavesitloses).

SpaceandTime

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AtraditionalRealistpositionisthattimeandspacehaveexistenceindependentfromthehumanmind.Idealists,however,claim
thatspaceandtimearementalconstructsusedtoorganizeperceptions,orareotherwiseunreal.
DescartesandLeibnizbelievedthat,withoutphysicalobjects,"space"wouldbemeaninglessbecausespaceistheframework
uponwhichweunderstandhowphysicalobjectsarerelatedtoeachother.SirIsaacNewton,ontheotherhand,arguedforan
absolutespace("containerspace"),whichcancontinuetoexistintheabsenceofmatter.WiththeworkofSirAlbert
Einstein,thependulumswungbacktorelationalspaceinwhichspaceiscomposedofrelationsbetweenobjects,withthe
implicationthatitcannotexistintheabsenceofmatter.
AlthoughParmenidesdeniedtheflowoftimecompletelyinancienttimes,echoedmorerecentlybytheBritishIdealistJ.M.E.
McTaggart(18661925),muchdebateinbothphilosophyandphysicshascentredonthedirectionoftime("time'sarrow"),
andwhetheritisreversibleorsymmetrical.Asforwhetherobjectspersistovertime,thentheendurantism/perdurantism
dichotomydescribedaboveapplies.

ReligionandSpirituality

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TheologyisthestudyofGodandthenatureoftheDivine.Thisissometimesconsideredawholeseparatebranchof
philosophy,thePhilosophyofReligion(seethatsectionformoredetail).Itasksquestionslike:
DoestheDivineintervenedirectlyintheworld(Theism),orisitssolefunctiontobethefirstcauseoftheuniverse
(Deism)?
IsthereoneGod(Monotheism),manygods(Polytheism)ornogods(AtheismorHumanism),orisitimpossibleto
know(Agnosticism)?
AreGodandtheuniverseidentical(Pantheism,Monism)oraretheydifferent(Panentheism,Dualism)?
Doesreligiousbeliefdependsonfaithandrevelation(Fideism),oronreason(Deism)?
WithinWesternPhilosophy,PhilosophyofReligion,andtheologyingeneral,reacheditpeakwithMedievalChristianschoolsof
thoughtlikeScholasticism.

NecessityandPossibility

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Anecessaryfactistrueacrossallpossibleworlds(thatis,wecouldnotimagineittobeotherwise).Apossiblefactisone
thatistrueinsomepossibleworld,evenifnotintheactualworld.ThisideaofpossibleworldswasfirstintroducedbyGottfried
Leibniz,althoughothershavedealtwithitinmuchmoredetailsince,notablytheAmericananalyticphilosopherDavidLewis
(19412001)inhistheoryofModalRealism.
Theconceptofnecessityandcontingency(anothertermusedinphilosophytodescribethepossibilityofsomethinghappening
ornothappening)isalsocentraltosomeoftheargumentsusedtojustifytheexistenceornonexistenceofGod,notablythe
CosmologicalArgumentfromContingency(seethesectiononPhilosophyofReligionformoredetails).

AbstractObjectsandMathematics

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Somephilosophersholdthatthereareabstractobjects(suchasnumbers,mathematicalobjectsandfictionalentities)and
universals(propertiesthatcanbepossessedbymultipleobjects,suchas"redness"or"squareness"),bothofwhichwhichare
outsideofspaceandtimeand/orarecausallyinert.
Realism,bestexemplifiedbyPlatoandhisPlatonicForms,teachesthatuniversalsreallyexist,independentlyandsomehow
priortotheworld.

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Ontheotherhand,(Nominalism),holdsthatthereisreallynosuchthingasabstractobjects,whichreallyexistonlyasnames,
becauseasingleobjectcannotexistinmultipleplacessimultaneously.
ModerateRealism,asespousedbyAristotleamongothers,triestofindsomemiddlegroundbetweenNominalismandRealism,
andholdsthatthereisnorealmassuchinwhichuniversalsexist,butrathertheyarelocatedinspaceandtimewhereverthey
happentobemanifest.Conceptualism,thedoctrinethatuniversalsexistonlywithinthemindandhavenoexternalor
substantialreality,isalsoanintermediatesolution.
OtherpositionssuchasFormalismandFictionalismdonotattributeanyexistencetomathematicalentities,andareanti
Realist.
ThePhilosophyofMathematicsoverlapswithmetaphysicsinthisarea.

DeterminismandFreeWill

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Determinismisthephilosophicalpropositionthateveryevent,includinghumancognition,decisionandaction,iscausally
determinedbyanunbrokenchainofprioroccurrences.Thus,thereisatanyinstantonlyonephysicallypossiblefuture,andno
random,spontaneous,mysteriousormiraculouseventseveroccur.
ThispositsthatthereisnosuchthingasFreeWill,whererationalagentscanexercisecontrolovertheirownactionsand
decisions.Incompatibilists(orHardDeterminists)likeBaruchSpinoza,viewdeterminismandfreewillasmutuallyexclusive.
Others,labelledCompatibilists(orSoftDeterminists),likeThomasHobbes,believethatthetwoideascanbecoherently
reconciled.
ItshouldbenotedthatDeterminismdoesnotnecessarilymeanthathumanityorindividualhumanshavenoinfluenceonthe
future(thatisknownasFatalism),justthattheleveltowhichhumanbeingshaveinfluenceovertheirfutureisitselfdependent
onpresentandpast.

CosmologyandCosmogony

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Cosmologyisthebranchofmetaphysicsthatdealswiththeworldasthetotalityofallphenomenainspaceandtime.
Historically,itwasoftenfoundedinreligioninmodernuseitaddressesquestionsabouttheworldandtheuniversewhichare
beyondthescopeofphysicalscience.Cosmogonydealsspecificallywiththeoriginoftheuniverse,butthetwoconcepts
arecloselyrelated.
Pantheists,suchasSpinoza,believethatGodandtheuniverseareoneandthesame.Panentheists,suchasPlotinus,believe
thattheentireuniverseispartofGod,butthatGodisgreaterthantheuniverse.Deists,suchasVoltaire,believethatGod
createdtheuniverse,seteverythinginmotion,andthenhadnothingmoretodowithit.SeethesectiononPhilosophyof
Religionformoredetails.

MajorDoctrines

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UndertheheadingofMetaphysics,themajordoctrinesortheoriesinclude:
Agnosticism
Atheism
Atomism
Deism
Determinism
Dualism
Essentialism
Existentialism
Fideism
Idealism
Intellectualism
Materialism
Monism
Monotheism
Naturalism
Nominalism

Nihilism
Objectivism
Panentheism
Pantheism
Phenomenology
Physicalism
Pluralism
Polytheism
Realism
Reductionism
Relativism
Solipsism
Subjectivism
Theism
Voluntarism

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