SINGLE PARTICLES IN FLUIDS

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

SINGLE PARTICLES IN FLUIDS - Introduction

Many of the processes/systems that are used in CMPI
involve particles moving in fluids (settling tanks, thickeners,
centrifuges, cyclones, pneumatic conveyors, slurry pipelines,
fluidised beds etc)
To understand/design/optimise these processes, we need to
have a good knowledge of how particles behave in fluids
Starting point look at the behaviour of a single particle in a
fluid
Then - extrapolate to take into account multiple particle
effects

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

SINGLE PARTICLES IN FLUIDS In a nutshell

any particle falling through a fluid experiences
three forces: gravity (Fg), buoyancy (FB) and drag (FD)

buoyancy drag

FB

FD

Fg and FB are constant. FD increases with velocity

When particle is released into a fluid, velocity ~ 0
and FD is small, hence particle accelerates downwards.
However, as its velocity increases, FD increases.
Eventually, Fd and FB balances Fg, i.e. Fg = FB+FD
Now, there is no net force on the particle, and it will
travel downwards at a constant velocity, UT

Fg
gravity

We are interested in UT. Hence,

need to know how to quantify Fg, FB and FD
hence, can calculate UT
Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single particles in fluids - Scope

Forces acting on a single particle
Drag forces
Drag coefficients
Terminal velocity
Effects of particle characteristics and near boundaries on
terminal velocity

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Forces acting on a particle in a fluid

Particle falling through vacuum :

Particle falling through fluid:

buoyancy

drag

FB

FD

FG

FG

gravity

gravity

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Drag force

Drag forces on moving rigid sphere

direction of
drag forces

Parallel to direction of movement, in

opposite direction

Pressure drag force (Fp)

Due to shape of moving object

Shapes with larger projected area have greater
drag

Shear stress drag force (Fs)

Due to viscous friction between fluid and object

Related to boundary layer of fluid around object

FD = Fp + Fs
direction of
particle motion
Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Drag coefficient

Drag coefficient (CD)

Dimensionless number relating drag force (FD) and velocity of particle

relative to fluid (U)

(Analogous to Fanning friction factor in pipe flow)

= 1

1
2

or

= 2

= drag force
CD = drag coefficient
= projected area in direction of flow

For a sphere:

2
4

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

x = sphere diameter

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Drag coefficient

[Recall - for fluids: f = fn (Re) where =
For particles:

= ( ) where =

= particle diameter
= fluid density

= relative velocity
= fluid viscosity

The fluid flow pattern, and CD , changes significantly with

velocity, and hence Rep

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Drag coefficient

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Effect of velocity on drag coefficient

Flow patterns, and Cd change with velocity:
Figure adapted from
Christy (2004)

Stokes Law region (Rep < 0.3)

Creeping flow (flow at very low velocities)

Linear relation between log(CD) and log(Rep)

Intermediate region (0.3 < Rep < 500)

Inertial flow (fluid accelerate out of way of

particle)
Vortices start forming (contained)

Increasing
velocity

Newtons law region (500 < Rep < 200 000)

Inertial flow
Vortices shed; CD independent of Rep
Boundary layer separation (Rep > 200 000)

Inertial flow
Turbulence, vorticity moved to bulk flow
Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

10

Single Particles in fluids Drag coefficient curve

Standard CD curve for a moving rigid sphere

Stokes law

Intermediate

~0.3

Newtons law

~500

Boundary layer
separation

~2e5

Figure adapted from

Richardson et al. (2002)
Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Drag coefficients

Stokes law
Specific solution to Navier-Stokes equations (fluid motion)
Assumption: creeping motion
Total drag force (FD)

Pressure drag force (Fp) + shear stress drag force (Fs)

= +

= + 2

x = particle diameter
= fluid viscosity
U = particle velocity relative to fluid

Valid for Rep < 0.3 (varies, depending on accuracy)

Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Drag coefficients

Drag coefficient regions

Stokes law region (Rep < 0.3)

24

Intermediate region (0.3 < Rep < 500)

24
(1

+ 0.15 0.687 )

(Schiller and Naumann, 1933)

Newtons law region (500 < Rep < 200 000)

0.44

Drag coefficient correlation for entire region

0.4251
24
0.6459
=
1 + 0.1806
+
6880.95

1+

(Haider and Levenspiel, 1989)

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Drag coefficients

Summary thus far

=
=

1
2
2

Have curve of CD vs Rep

Hence, given particle properties, fluid properties and U, we

can calculate Rep, CD and hence FD.

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Terminal velocity

Consider a particle in a fluid. It experiences three forces:

gravity (Fg), buoyancy (FB) and the drag force (FD).
The net force acting on it is:
Fnet = Fg (FB + FD).

FG and FB will be constant.

Initially, when the particle is at rest, FD is zero. Hence, the

particle accelerates at its maximum value (FG FB)/m.

However, as the velocity of the particle increases, so does FD.

Hence, the net force on the particle decreases as velocity
increases, i.e. the acceleration of the particle decreases.

Eventually, when a particular velocity is reached, (FD + FB)

equals FG. Since there is no net force, the particle will stop
accelerating, and will travel at a constant velocity

This final, constant velocity is termed the terminal velocity.

Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

FB

FD

FG

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Terminal velocity

Force balance on particle at terminal velocity:

= 0
Spherical particle
3

6

3

6

From eqn. 1:

3
( )
6

Rearrange:

2
1
2

4
2

2
1
2

4
2

4
32

=0

=0

or =
2

4
3

Hence, can use above expression to calculate UT

(NB: Above expression derived for spherical particles !!!)
Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Terminal velocity calculations

Calculating UT (given , , , )
2

4
3

IF CD region is KNOWN:
For Stokes law (CD = 24/Rep)

2
18

For Newtons law (CD = 0.44)

= 1.74

For intermediate region

1
2

No explicit relation
Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Terminal velocity calculations

Calculating UT (given , , , )
IF CD region is UNKNOWN:
1)

Use iterative procedure assume UT, calculate Rep , calculate CD ,

calculate UT , calculate Rep, and check if assumption is correct

2)

Define dimensionless group

2

4 3
32

(independent of UT)

For given particle and fluid properties:

2 =

log( 2 ) =

log = 2 log( )

Straight line with slope of -2 on log(CD) vs. log(Rep) graph

Intersection of this line and drag curve gives Rep, then calculate UT
Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Terminal velocity calculations

Draw CDRep2 line on standard drag curve graph

= 2

Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Terminal velocity calculations

e.g. given: p = 2000 kg/m3, f = 1.6 kg/m3 , x = 500 microns, = 2x10-5 Pa.s,
calc UT

Calculate CDRe2 (= 13069.54)

draw table of CD for different Re values
Re
0.01
0.04
0.1
0.4
1
10
100
1000

Cd
1.31E+08
8168460
1306954
81684.6
13069.54
130.6954
1.306954
0.01307

plot above line on Cd vs Re graph,

and get Rep from intersection

with CD vs Re curve(~ 110)

[NB: for correct sphericity !]

calculate UT from Rep (=2.75 m/s)

Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Particle size calculations

Calculating x (given , , , ) - Unknown region

Define dimensionless group

4
33 2

(independent of x)

For given particle and fluid properties:

log(
) =

log = + log( )

Straight line with slope of +1 on log(CD) vs. log(Rep) graph

Intersection of this line and drag curve gives Rep, then calculate x
(similar procedure to previous slide)

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Terminal velocity calculations

Draw CD/Rep line on standard drag curve graph

= +1

Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Other issues on UT

Thus far, have considered spheres falling in an infinite

fluid (no boundaries)

What about :
non-spherical particles ?
fluids contained by boundaries ?

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Effect of shape on CD

Effect of shape on drag coefficient - difficult to define

Difficult to describe particle shapes
Difficult to summarize shapes in one number
Sphericity
Ratio of (surface area of a sphere of volume equal to that of particle) to
(surface area of particle)
=

1
3

2
3

= sphericity
As = surface area of equivalent
volume sphere
Ap = surface area of particle
Vs = volume of sphere
Vp = volume of particle

Sphere volume to sphere area

=

3
6

2
6 3

1
3

= 6

Example: sphericity of cube is 0.806

Dept of Process Engineering
Stellenbosch University

2
3

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Effect of shape on CD

Standard drag curves with sphericity effect

Rep calculated using equal-volume sphere diameter xv

1
6 3

Lower sphericity: higher drag coefficient at same Rep

= 0.125

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

= 1
Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Effect of near boundaries on UT

Vessel walls affect terminal velocity

Presence of walls (e.g. pipe) decrease UT

Wall factor fw

Ratio of particle velocity in pipe to particle velocity

in infinite liquid

(UT is the UT that we have been calculating thus far)

Calculating wall factor (Francis correlation):
For Stokes region (Rep < 0.3)
=

.
;

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

fw = wall factor
UD = velocity of particle in pipe
U = velocity of particle in infinite fluid
D = diameter of vessel

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Summary of Concepts

A particle falling in a vacuum experiences only a gravity force. Continues accelerating,

i.e. velocity keeps increasing.

A particle falling in a fluid experienced gravity force (downward), buoyancy (upwards)

and a drag force (opposing motion, upwards)

[Drag force can be calculated from drag coefficient . Drag coefficient can be calculated
from particle Reynolds number four regions on curve]

Drag force increases with velocity. Hence, particle experiences decreasing

acceleration.

A velocity is reached where all forces balance. Particle will now move at a constant
velocity UT

[UT can be calculated from drag coefficient and particle and fluid properties]

UT increases with particle density and particle size (spheres)

UT decreases with fluid viscosity and fluid density

Sphericity of particle affects UT

Boundaries to flow affect UT

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Summary of Concepts

A particle falling in a vacuum experiences only a gravity force. Continues accelerating,

i.e. velocity keeps increasing.

A particle falling in a fluid experienced gravity force (downward), buoyancy (upwards)

and a drag force (opposing motion, upwards)

[Drag force can be calculated from drag coefficient . Drag coefficient can be calculated
from particle Reynolds number four regions on curve]

Drag force increases with velocity. Hence, particle experiences decreasing

acceleration.

A velocity is reached where all forces balance. Particle will now move at a constant
velocity UT

[UT can be calculated from drag coefficient and particle and fluid properties]

UT increases with particle density and particle size (spheres)

UT decreases with fluid viscosity and fluid density

Sphericity of particle affects UT

Boundaries to flow affect UT

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Summary of Calculational Tools

Equation relating UT to CD , fluid properties, particle density and particle

size

[Simplified UT equation for Stokes and Newton regions]

Curve of CD vs Rep

Methods to determine UT from fluid properties, particle density and

particle size, and vice versa

Curves to correct for non-spherical particles

Correction factor for affect of boundaries

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316

Single Particles in fluids Some hints and simplifications

In practise, a particle would have to accelerate from zero velocity to

terminal velocity, and this will require a finite time and distance.
However, for objects with small terminal velocities, e.g. small particles
settling in fluids, the time and distance taken to reach terminal velocity is
very small. Hence, it can reasonably be assumed that the time and
distance taken to accelerate to terminal velocity is negligible.

EVERY problem concerning particles settling in fluids at their terminal

velocity can be reduced to a simple picture of one or more particles
settling in a tube. Calculating UT is trivial. Hence, problem solving
resolves to applying your understanding of the concepts to reduce the
real problem to a simple picture, whereafter it can be decided whate
needs to be calculated.

Dept of Process Engineering

Stellenbosch University

Particle Technology 316