http://OCRKit.

com - DEMO

O u r u ltim a te g o a l in studying critical thinking is to

learn to evaluate argum ents other peoples argum ents and our own.
A rgum ents can be about topics that are trivial or profound; academic or
personal; political, ethical, or aesthetic. In a sociology course, for example,
you m ight encounter an argum ent th at drug use causes poverty. You
m ight counter w ith a paper arguing th at its poverty th a t causes drug
abuse. You could give your room m ate several reasons to go to a movie
w ith you on Friday night rather th an to a party; standing in line at the
m ovie, you m ight argue th at Q uentin Tarantino is a better director than
Ron H ow ard. In the newspaper, editorials and letters to the editor present
you w ith argum ents. D uring elections, each candidate offers argum ents
th at you should vote for him or her rather th an for the opposing candi
date. A dvertisem ents are argum ents th at you should buy th a t product.
A rgum ents m atter: m any argum ents have im p o rta n t consequences.
For example, if you buy a car, youll have to make paym ents on it for years,
as well as rely on it for tran sp o rtatio n , so youd better be sure th a t the
arg u m en t in the advertisem ent urging you to choose th a t car is a good
one. A nd if you accept a candidates arg u m en t to vote for her, you can n o t
forget th a t her policies will affect the lives o f m any citizens. Will the policy
change th eir lives for the worse?
Before we can evaluate argum ents, th o u g h , we need to be able to rec
ognize them . In this chapter, well learn to identify arg u m en ts and to dis
tin guish th em from som e o th er kinds o f discourse.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

ARGUMENTS
An argum ent is an attem pt to justify or prove a conclu
sion. In other words, an argument tries to make you believe something,
and gives you reasons to believe it.
What the argument is trying to
make you believe is called the con
clusion. The reasons that it gives
Arguments
are called the premises. There can
An argument is an attempt to
be one premise given to support a
justify or prove a conclusion.
conclusion, or there can be many:
there is no standard length for an
argument. An argument can be stated in one sentence, or it can take a
whole book. The premises can be implicit or explicit. They can be given in
the form of words or even pictures.
If you say you had an argument with a friend, you generally mean that
you had a quarrel. That meaning of argument is not the one that well
use. For us, argument means an attempt to justify a conclusion.
Sometimes arguments take place when people disagree. For example, two
people may debate opposing positions by supporting their own positions,
and perhaps criticizing and attempting to refute the other view. In such
cases, each person is trying to convince the other by giving reasons.
Arguments can also take place where there is no disagreement someone
can try to convince you of something about which you have no opinion.
In these instances, refutation plays no part. An argument does not require
two people, since you can also use an argument to convince yourself.
Arguments can be good or bad. Later, well learn to recognize the dif
ference, but before we can do that, we need to be able to identify argu
ments when we see them. There are two questions to ask about every
passage: [1] Is there an attempt to convince me of something? [2] Are rea
sons given to convince me? If we answer yes to both questions, the pas
sage is an argument.
Indicator words can help you recognize arguments. Words like thus
and therefore may indicate a conclusion; words like since and
because may signal a premise. (A partial list of indicator words is con
tained in Review Box 1.2.) It is im portant to remember indicator words so
that you can recognize them but some arguments do not contain any of

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

ARGUMENTS

these w ords; som e n o n a rg u m e n ts d o c o n ta in th e m . U ltim ately, y o u m u s t

m ake y o u r d ecisio n o n th e basis o f th e c o n te n t a n d c o n te x t o f th e passage.
Lets lo o k a t so m e exam ples.
[1] Eyed needles have b e en fo u n d o n P aleo lith ic sites
fro m 40,000 years ago. It is believed th a t P aleo lith ic
p eo p le u sed th e m to sew a n im a l sk in s in to p ro te c tiv e
suits. T h u s ta ilo rin g is a v ery o ld p ra c tice .
E xam ple [ 1 ] is an a rg u m e n t. Youll
p ro b a b ly n o tice at o n ce th a t it c o n
tain s

th e

in d ic a tin g

w o rd
a

th u s po ssib ly

c o n clu sio n .

So

ask

y o u rse lf tw o q u e stio n s: [1] D o es

th e passage try to m ak e m e believe
so m eth in g ? Yes th a t ta ilo rin g is a
v ery o ld in v e n tio n . [2] A re reaso n s
to believe this p ro v id ed ? Yes n e e
dles

fro m

lo n g

ago

have

been

fo u n d . A n sw erin g yes to

b o th

q u e stio n s tells y o u th a t th is passage

is a n a rg u m e n t. T h ese n eed les fro m

R E V I E W

B O X

1.2

Indicator words
FOR CONCLUSIONS:
thus, therefore, hence, s o , it
follows that, shows that, indi
cates that, proves that, then
FOR PREMISES:
for, since, because, for the reason
that, on the grounds that,
follows from

lo n g ago are evidence fo r th e c o n

c lu sio n th a t ta ilo rin g is a v ery o ld p ra c tice . T h e y h e lp to p ro v e th a t th e
c o n c lu s io n is tru e . H e re is a n o th e r ex am p le.

[2] Financial and human resources have been directed

too much toward finding a cure for AIDS, and not
enough toward education. We have heard for many
years that education is the most effective weapon
against AIDS, and this is still the case. In fact, educa
tion
continue to be crucial even if a cure is
found; it is not merely a temporary solution. Even if
drugs and vaccines are developed, AIDS will not just
disappear, especially among the underprivileged, any
more than any other infectious disease has just disap
peared.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

Example [2] does not contain any indicator words. We can recognize it as
an argument only by considering its meaning. Is the passage trying to
make us believe something? Yes that resources should go into education
as well as toward finding a cure. Does the passage give us reasons to be
convinced? Yes education will still be im portant even if a cure is found,
as a comparison with other infectious diseases would show.

S trategies a n d C on v en tio n s
Questions for arguments
A passage is an argument if you anser yes to both of these questions:
Is it trying to convince me of something?
Are reasons given to convince me?

To say that reasons are given to believe a conclusion is not to say that
the reasons are good. Supporting a conclusion with bad reasons makes for
a bad argument; however, a bad argument is still an argument. Only after
we have determined that a passage offers reasons to believe something can
we determine whether those reasons are good ones.
Compare examples [I] and [2] with the following:
[3] Rimbaud claimed that the only way an artist could
arrive at the truths he wanted was to experience every
form of love, suffering, and madness, and that he
might prepare for this by a planned disordering of all
the senses, for example, by drunkenness.
Example [3] is not an argument. It reports what Rimbaud thought an
artist m ust do to arrive at truths. It makes no attem pt to convince us of
anything, and gives no reasons to believe that what it says is true. Though
there may be an assumption that we will accept the inform ation it con
tains, example [3] is not
aboutaccepting it.
Here is one more example, before we try some exercises.
[4] Real numbers can be thought of as points on the n u m
ber line. Real numbers include rational numbers, which

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

ARGUMENTS

can be expressed as decimal expansions that either ter

minate or repeat some pattern endlessly; and irrational
numbers, like k , whose decimal expansion neither ter
m inates n o r contains a fixed repeating pattern. Real
num bers are not closed under algebraic functions.
Example [4] is n ot an argum ent. Its a description or definition of real
num bers. Again, we may w ant to say that the passage is intended to be
believed. If we read this in a m ath textbook wed probably have no reason
to d o u b t it. (Well consider this issue in C hapter 6.) But it does n o t offer
reasons to believe w hat it says. The passage simply presents the inform a
tion, w hich may or may no t be new to us.

EXERCISE

\ \

D eterm ine w hether each o f the following passages is or is not an argum ent
and give reasons for your decision.

Example
Ever-grow ing suburban populations suck the life out o f cities. Suburbs
m ake good public transit alm ost impossible. Riders are n o t concentrated
along a few m ain roads; rather, they are scattered over m any smaller ones.
T hus it becom es expensive to carry them , resulting in infrequent service
o r higher fares, either o f which makes public transit less appealing. People
in sub u rbs therefore get aro u n d m ostly by car, resulting in the need for
w ide roads, w hich are expensive for cities to build and to m aintain.
This passage is an argum ent that grow th in suburban populations
sucks the life o u t o f cities, and it gives the following reasons to support
this claim: suburbs foster the use o f cars, which leads, on the one hand, to
a decline in public transit and, on the other hand, to the cities spending
all th eir m oney on building big roads.
Note: T he response is also an argum ent. It gives reasons to believe that
the passage is an argum ent. Try to think o f all your responses to these
exercises as argum ents.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

1. In areas with cold winters, many types of roses require hilling for win
ter protection. Hilling involves building up soil around the base of the
rose. A layer of leaves may also be added.
2. Violence in movies is not evidence of peoples declining moral standards,
as critics like Michael Medved claim. Ancient myths, medieval biographies
of saints, Shakespeares plays, and nineteenth-century novels like Dracula
are all full of bloodshed and mayhem. People have always been this way.
3. All dogs need an occasional bath. Dogs with long silky coats, like Afghan
hounds, may require bathing on a weekly basis, while sporting breeds
like golden retrievers may need only one or two baths a year. The dogs
lifestyle can also contribute to the need for bathing.
4. Photo radar is not a good solution for traffic safety problems on our
highways. Photo radar does not address the main cause of highway dan
ger, since it only works to reduce the overall speed of traffic, and speed is
not the main problem. If speed were the major contributor to highway
fatalities, we should expect higher fatalities on the German Autobahn,
where there is no speed limit, than on North American roads. But this is
not the case. Furthermore, photo radar diverts policing resources from
standard highway patrols, since the operator of photo radar cant leave
his/her post to pursue other nonspeeding violations.
5. Game agencies ought not to spend time and money on wolf-control
programs, which consist of shooting or poisoning wolves at random. In
Alberta in 1994, fourteen cattle were killed by wolves; in 1993, twentythree cattle. By comparison, in 1993, 214 cattle were dead on their ar
rival at slaughterhouses. The stress of shipping kills a certain number of
cattle every year. These dead animals represent a small percentage of the
total cattle slaughtered. However, this number still far exceeds the num
ber of deaths attributed to wolves.
6. Bloodhounds are descended from hounds brought to Britain in 1066
during the Norman invasion. They were used in packs to hunt stags.
Today bloodhounds are still used for tracking, both in hunting and in
law enforcement. Bloodhounds find but do not attack their quarry. In
fact they are gentle dogs that make good family companions.
7. Eratosthenes invented a way to find prime numbers w ithout dividing or
factoring. Write down the odd numbers after 3, then strike every third

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

PROPOSI TI ONS

num ber after 3, every fifth num ber after 5, every seventh n u m b er after 7,
and so on. W hats left are the prim e num bers. This is know n as the Sieve
o f Eratosthenes.

PROPOSITIONS
It will be useful for us to speak o f p ro p o sitio n s som e
tim es instead o f sentences. A proposition is the content or m eaning o f a
sentence. Its im p o rtan t to isolate propositions to discover the structure o f
an argum ent, no m atter how its expressed. C onclusions and the evidence
that supports them are always propositions.
Propositions can be simple or com pound. Lets begin w ith the simple
ones. A simple proposition expresses a single com plete thought. To express
a complete thought, it m ust contain
a subject and a predicate. (The sub
R EV I EW BOX
1
ject is w hat were talking about. The
predicate is w hat were saying about
Simple propositions
the subject.) To express a single
Every sim ple proposition m ust
com plete thought, it m ust contain
only one subject and one predicate.
express a com plete thought.
Any proposition m ust also be able
express only one com plete
to be true or false. We may no t
thought.
know w hether the proposition is
be able to be either tru e o r false.
tru e or false; we may have, in p rac
tice, no way to determ ine this. But
som e notion o f w hat w ould count to determ ine the tru th o f the proposi
tion is required.

Take, for example,

[5] Wolves live in packs.
This sentence expresses the proposition Wolves live in packs. This
proposition contsins one subject, wolves, and one predicate, live in packs. It
can be true or false: wed established its truth or falsity by investingating
the living habits of wolves.
Identifying propositions is not always this easy, however. Consider the
following sentence:

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

[6] Wolves live in packs, but polar bears dont.

Here we have a single sentence that contains two simple propositions:
Wolves live in packs and Polar bears do not live in packs. There are two
separate complete thoughts compounded, or joined together, by the word
but. Usually, when we see a compound proposition containing worlds
like and or but we will separate the two propositions into two separate
premises. Similarly, we will want to separate any propositions that are joined
by premise or conclusion indicator words like since, so, or because.
However, we should watch out for compound propositions that con
tain if (and related works like unless) and or. While we must recog
nize the simple propositions that make up the compound proposition, we
usually do not want to separate the propositions into separate premises.
Take for example,
[7] If I dont have my keys, I cant get into my car.
[8] Ahmad will get an A in his critical thinking course or
his average will suffer.
We cannot accurately represent the structure of an argument that contains
a sentence like [7] or [8] by separating the compound sentences into the
simple propositions they contain. That is because the compound proposi
tions do not assert that each of their component propositions is true.
When people advance an argument, they assert the propositions that
serve as the arguments premises and conclusion. That means that they
claim the propositions are true. (Sometimes premises and conclusions are
called assertions or claims.) If someone asserts Wolves live in packs,
but polar bears dont, she makes two claims: wolves live in packs, and
polar bears do not live in packs. But someone who asserts a sentence like
[7] does not assert two independent propositions. Instead, she asserts that
there is a logical relationship between these two propositions that hav
ing her keys is required for getting into her car. Similarly, someone who
asserts Ahmad will get an A in his critical thinking course or his average
will suffer does not assert both Ahmad will get an A in his critical think
ing course and His average will suffer. Instead, she claims that at least
one of these propositions is true.
Lets consider a more complex example.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

PROPOSITIONS

[9] Photo radar does not address the main cause of high
way danger, since it only works to reduce the overall
speed of traffic, and speed is not the main problem.
How many simple propositions can we find in this sentence?
[9a] Photo radar does not address the main cause of high
way danger. Photo radar only serves to reduce the
overall speed of traffic. Speed is not the main problem.
Notice that when we analyze a sentence containing several simple proposi
tions like sentence [9], we distinguish as many components as we can
express in full sentences. Each sentence in [9a] can be true or false. The
original sentence [9] expresses the logical relationships between three sim
ple statements. O ur goal is to identify and separate the simple statements
so that we can consider these logical relationships.

EXERCISE

12

Identify the simple propositions contained in each of the following sentences.

Example
If the fetus has no legal rights, then a pregnant woman cannot be forced
into a substance-abuse program against her will, even if her behavior will
result in harm to the child when it is born.
The fetus has no legal rights.
A pregnant w om an cannot be forced into a substance-abuse program
against her will.
Her behavior will result in harm to the child.
It [the child] is born.
1. Humans are limited as far as wisdom is concerned.
2. If people had followed the counsels o f G ods word instead o f relying on
their own inadequate abilities, the problems that have plagued hum an
history need never have happened.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

10

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

3. Since beer is meant to be a full sensory experience, you should be able

to see the beer before you taste it.
4. The best way to improve a citys neighborhoods and reduce environ
mental damage would be to reduce the speed limit for private vehicles
to 15 mph within city limits, because reducing the speed limit would
decrease automobile use.
5. Some people say that the use of symbols like the smilie
in email messages makes it unnecessary for people to make their points clear
in words alone, and in general reduces flexibility within the language.
6. Women are physically weaker than men, and so are unfit for combat, which
requires physical endurance, ability to withstand strain, and stamina.
7. Why on earth did you do that?
8. Society is best served by educated people, so cutting spending on edu
cation is a shortsighted solution to economic problems.
9. Sometimes arguments can take place without disagreementwhen,
for example, someone tries to convince you of something new by giv
ing you reasons to believe it.
10. There can be one premise given in support of a conclusion, or there
can be many.

EXP LA N A TI ONS
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish an argument from
an explanation. Explanations can use some of the same indicator words as
argumentsbecause, since, thus, so, hence. Consider the follow
ing examples.
[10] There are 324 students in this class. I have a regis
tration list.
[11] There are 324 students in this class, because its a
required course in many majors.
Both examples [10] and [11] contain the statement that there are 324 stu
dents in this class, and another simple proposition. Example [10] is an

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

EXPLANATIONS

11

argument. The second sentence in

R E V I E W BOX
example [10] is a reason to believe
there are 324 students in this class.
Arguments and
Why should you believe that there
explanations
are 324 students in this class?
Because Im telling you that there
ARGUMENTS
are, and Im in a position to
give you reasons why you
know I have the list with the offi
should believe something
cial class size. Example [11] is an
is true.
explanation. It is taken for granted
tell you how things are.
that there are, or that you believe
EXPLANATIONS
there are, 324 students in the class;
give you reasons why some
the second proposition (which is
thing is true.
signaled by the because) indicates
tell you why things are as
why this should be true. It doesnt
they are.
give you a reason to believe there
are 324 students; rather, it gives you a
reason why there are 324 students.
There are several interrelated ways to distinguish arguments from
explanations: (1) We can ask whether the passage gives us evidence or
causes. (2) We can ask what were most willing to believe. (3) We can
ask whether the passage makes more sense as an argument or as an expla
nation.

E vid en ce or Cause?
Like arguments, explanations give reasons, but these reasons do not
justify a conclusion. Sometimes explanations tell us why something came
to be. They give a cause. Example [11] tells us what caused the class to be
so large: the fact that the course is required in many majors. Example [10],
in contrast, gives evidence that the class contains 324 students.
Sometimes explanations tell us what caused someone to do or believe
something by exploring his or her motivations. For example, the following
passage tells us what motivated Shawn to choose the course that he did.

[12] Shawn is an economics major, and a critical think

ing course is required for his major. Thats why
Shawn is taking critical thinking.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

12

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

Example [12] is not likely an attempt to convince us that Shawn is regis

tered for critical thinking. Rather, it offers a reason
Shawn took the
class. No conclusion is being drawn. Of course, the same set of reasons
could serve as an argument to register for the critical thinking class.
Shawn may have said to himself:
[13] Im an economics major, and critical thinking is a
requirement. So Id better register in that class.
Examples [12] and [13] use the same propositions and the same general
line of reasoning, but one is an argument and the other is an explanation.
This shows us again that an argument can be recognized in part by its
purpose. Is it intended to convince us? Although we cant be expected to
read someone elses mind, we can in most cases use context and common
knowledge to tell an argument from an explanation.

Strategies and C onventions

Questions for arguments and explanations
Does the passage make more sense as an argument or as an
explanation?
Is it meant to convince me of the truth of something new, or to
explain why something I already know is true?

W hat am I m ost w illin g to believe?

Can you identify the main point of a passage? The main point is,
loosely speaking, what the passage is about. Examples [12] and [13] are
about Shawns decision to take critical thinking. Consider the following
passage [14]:
[14] Why do weight and appearance matter so much to
people in contemporary society? There are no
longer many social hierarchies built on ones family,
money, or education. Yet people still have a desire to

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

EXPLANATIONS

13

com pare themselves to others. Since social status can

n o t provide a m eans o f m easurem ent, there is a need
for new standards visible ones, like b eau ty an d fit
ness. [A dapted from Judith R odin, Body M ania,
Psychology Today, vol. 25, no. 1 (January/F ebruary
1992), pp. 56-60.]
T he m ain p o in t here is the significance o f w eight an d appearance. W hen
you have identified the m ain po in t, ask yourself these questions. Is this
m ain p o in t so m ething new to you? Does the passage give you reasons to
believe it is true? If you answ er yes to these questions, the passage is an
arg u m en t. O r does the passage assum e th a t you already believe o r accept
this m ain p o in t, a n d give reasons why its true? If yo u r answ er to the latter
q u estio n is yes, the passage is an explanation.
If you are less w illing to believe the m ain p o in t th a n you are to believe
th e o th e r p ro p o sitio n s in the passage, the passage is probably an argu
m e n t. If youre m o re w illing to believe the m ain po in t, its probably an
ex plan ation. Why? As well see in C hapter 6, prem ises m u st always be
m o re certain (likelier to be believed) th a n the conclusions th ey support.
A rgum en ts w ork by leading som eone from som ething he o r she already
accepts an d believes, to som ething new. If were m ore willing to believe the
m a in p o in t o f th e passage w hat w ould be the conclusion if it were an
a rg u m e n t th a n we are to believe the rest, the passage o u g h t to be consid
ered an explanation.
C onsidering exam ple [14], were probably w illing to believe that
w eight a n d appearance m atter to people m ore w illing than we are to
believe th a t th ey are a m eans o f com paring ourselves favorably to others.
Its n o t th a t w ere unwilling to believe th a t we m easure o u r appearance
against th a t o f o thers rather, its th a t tim e sp en t on groom ing an d fitness
is such a basic p a rt o f life th at we do n o t question th e im p o rtan ce o f o ur
appearance.

What makes more sense?

Another approach to distinguishing arguments from explanations is to ask
whether the passage makes a better explanation than it does an argument.
Example [12] makes more sense as an explanation, because it does not
give us the most straightforward proof or evidence for a conclusion that

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

14

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

Shawn is taking critical thinking. Looking him up on the registration list

would be a better proof. Similarly, example [14] is a weak argum ent, but a
plausible explanation. A much more direct argument for the conclusion
that weight and appearance matter to people could be based upon the
money spent on fashion, weight-loss, and fitness.
When we interpret a passage so
that it makes the most sense, we are
using the principle o f charity. We
The Principle o f Charity
should interpret the argum ent in
the most compelling way that it can
You use the principle of charity
be read, giving the author or speaker
when you interpret a passage so
the benefit of the doubt. If a passage
that it makes the most sense.
can be interpreted as either a reason
able explanation or a weak argument, we should consider it an explanation. Our criticisms of an argument
are more likely to be compelling if we use the principle of charity. If we
criticize the strongest interpretation of a passage, the arguer cannot
defend her position by claiming that we have misinterpreted her meaning.
Lets compare two trickier passages, and decide whether they are argu
ments or explanations.
[15] Factory farming is a major source of pollution. It
concentrates large quantities of manure that would,
in traditional methods of farming, be naturally
returned to the fields. As a result of this concentration,
rivers, lakes, and ground water are contam inated by
nitrates. This concentration of manure also means
that it decomposes without oxygen, unlike m anure
that falls in the fields, thereby producing methane.
Example [15] is probably an argument trying to convince us that fac
tory farming is a major source of pollution; the rest of the passage gives us
reasons to believe this conclusion. We can imagine circumstances in which
example [15] might be used to explain why factory farming is a major
source of pollution. For example, someone who already had data linking
factory farming and pollution might want to account for those data. But
there is no indication in the passage that the link between factory farming
and pollution has already been established, and this link is not com m on

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

EXPLANATIONS

15

knowledge. So the m ain poin t is less likely to be believed th a n the rest o f

the passage. That does n ot m ean that the m ain p o in t is less believable;
rather, it is not believed yet. O nce again, we see that the decision ab o u t
w hether a passage is an argum ent or an explanation m ust often be based
on the context of the passage. W ho is the anticipated audience? W hat can
they be expected to know already?
[16] The rate of food-borne diseases associated w ith red
m eat and poultry has been steadily on the rise in
America over the past two decades. Partly because o f
microwaves, we dont cook our m eat as thoroughly
as people did in the past. The pop u latio n is also
aging, and there are m ore people w ith im m une dis
orders like AIDS. The m em bers o f b o th these groups
run a greater risk o f incurring a disease from m eat.
Example [16], however, is an explanation. The question about w hat we
are m ost willing to believe probably w ont decide the issue, since we may
be unaw are o f the rates o f food-borne disease. Instead, we need to use the
principle o f charity and ask w hether the passage makes m ore sense as an
arg u m en t or an explanation. Is this a likely argum ent for the conclusion
th a t food-borne diseases are on the rise? No: th at conclusion w ould be
easily proven by com paring the rate o f food-borne diseases today w ith
th at o f ten o r tw enty years ago, thereby showing th at the present rate is
higher. Exam ple [16] is, however, plausible as an explanation: given th at
there are m ore food-borne diseases than there used to be, changes in food
p rep aratio n and the po p u latio n s susceptibility could be p a rt o f the cause.

Consider example [17].

[17] Some people with epilepsy have seizure dogs, whose
responsibility is to stand guard over the person in
seizure and protect him or her from others, prevent
him or her from moving towards danger like traffic
or stairs, and in some cases to summon help. Some
of the people who have seizure dogs report that the
dogs learn to tell when a seizure is approaching, and
bark to warn the person. But no one knows how a
dog could sense an approaching seizure.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

16

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

Example [17] is neither an argum ent n o r an explanation. It may provide

new information, bu t it does not offer reasons to believe that inform ation;
it lists facts about the jobs that seizure dogs do. These reported duties
could serve as a basis for an explanation of why people have or would like
to have seizure dogs, but example [17] does not offer that explanation.
The last sentence hints at something that we m ight want explained how
dogs can sense approaching seizures but says that there is no explana
tion. Essentially, this passage gives us inform ation, and though there may
be reasons that would explain the information, or reasons that would
prove it true, the passage is not about those reasons.
As you begin to apply what you learn in this book to editorials, letters
to the editor, textbooks, articles, advertisements, and conversations, youll
see many passages that are not purely argument, explanation, or neither.
Often, a single paragraph can contain aspects of two or even all three.
Consider example [18].

[18] Antilock brakes do not reduce either the frequency

or the cost o f road crashes that result in insurance
claims. The Highway Loss Data Institute (HLDI)
compared the frequency o f insurance claims for
vehicles with and w ithout antilock brakes in twen
ty-nine northern states in winter, when antilock
brakes should make the most difference. They
found that there was a reduction neither in claim
frequency nor in the average am ount of insurance
payments for cars with antilock brakes.
This may be because the circumstances under
which antilock brakes could reduce crashes are
quite rare. Also, many drivers do not know how to
use antilock brakes effectively, and most ow ners
manuals give either no instructions or inadequate
ones for using this feature.
Example [18] contains both an argum ent and an explanation. The first
sentence, which tells us that antilock brakes do not reduce the frequency
or cost of road crashes, is a conclusion. This conclusion is supported by
evidence resulting from the comparative study undertaken by the HLDI,
cited in the first paragraph. Once we have been given reason to accept the

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

EXPLANATIONS

17

truth of the conclusion, an explanation of why it should be true is provid

ed. The second paragraph offers two possible reasons: there are few situa
tions in which antilock brakes could reduce accidents, and people may not
know how to use them effectively. Example (18] displays quite a common
pattern: you are given first a reason to believe that a proposition is true,
and then an explanation to account for it.
The next passage exemplifies a different pattern. It begins by explain
ing a fact of which were aware, then offers an argument to convince us
that the explanation is plausible.
[19] Pencils are hexagonal in shape because the hexago
nal shape of pencils represents a compromise
between comfort and cost. A round pencil is more
comfortable to use, while a square shape is the most
efficient use of resources. The hexagonal pencil is a
compromise. Nine hexagonal pencils can be made
of the wood it takes to make eight round pencils.
Example [19] explains why pencils are the shape that they are. Most peo
ple would probably agree that pencils are hexagonal. First, weve probably
been acquainted with hexagonal pencils since elementary school. Second,
even if we were not, stating that they are a compromise between comfort
and cost would not prove that they are hexagonal. Much more direct evi
dence could be given by empirical investigation of pencils. The explana
tion that example [19] gives for the hexagonal shape is that it represents a
compromise. It gives us this reason: a round pencil is comfortable and a
square pencil is cheap; a hexagon, then, is something in between com fort
able and cheap.
Here is a final example.
[20] Recently demographers decided to investigate p at
terns o f hom e ownership and retention am ong peo
ple in the United States who bought their houses
immediately after World War II. The researchers
discovered that a large num ber o f people in their
eighties lived in undesirable inner-city neighborhoods.
The researchers concluded that people who had
raised children in a house m aintained a sentimental

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

18

(CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

attachm ent to the house and so were unw illing to

move despite the n eig h b o rh o o d s decline. O th er
studies, however, show that a m ore likely cause o f
their staying where they are is lack o f money. O lder
people are m ore likely to be on fixed incom es an d
cannot afford to move. People in their eighties
w ould have been on fixed incom es for a long tim e
and could not afford to move w hen the n e ig h b o r
hood began to decline.
Breaking this passage down to its com ponent parts, we see th at it contains
argum ent, explanation, and simple description.
[20a] Recently dem ographers decided to investigate p a t
terns of hom e ow nership and retention am ong p eo
ple in the United States who bought th eir houses
immediately after W orld War II. The researchers
discovered that a large num ber o f people in their
eighties lived in undesirable inner-city neighborhoods.
These first two sentences are neither argum ent n o r explanation. They give
us background needed to follow the rest o f the passage. The second sen
tence contains the m ain point: that there are a large num ber o f people in
their eighties living in bad neighborhoods. An argum ent in sup p o rt o f this
m ain point could be found in the study done by these dem ographic
researchers. We are not given their argum ent here, however.
[20b] The researchers concluded that people who had
raised children in a house m aintained a sentim ental
attachm ent to the house and so were unw illing to
move despite the neighborhoods decline.
This sentence reports an explanation o f the m ain point: m any people in
their eighties are m otivated by a sentim ental attachm ent to the house in
which they have lived for many years.
[20c] O ther studies, however, show that a m ore likely
cause of their staying where they are is lack of money.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

SUMMARY

19

Sentence [20c] argues that there is a better explanation than that given in
sentence [20b]. An argument about the quality or plausibility o f an expla
nation is still an argument. Sentence [20c] tries to convince us that there is
a more likely reason that these people have remained in the same house
for so long.
[20d] Older people are more likely to be on fixed
incomes and cannot afford to move. People in their
eighties have been on fixed incomes for a long time,
and could not afford to leave when the neighbor
hood began to decline.
Finally, example [20d] reports a few details of that alternate explanation.
If we wanted to evaluate this passage as a whole, wed have to do some
research. Wed need to check the studies mentioned, evaluate them using
skills well learn later, and finally compare them to determine which one
provides a more plausible explanation. Before we could begin to evaluate
the passage, though, wed need to examine its structure. Only by under
standing its structure could we know what to evaluate and how.

SUMMARY
You should now be able to recognize arguments and to
distinguish them from nonargum ents by asking w hether an attem pt is
being made to convince you by giving reasons to accept a conclusion.
C riteria to help distinguish arguments from explanations include whether
the passage makes more sense as an argum ent or an explanation, and
w hether the m ain point is m ore or less likely to be believed than the rest of
the passage. This latter criterion is based on the principle of charity, which
well see again in C hapter 7.
A ttention and practice will help you become proficient at distinguish
ing argum ent and explanation from one another. The following exercises
will help you develop the habit of distinguishing argum ents from other
types o f discourse. In tim e no m atter w hat you read o r hear, youll know
how all its parts fit together and w hat role each proposition plays with
respect to all the others.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

20

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

Strategies and Conventions

I .e .

and e .g .

E.g. means for example.

I.e. means that is.
These expressions come from Latin.
E.g. is short for exemplar gratia, which means for example.
I.e. is short for id est, which means that is.

LEMUR E xercise 1.1

E X E RC I S E

L3

Determine whether each of the following passages is an argument, an

explanation, or neither, and give reasons for your answer. If the passage
appears to contain aspects of more than one of these, clarify the roles
played by the components of the passage.
E xam ple
Diplomacy should be favored over military action in cases of conflict,
since modern war virtually guarantees that civilians will suffer. In a fullscale war, precision weapons may avoid the direct massacre of innocent
people only to destroy resources they need for a decent life, as indicated by
the 1992 reports from Iraq describing the desperate fate of hospitals,
health centers, water purification systems, power supplies, etc.
This passage is an argument. Its conclusion is Diplomacy should be
favored over military action in cases of conflict. The reason given to
believe this conclusion is that civilians suffer in war. Were given evidence
to believe that innocent victims suffer in the following propositions.
1. Since all d ru g s p o te n tia lly affect an a th le te s p e rfo rm a n c e , an y use o f
d ru g s by ath le tes w ith in fo rty -e ig h t h o u rs o f th e ir sc h e d u le d e v en t
s h o u ld b e p ro h ib ite d .

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

SUMMARY

21

2. Silicone was regarded as ideal for breast im plants because it was

thought to be chemically inert and thus relatively safe even if it re
m ained in the body for years.
3. Books will never be replaced by com puter disks, CD-ROM s, or other
technological gizmos, because the inform ation stored in electronic
m edia is no t stored in a perm anent way. Technological form ats rapidly
becom e extinct for example, 78 rpm records, photographic cylin
ders, punch cards, reel-to-reel audio tape___ Theres no reason to be
lieve that todays files will be readable by anything fifty years from
now the file may be in perfect shape, b u t there may well be no form at
existing then w ith which it is compatible. The form at o f the disk is es
sential. If the inform ation is to be regularly replicated into m ore m o d
ern form ats, the whole collection will have to be duplicated every
tw enty or th irty years. Books, on the other hand, are relatively longlasting. Collections o f books can be im proved and increased over the
years rather than copied and replicated. [Adapted from Clifford Stoll,
Silicon Snake Oil (New York: Doubleday, 1995).]
4. A survey o f A m erican patterns in call-waiting use shows th at the
m ajority o f call-waiting users are clustered in inner cities and suburbs.
It stands to reason that the m ore people in a household, the m ore need
there is for call-waiting. Thus inner-city households, which often
contain m em bers o f three generations, and suburban households,
w hich contain parents and children, will have the greatest desire for
call-waiting.
5. Alcohol is a m ajor problem in society. We should w ork to prohibit sales
o f alcohol altogether because o f its association w ith violence and
crim e. I asked a police officer w hat the w orld w ould be like if there
were no alcohol. He im m ediately answ ered th at he w ould be o u t of a
job. This just goes to show you how great a factor alcohol is in social
problem s.
6. W hile reduced supply and better law enforcem ent m ay help, the war
o n drugs can n o t be w on w ith o u t m uch greater econom ic o p p o rtu n ity
for disadvantaged A m ericans. This is because the m ain reason people
tu rn to drugs is th at they have no hope for a reasonable life in the
A m erican m ainstream . A nd in todays society, a reasonable life requires
a good jo b for all A m ericans.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

22

[CH. 1]

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS

7. Rhododendrons must be protected from direct sun in the winter and

receive some sunlight in the summer for growth and bud formation.
Ideal locations include the northeast side of buildings and fences and
beneath large evergreen trees. In more exposed areas, they can be
shaded with burlap or wooden slats to protect them from the sun.
8. When you drink alcohol, you feel dizzy. This is partly because alcohol
dilutes the fluid in your inner ear. This permits the motion sensors
there to move more freely. They send signals to the brain that the head
is moving. But since the other senses tell the brain that the body isnt
moving, your brain decides that the room must be moving instead.
9. Most anarchist or neo-Nazi gang members come from the lower-mid
dle or lower classes. Their politics, though not entirely without signifi
cance, are confused and may be incidental. The main thing they seek is
a sense of togetherness, conformityeven among the anarchists and
a kind of order.
10. The odds against two snowflakes being identical are so great as to ap
proach certainty. A snowflake consists of about 1018 water molecules.
As the snowflake gets larger, molecules attach themselves to it essen
tially at random. The number of ways that 1018 molecules can be
arranged into six-sided crystals is astronomicala great deal larger
than the number of snowflakes that have ever fallen on earth.
11. Agricultural technology companies are genetically altering plants to at
tempt to make them resistant to pests. Corn and potatoes have been
implanted with genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bacteria. This
bacterium is toxic to many pests, so that the plants have their own
built-in insecticide. However, no one knows whether insects will be
come immune to Bt in time.
12. Mixing love and pain is not natural. It does not come from within the
self. Women are taught masochism through the culture; masochisms
causes are external. Masochism is the end result of long training, which
makes the denial of autonomy for women seem natural, and makes
masochism appear to come from a source within the self.
13. The life expectancy of a crop duster is five years. They fly low, so they
sometimes hit buildings and power lines. They have no space to fly out
of trouble or to recover from a stall.

http://OCRKit.com - DEMO

SUMMARY

23

14. It doesnt seem plausible that a society in which hard-core pornogra

phy is available is better for that reason. But it has been very difficult to
draw a line that distinguishes obscenity from material that is sexually
explicit but has some aesthetic or other value.
15. M any cows are now injected with bovine growth horm one (BGH) to
increase milk production. Since the use o f BGH appears to cause
health problems for the cows, they are given more antibiotics. This
may lead to greater antibiotic resistance am ong hum ans who drink the
milk from these cows.

EX ERCISE

1.4

D ISC U SSIO N AND W R IT IN G

A SSIG N M EN T

I. W rite both an argum ent and an explanation for the following proposi
tions. You m ay prefer to use these as a guide to thinking up your own
propositions for which you write an argum ent and an explanation.
1. Dogs make good com panion animals.
2. Popular m usic offers a way for people to identify themselves as m em bers
o f a certain social group.
3. N ot m any people are well suited to beekeeping.

4. Censorship limits freedom.

5. Cheating on exams is justified in some cases.
II. As you work through the material in this book, it will be useful for you
to apply the skills youre learning to your own writing. Take an essay that
you have written for another course. Distinguish your use of argument,
explanation, and neither within the essay. You may prefer to trade essays
with a friend and work through each others.