Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SYSTEM
It must supply energy practically everywhere the customer demands.
The load demands vary with time. The system must able to supply this
ever changing demand.
The delivered energy must meet certain minimum requirements in
regard to quality. The following factors determine the quality:
a) The system frequency must be kept around 50Hz with
a variation of +0.05Hz to -0.05Hz.
b) The magnitude of the bus voltages are maintained within
prescribed limit around the normal value. Generally the
voltage variation should be limited to +5 to -5%.
The energy must be available with high reliability.
The energy must be delivered without overloading any element in the
power system.
The energy must be delivered at minimum cost.
TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD
PHASOR
PHASE
ANGLE
I
V
R
I
= 0
P>0
Q=0
= +90
P=0
Q>0
= - 90
P=0
Q<0
0<<+90
P>0
Q>0
V
L
L
3
TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD
PHASOR
PHASE
ANGLE
I
R
C
-90<<0
P>0
Q<0
P=0
Q=0
Tuned to
Resonance
IL = Ic
I
V
C
Ic
IL
PL = Pc
Energy travels
-90<=<=+90
TYPE OF LOADS
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
6
VAR IMPORT
Lagging p.f.
VAR EXPORT
=90
1.0
0.9
1.0
REACTIVE POWER
p.u. MVAR (leading)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
SCR
0.5
NT
CU
RR
E
(O
R)
TO
TA
L
=36
.87
AL
STA
BIL
0.2
PR A
CT IC
0.1
FIE
0.1
0.4
IT
LIM
0.2
L
TA 0.3
TO
R)
EN
RR
CU
IT
T LIM
REN
0.3
0.4 R (O
TO
RO
LD
NT
RE
0.4
0.5
UR
R C
ROTO
0.5
0.6
R
CU
ITY
LIM
IT W
ITH
12.5
%
0.6
0.7
AR
MA
TU
RE
MAR
GIN
(=6
3 )
0.7
OR
AT
ST
0.8
ST
AT
OR
0.9
H
0.3
0.2
0.1
MVA X SCR
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE
MVAR IN ZERO p.f. LEADING.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
C
1.0
REACTIVE POWER
p.u. MVAR (lagging)
VAR IMPORT
Lagging p.f.
VAR EXPORT
=90
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.1
(=6
3)
MVA X SCR
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE
MVAR IN ZERO p.f. LEADING.
AR
MA
TU
RE
(O
R)
ST
AT
OR
CU
RR
E
NT
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
1.0
0.2
0.9
0.3
0.8
0.4
0.7
SCR
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.1
T
EN
RR
CU
0.5
0.7
0.2
0.4
0.8
L
TA 0.3
TO
0.3
0.9
0.2
1.0
REACTIVE POWER
p.u. MVAR (leading)
0.1
FI
R)
0.4 R (O
O
T
RO
D
EL
TO
TA
L
0.2
0.5
= 36
.8
0.3
0.6
IT
L IM
T
EN
LIMIT
RR
CU
RENT
CUR
OR
ROT
0.4
PRA
CTIC
AL
STA
BIL IT
Y L
IMIT
WIT
H 1
2.5 %
0.6
0.5
0.7
MA
R GIN
0.7
OR
AT
ST
0.8
0.8
H
0.9
C
1.0
REACTIVE POWER
p.u. MVAR (lagging)
III) COMPARISON
p.f.=cos(6.5)=0.994 lag
V=(MVA X 106)/(3 X
Iarm.)
Iarm.)
09.08.2004
11:00 Hrs.
MW = 50
MVAR = 6
= -- (No measurement)
V = 11.2 KV
K.
CAPABILITY CURVE
10
12
CONTROLS
FREQUENCY
CONTROLS
REAL POWER
13
V1
V2
jX
P jQ
1.
2.
3.
Take V1 as reference.
V2=V1-jXI -----------------------------------(1)
V1 * I = P jQ
I = (P-jQ) / V1 ------------------------------(2)
Substitute (2) in (1)
V2 = V1 jX [(P/V1) j(Q/V1)]
V2 = [V1 (X/V1)Q] j(X/V1)P]
14
VECTOR DIAGRAMS:
V2 = V1- X Q - j X P
V1
V1
BOTH DROPS EQUAL
DOUBLE P
V1
V1
X Q
V1
V2
DOUBLE Q
X
V1
X P
V1
V1
Q
V2
V2
XP
V1
2X Q
V1
2X P
V1
LAGGING MVAR
GEN. VOLTAGE
EXCITATION LESS
LAGGING MVAR
GEN. VOLTAGE15
CONNECT
CAPACITORS
LIGHT LOAD
CONDITION
CONNECT
REACTORS
TO CONTROL
VOLTAGE
In ABC, BC=E
Sin
IX
Cos
A
CASE-I:
MW
In BCD, BC=IXd
CASE-I I:
17
S.C.C.
O.C.C.
a
1.0
C
E
c
o
SCR = o Fo
1
o Fs
Xd
Fo
c Fo
c Fo
b Fs
a Fo
Fc
AE
DE
AB
AC
BC
FIELD CURRENT
1
a Fo / c Fo
AD
1
Per unit voltage on open circuit
Corresponding per unit current on short circuit
18
SCR
AIR GAP
WEIGHT
SIZE
TRANSPORTATION
PROBLEM
Present trend is to build low value of SCR since fast acting excitation
system available.
19
20
Maximum voltage
: 400 KV AC.
National Grid
Regional Grid
: 400 KV line.
World highest
: 500 MW.
:
Advantage : Reduction of cost of Generation.
Limitations : (i) Transportation problem
(bigger size)
(ii) Do not have adequate
transmission lines.
: 315 MVA, 3 phase, single unit,
400 KV.
Richard C. Schaefer
Member, IEEE
Southern California Edison Co.
I. INTRODUCTION
When synchronous generators are tied to a utility bus,
conditions may exist in which it is not desirable for a
generator to use a terminal voltage regulator with reactive
droop compensation. These conditions occur where the
transmission or distribution voltage may be sensitive to
local load fluctuations. The bus voltage may be normal in
Fig. 5. MW Component
B.
Var Control
Phase
Angle
Change
Generator
Voltage
20
2.0%
Field
System Generator
Current
Current
Bus
Voltage
6.4%
5.4%
25.3%
WATTS
MVA
0.53%
2.7%
Phase
Angle
Change
Generator
Voltage
0.15
8.6%
System Generator
Field
Current
Current
Bus
Voltage
9.02%
8%
11.7%
WATTS
MVA
Phase Angle
Change
Generator
Voltage
System Bus
Voltage
Generator
Current
Field Current
WATTS
MVA
VOLTAGE
7.9
0.89%
2.5%
1.08%
10.6%
0.32%
VARS
0.1
3.6%
3.73%
3.63%
4.67%
POWER
FACTOR
3.3%
3.7%
3.3%
4.6%
A.
B.
V. CONCLUSION
VI. REFERENCES
1. National Trademark Brush Digest, Union Carbide
Corporation, Carbon Products Division
2. Eberly, T.W., Schaefer, R.C., Minimum/Maximum
Excitation Limiter Performance Goals for Small
Generation, presented at IEEE Power Engineering Society
95.
3. Jackson, J.Y. Interpretation and Use of Generator
Reactive Capability Diagrams, IEEE Transaction On
Industry and General Applications, Vol. IGA-7, No. 6,
Nov./Dec. 1971.
4. Godhwani, A., Kim, K., Basler, M.J., Design, Test and
Simulation Results of a VAr/Power Factor Controller
Implemented in a Modern Digital Excitation System,
presented at 1998 IEEE Summer Meeting Panel Session.
5. M. J. Basler, R.C. Schaefer, K. Kim, and R. Glenn,
"Voltage Regulator with Dual PID Controllers Enhances
Power System Stability," presented at Hydrovision, 2002.
6. A. Godhwani, M.J. Basler, and T.W. Eberly,
"Commissioning and Operational Experience with a
Modern Digital Excitation System," in IEEE Transactions on
Energy Conversion, Vol. 13, No. 2, June 1998.
e-mail: info@basler.com
P.A.E. Les Pins, 67319 Wasselonne Cedex FRANCE
Tel +33 3.88.87.1010 Fax +33 3.88.87.0808
e-mail: beifrance@basler.com
Synchronous Generator
Capability Curve
Sudarsanan.S
Graduate Engg. Trainee
Kalki communications Technologies
Introduction
Synchronous Machines
Generator Capability
Capability Curve
Importance
Synchronous Machines
Constant speed.
Operating Modes
Excitation
Synchronous Machines
Non-salient pole generator
High speed (2 - 4 poles)
Large power (100 - 400 MVA)
Application
Synchronous Machines
Salient pole generator
Small and mid-size power ( 0 - 100MVA)
Mid size generators for emergency power
supply
Large size generators in hydro-electric power
plants
Capability Curve
Plot of Complex Power
Stator And Rotor Heat Limit
External Limits
Ensure Protection
Construction
of Generator
Nature of Excitation Circuit
System Condition
Influence of Voltage and Power Regulation
Rotor Acceleration
Rotor and Stator Overheating
Over voltage on Rotor
jX S
V
A
B
AB
volts
E =Generated Emf
Ia =Armature Current
A
OA
Ra =Armature Resistance
Xs =Sync.Reactance
=Load Angle
E=Vt+IaRa+IajXs =E
Ra<<0
E=Vt+IajXs =E|_
Xs =Xa+Xl
Xa =Armature Reactance
Xl =Leakage Reactance
AB
cos =
XsIA
AB = X s I A cos
OA
sin =
or OA = X s I A sin
XSIA
Real Power
R eactive Po wer
P3 = 3V I A cos
Q 3 = 3V I A sin
Apparent Power
S 32 = P32 +Q 23
S 3 = 3V I A
Capability Curve-Construction
Phasor Diagram to Power Diagram
Volts
A
jX S
B
AB
volts
A
OA
S=
3V
DE =
P = 3V I A cos
3V 2
Q = 3V I A sin
3V
V2
Q3 =
( V) = 3
Xs
XS
The field current is proportional to the machines flux, and
flux is proportional to Generated Emf E
3E AV
DE =
Xs
The armature current Ia is proportional to XsIa ,and the
length corresponding to XsIa on the power diagram is
S = 3V I A
Conclusion
Capability Curve
Thanks
TUTORIAL ON GENERATOR:
CAPABILITY
Seoni
Z=0.055
Z1bu=0.0111
Z1=Z2=0.098, Z0=0.36
GEN: X"d=0.17,
Xd=2.1, X2=0.21
GT:21/765KV
Z=0.147
Z1=Z2=0.19, Z0=0.608
ICT: Z=0.082
UT: 21/11KV
Raipur
Z1bu=0.0212
Z=1.503
Z1=Z2=0.082, Z0=0.26
Korba
IBT
ST
132 / 400 KV
11 / 132 KV
Z1bu=0.0212
Z1=Z2=0.505, Z0=1.893
Ranchi, Z1bu=0.0212
Tutorial Objectives:
Develop understanding of the parameters that define normal operation of the
generator
Analyze the various malfunctions that can befall a generator
Operation Scenario:
The variation in system configuration and voltage have a significant effect on
the operation of the generator and associated auxiliary equipment
Variation in system configuration:
Impact of change in system configuration is shown in sample system diagram
Variation in system voltage:
Impact of change in system voltage is discussed in next slide
GENERATOR CAPABILITY
GENERATOR CAPABILITY
0.6
0.85PF
0.4
B
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
0.9PF
-0.6 D
Terminal Voltage= 1.0PU
-0.8
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
MW (PU)
0.8
GENERATOR CAPABILITY
GENERATOR CAPABILITY
Overexcited
A
0.6
0.85PF
0.4
Underexcited
MVAR(PU)
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
Steam
Gas
Turbine
-0.6
0.9PF
Hydro
-0.8 D
0.2
0.4
0.6
MW (PU)
0.8
VOLTAGE LIMITATIONS
GSU limits:
No load requirement:
Voltage limit at no load= 110% rated voltage for any tap position
Rated load requirement:
GSU is operating on 784.125 kV tap with impedance of 14.7%
I= kVA/Esec= 1.0/1.05= 0.952 -36.90= 0.76-j0.57
Ep=1.05+j0.147(0.76-j0.57)= 1.13 + j 0.11 = 1.135 <5.1
Therefore max allowable continuous voltage on GSU primary (LV)
winding is 13.5% as defined by requirement of 0.8 pf, rated load with
105% rated voltage at secondary terminals
Generator limit:
ANSI/ IEEE C50.12 and C50.13 define permissible operating range of
cylindrical rotor or salient pole machines to be 5% rated voltage
SYSTEM LIMITATIONS
The MW output of generator is limited by driving torque available from turbine.
The Var output is function of Et, Esys and Zsys. It is common to encounter voltage
limitation before generator Var limit is reached.
The relationship between P and Q, Esys and Zsys is often represented by power circle
diagram
Zsys
+Q
Center = Et2/Zs
Radius=Et*Esys/Zsys
Esys
(P,Q)
Et
P
-Q
SYSTEM LIMITATIONS
O/E
1
0.8
Field Limit
Turbine Limit
U/E
Reactive (pu)
0.6
0.4
Centre=
Radius= t*Esys/Zsys
0.2
Et= 1.05
0.85
Et2/Zsys
Stator Limit
0
-0.2
Et= 0.95
-0.4
0.9
-0.6
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
The MW output
of generator is
limited by driving
torque available
from turbine.
1.0
Power (pu)
Practical operating limits: System normal
Esys= 1.0
Zsys= 18.2% (Gen Base)
SYSTEM LIMITATIONS
Practical operating limits: Seoni Bus outaged
O/E
1
0.8
U/E
Reactive (pu)
0.6
0.85
0.4
Normal System
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
0.9
-0.6
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Power (pu)
1.0
SYSTEM LIMITATIONS
Practical operating limits: All lines in, vary grid voltage
O/E
1
0.8
Esys = 0.96
U/E
Reactive (pu)
0.6
0.85
0.4
Esys = 1.0
0.2
Esys = 1.055
Esys = 0.96
Esys = 1.0
-0.2
Esys = 1.055
-0.4
0.9
-0.6
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Power (pu)
1.0
Lead(U/E) MVAR(pu)
Lag(O/E)
1
0.8
0.6
0.85 PF
- Et = 0.95
0.4
0.95 Ra
Ra
0.2
0
- Et = 1.0
- Et = 1.05
1.05 Ra
-0.2
-0.4
0.9 PF
-0.6
-0.8
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
MW (pu)
0.8
1.0
Lead(U/E) MVAR(pu)
Lag(O/E)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1.05 Rf
1.052 C
1.0 Rf
0.95 Rf C
0.952 C
0.85 PF
R = Et x EI / Xd
0
-0.2
-0.4
0.9 PF
-0.6
-0.8
0.0
0.2
0.4
C = -Et2 / Xd
0.6
MW (pu)
0.8
1.0
Lead(U/E) MVAR(pu)
Lag(O/E)
1
0.8
Centre (P,Q) =
0.6
0.85 PF
(0 , K1 x Et2 / Xd)
0.4
Radius =
0.2
K2 x Et / Xd
0
-0.2
K1 and K2 are
derived from
published curves.
Et= 1.05
-0.4
Et= 1.0
0.9 PF
-0.6
Et= 0.95
-0.8
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
MW (pu)
0.8
1.0
Leading Var
capability is
markedly reduced
as Et increases.
TUTORIAL ON GENERATOR:
STABILITY LIMITS
EI * Es
ES2 ( Xd Xq )
PE
Sin
sin 2
Xd Xs
2( Xd Xs )( Xq Xs )
For Xd Xq
EI
EI * Es
I(Xd+Xs)
PE
Sin
Xd Xs
Es
Power (PU)
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
E=100%
Pe=Electrical Power
Reduced E
Pm=Mechanical Power
Operating point
20
40
60
Ir * Xq
Ir
Ix
I
Et
Ix * Xq
Ir * Xs
Es
Ix * Xs
Generator current Voltage Vector Diagram defines Es and Eq in terms of Et, Ir and Ix.
,
tan
Et IxXq
Et IxXs
IrXs
IrXq
0
1
Et IxXs Et IxXq
2
E2
(
Xd
Xs
)
QE
t
t P2
E 2 Q2
XdXs t
XdXs
2
2
E2
E2
1
1
1
1
2
t
t
Q P
2 Xd
2 Xs
Xs
Xd
2
E2 1
E
1
1
1
t
C
0,
R
t
2 Xs
Xd
2 Xd
Xs
Et 2 1
1
C j
2 Xe Xd
Et 2 1
1
R
2 Xe Xd
Weak System
Strong System
Above circle defines stability criterion against which MEL limit is usually evaluated
Ts K1 ( s )
Tsyn is in
phase with
Tm
Td ( s ) D * ( s )
leads
Td
by 90
is in quadrature
with
Ta ( s ) Tm ( s ) Ts ( s ) Td ( s )
( s ) Ta ( s ) *
1
Ms
( s ) 314 ( s )
s
Ta Tm K1 D *
Ta Tm K1 D *
Substituting Ta ( s ) sM ( s )
And
And
( s ) s ( s ) / 314
solving for ( s )
Tm ( s )
( s )
M 2
D
k1
s
s 1
314 k1
314 k1
1
L 1
n e nt sin n 1 2t
2
s 2 2
1
2 n
n
314 k1
Natural Frequency , n
M
Dn
Damping Factor ,
628k1
AUTOMATIC REGULATOR
STABILITY LIMITS
The Rotor Angle varies as an exponentially
decreasing sinusoidal function.
Damping factor, , controls rate of decay and
frequency of oscillation.
If = 0, oscillation is sustained at a fixed
magnitude at natural frequency.
If = -ve, oscillation grows without bound and
instability occurs
Ta( s ) k1 ( s )
k3
Tm
Tb( s ) k 2
Ee( s )
1 sk 3T ' do
Ee( s ) Efd( S ) k 4 ( s )
Tc( s ) Tm( s ) Ta( s ) Tb( s )
314
( s )
Tc( s )
2
Ms
Electrical Torque Te( s ) Ta( s ) Tb( s )
Efd
* =
den(s)=1 +sK3Tdo
Et2 1
1 Et2 1
1
2
Te( s ) sync 0,
2 Xd Xs 2 Xs Xd
T ( s )damp 0
314k1
M
314T ' dok1k32 M
314k1
M
and T ( s) sync 0
T ( s) sync
{k 4 ke[k 5 (k 4 k 5ke)k 6k 3]}k 3k 2
(k 3k 6ke 1) 2
For the Limit of dynamic stability,
n
T ( s)damp 0
T ( s)damp 0
Tm
Efd
Eq
Ee
et
et ref
* =
( Xd X ' d )( Xe Xq ) 1
k 3 1
Eo ( Xd X ' d )
k4
[( Xe Xq ) sin o re cos o]
A
re Eo sin o ( Xe X ' d ) Eo cos o
edo
k5
Xq
eto
A
re Eo cos o ( Xe Xq ) Eo sin o
eqo
X 'd
eto
A
re
eqo
X ' d ( Xe Xq ) edo
k6
1
Xq
p
,
eto
Eqo
Eo
Igo
Q
eto
etoIpo( Xq Xe ) re Xq I 2po
sin o
EqoEo
2
I qo
etoIqore
Eqo
eqo eto [(eto IqoXq ) / Eqo ]
edo iqoXq
2
I qo
Manual-SS
AVR Gain Ke = 10
AVR-Dyn
AVR-SS
Manual-SS
AVR-Dyn Ke =30
AVR-SS
Ke = 10 or 30
AVR-Dyn Ke = 10
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Ability of system to remain synchronized following an abrupt change such as a
fault or switch of a key line
Power Angle Equation:
Pe
Eg * Es
Sin
ZT
ZT X ' d X TR Zs
Slip (S, %)
Xd
0.33
2Xd
50
Xd
100
Xd
Remark
Range of slip for a typical
event of loss of synchronism
TRANSIENT STABILITY
2.5
Pe Both Lines In
Power (PU)
2
1.5
Pm
0.5
1
0
0
20
40
60
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Pe Both Lines In
A1
B
A2
Pm
Both Lines In
Open CB1
Open CB2
E
Pm
J
A2
A1
Line B Out
A3
Bkr 1 tripped
D
C
A
Line A
E
g
Es
Line B
Pm
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Classical Swing Impedance Characteristic:
Graphical representation for the system impedance trajectory as seen at
generator terminal
Eg Es
I
Xg X TR Zs
VR Eg IXg
Eg Es
VR Eg
Xg
Xg X TR Zs
Letting n Eg / Es and 1 cos j Sin
V
( n cos ) j Sin
Z R R ( Xg X TR Zs) n
Xg
2
2
I
( n cos ) Sin
For Eg Es ( n 1)
ZR
Xg X TR Zs
j
Cot
Xg
2
2
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Xd
Eg
Xsys
Xtr
Es
X
B Es
Zsys
Xtr
-R
Xd
=60
=120
=90
R
P
Eg
TRANSIENT STABILITY
At =180, pole slip occurs. There exists a critical swing
angle for any system from which the system cannot
recover. As a thumb rule, critical swing angle c is
considered to be 120.
The plots consider variation of but, all other system
parameters are held constant.
In reality, swing locus shows the effect of rotor oscillation
and changes in Eg.
Eg is controlled by generator constants and type of
excitation (manual or automatic), governor action,
mechanical damping of nearby units, shunt loads, shunt
capacitance effect and generator saliency.
Computer simulations are required to obtain accurate
impedance (swing) plots.
If a system has one or two generators isolated from other
machines, impedance plot can be derived using Excel
Workbook provided in the program.
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
(Stable Swing With Manual Regulator)
0.5
"-0"
0.99
1.09 1.39
0.39
0.89
0.49
0.29
-0.5
0.59
0.69
1.29
-1
1.19
0.79
-1.5
-2
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
R
1.5
2.5
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
(Stable Swing With Auto Regulator)
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.99
1.09
0.89
1.19
0.69
0.59
0.29
-0.5
"-0"
-1
-1.5
0.39
-2
-2.5
-3
0.49
-3.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
R
2.5
3.5
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
(Unstable Swing With Manual Regulator)
0.2
0.49
0.39
1.19
1.09
0.99
0.29 0.89
0.79
1.29
-0.2
-0.4
0.69
-0.6
-0.8
1.39
0.59
-1
-1.2
-0.7
-0.5
-0.3
-0.1
0.1
R
0.3
0.5
0.7
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
(Unstable Swing With Auto Regulator)
0.2
0.89
1.09
0.79 1.39
0.29
0.39
0.69
-0.2
1.19
-0.4
0.59
1.29
-0.6
"-0"
-0.8
0.49
-1
-1
-0.5
0
R
0.5
TUTORIAL ON GENERATOR:
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
Event:
Normally, all generators within an interconnected power system operate at like
frequency with their magnetic poles coupled through interaction with the
network
Interconnecting force is elastic allowing some angular play between generators
in response to system disturbances
A loss of synchronism occurs when the bonding force is insufficient to hold a
generator or group of generators in step with rest of the power system
Causes:
Loss of synchronism can occur when
Equipment outages or low voltage weaken the system or
The force is inadequate to restrain extreme rotor excursions following a system
fault or switching
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
Mechanism:
A loss of synchronism results from some form of system instability
When the manual regulator is in service, the systems can be vulnerable to the
loss of steady state or dynamic stability. When AVR is in service, minimum
excitation limiter (MEL) is provided to prevent these types of instability
However, a generator is most likely to loose transient stability. This is the ability
of the system to remain synchronized following an abrupt change such as a fault
or switch of a key line
Out of step generator or generators operate at slightly different frequencies. A
generator that pulls out of step ahead of the system with a slip frequency of 4
Hz, will be operating at a speed of 1+slip/50= 1.08 pu or 8% over speed.
The system and generator voltage vectors sweep past one another at slip
frequency, producing a pulsating current with peak magnitude potentially
greater than a 3 phase fault at the generator terminal
I= (Eg Es)/ (Xg+Xtr+Zs)
If Eg=Es, no current will flow when =0. System will appear as an open circuit
with infinite impedance. As increases, so will the current untill the system
reaches a separation of 1800. At this point, the driving voltage will be twice
normal, the sum of Eg and Es, and the current will be at a maximum.
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
Electrically, this condition is identical to that produced by a 3 phase fault located
one half the electrical distance to the remote terminal or at Z= 0.5(Xg+Xtr+Zs).
This imaginary fault location is called the electrical center of the system
The location of electrical center denotes the severity of the event with respect to
the generator. When it is located in the GSU transformer or generator itself, it
represents an event equivalent to a GSU fault or generator fault with severe
stress to local equipment
The location of the system electrical center is not fixed. The center will move
away from the generator as the system impedance increases due to equipment
outages.
The center is also slip dependent because Xg varies slip frequency.
Electrical center also varies with system and generator voltages.
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
Turbine Generator Damage:
As the electrical center moves from the system into generator, the current
magnitude increases and with it thermal and mechanical stress on the generator
and GSU transformer.
On a strong system, Xtr+Xs can be less than Xg: the electrical centre will lie
within generator and current at 1800 exceeds that of a 3 phase fault at the
generator terminals.
During out of step event, Xg=Xd but with low Xtr and Xs, the out of step
current can exceed the designed machine withstand limit (sub transient fault
current at the generator terminal). The absence of DC offset current does lessen
the stress from that of the fault case
The point is that as the location of electrical center moves towards the neutral
end of generator, current induced thermal and mechanical stress can approach
design limit. The generator is exposed to these conditions each slip cycle. After
a severe event, restacking of the stator core may be required. Local hot spots
may also damage stator windings
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
Generator rotor:
Slip frequency will induce currents in the rotor. Prolonged exposure to these
currents will cause thermal damage to damper windings, rotor teeth, wedges and
rotor body.
Torque pulsations:
The current pulsations associated with each slip cycle causes severe torque
transients in the turbine generator shaft. The stress is at a maximum during
initial period of each torque pulsation. This is the period when shaft damage
normally occurs.
The fatigue life of the shaft can be used up after a few pole slip events.
If slip cycle frequency coincides with a normal frequency of one of the shaft
sections, shaft failure can result
LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
Excitation System:
Prolonged asynchronous operation can also cause diode failures within the
excitation system. During each pole slip, these diodes will experience high
voltage as they block reversed rotor current. The over voltage stresses insulation
and can result in breakdown
Power System:
A loss of synchronism by one or more units will result in cyclic voltage
fluctuations as generators slip poles
These voltage dips can cause disruption to customers served from the grid.
Induction motors may stall and synchronous motors may loose synchronism.
Other processes would be disrupted when the voltage dips cause the motor
contactors to drop out
TUTORIAL ON GENERATOR:
LOSS OF FIELD
LOSS OF FIELD
Event:
Excitation to the generator field winding fails
Causes:
Equipment failure, inadvertent opening of the field breaker, an open or short
circuit in the excitation system, or slip ring flashover
Mechanism:
LOSS OF FIELD
2.5
Power (PU)
2
1.5
80% FL
60% FL
Pm
0.5
at FL
40% FL
0
0
20
40
60
LOSS OF FIELD
EgEs
sin
XT
X T transfer impedance Xg Xtr Xsyst ,
The effect of decaying Eg is to reduce amplitude of power angle curve with time
The intersection of Pe and Pm define the operating angle () of the generator
rotor with respect to the system voltage
increases to maintain power equilibrium
When reaches 900 electrical, power output is at maximum. If decay beyond this
point renders the generator incapable of transmitting all the mechanical power to
the electrical system
The excess mechanical power is dissipated by acceleration of the generator rotor.
As speed increases beyond synchronous speed, synchronism is lost
As speed increases, turbine output decreases as dictated by droop setting of the
governor and electrical power increases as dictated by the slip torque
characteristic of the power system.
Eventually, Pm and Pe will reach a new equilibrium, with generator operating
above synchronous speed as an induction generator drawing excitation from the
power system in the form of Vars
LOSS OF FIELD
A loss of synchronism following a field failure is not a high speed phenomenon
Typically, it will take a fully loaded steam turbine generator several seconds to
loose synchronism
Final slip is affected by the droop setting of the governor, system impedance and
initial loading. For a machine initially operating at full load, final slip is
typically in the 2 to 5% range.
The power output of the induction generator is less than the pre failure power
output
Impact of LOF operation:
The final or steady state slip of the induction generator is important because it
determines Xg which in turn defines the impact of post LOF operation
A LOF event can be represented by XT, a series circuit including Xg, Xtr and
Xsyst. Xg decreases with increasing slip and slip increases with initial generator
load.
Thus, the higher the initial load, the greater the asynchronous current and more
severe the consequences to both the generator and the connected system
LOSS OF FIELD
Other factors affecting LOF severity:
The initial load is the major factor in determining the potential damage from a
LOF event.
At first glance, a strong power system would appear to offer high post fault
currents. This is not necessarily true. A reduction in Zs will reduce the final slip
frequency and increase the power output from the induction generator. Because
of lower final slip, Xg will increase thereby reducing the stator current. Thus, a
failure on a strong system may actually be less damaging than a failure on a
weak system
A LOF event is more likely to be initiated by a shorted field circuit than an open
field circuit. The former will produce higher stator current, larger reactive intake
and generally more severe consequences than would be experienced with an
open field circuit.
LOSS OF FIELD
When machines are connected directly to a common bus, the potential for
damage increases. As If decays on the unit with failed excitation, AVR on
healthy machines will initiate full field forcing to support the falling bus voltage.
This increases the Var supply to the faulted machine. The situation is aggravated
when the units are connected to a strong system. An IEEE study documents a
study of 2 generators connected to a common bus and a moderate strength power
system. The unit with failed excitation saw a peak MVA loading in excess of 2
pu and peak stator current in excess of 2.5 pu. The healthy unit was also severely
stressed with a peak MVA of 1.5 pu and peak current of 2 pu
A LOF on a hydro unit at light load may not result in a loss of synchronism
since salient pole machines can carry up to 25% rated load following a loss of
field without loss of synchronism. However, once a salient pole machine looses
synchronism, it accelerates rapidly to a high slip. The slower acting hydro
governor and the fact that a salient pole machine makes an inefficient induction
generator causes this response. If the hydro generators field is lost near full load,
the effects are the same as for steam turbine units.
LOSS OF FIELD
System Impact:
A generator operating asynchronously without excitation can consume Vars in
the range of 0.4 to 1.9 times the unit name plate rating as slip increases from
near zero to 4%
The impact of LOF on the system is determined by its ability to withstand not
only the loss of real and reactive output, but to supply the large Var demand
imposed by the faulted generator after LOF.
Inability of system to meet VAR demand of failed unit can result in a
widespread system outage
Initially, excitation on nearby generators will go to full boost to supply reactive
to the generator with failed excitation and support the grid voltage, The large
Var influx can overload and trip the area transmission lines.
If the failed generator is not disconnected, field current limiters on the adjacent
units will time out, initiating an immediate reduction in field current to
continuous rated value? The resulting reduction in area Var support is likely to
produce severe voltage degradation. System voltage collapse or multi machine
instability can result causing a regional system outage
LOSS OF FIELD
System Impact:
Dynamic studies similar to those used in transient stability analysis are required
to determine accurately system response to a LOF event. These studies are time
consuming and expansive.
A screening technique using a standard load flow can determine where full
dynamic studies are required.
At the generator of interest, a worst case LOF event is simulated in load flow by
setting the reactive flow into the machine at (-)1.5 times the name plate MW
rating.
If a Load flow solves with reasonable system voltages, the system is considered
capable of withstanding the LOF event
However, if the solution fails to converge or severely depressed voltage results,
the event must then be modeled dynamically to determine if the system can
survive the field failure.
LOSS OF FIELD
Generator damage:
The potential for generator damage following a LOF is dependent on generator
design and final slip during asynchronous operation.
Although the asynchronous capabilities are not addressed in the standards,
modern expectations, particularly for conductor cooled machines are much
lower, with damage in as little as 10 second for some instances.
The improved cooling techniques result in larger MVA ratings from a given
physical size. These machines have higher per unit impedance and lower inertia
than indirect cooled machines and therefore tend to operate at a higher slip. This
reduces Xg during asynchronous operation, increasing the stator and induced
rotor current
Conductor cooled machine will also have lower thermal time constants, hence
faster temperature rise for a given current than indirect cooled machines
Load before LOF
Final slip
Effect on generator
0.1-0.2%
Damage unlikely
2-5%
Exposed to damage
LOSS OF FIELD
LOSS OF FIELD
Rotor damage:
Can occur as a result of rapid heating caused by currents induced in
rotor
LOF by shorted field circuit: the induced current is divided between
rotor structure and the field winding. This reduces heating in rotor
structures
The induced field current is generally below rated in salient pole
machines and only slightly above rated in a few cases with cylindrical
rotor machines
LOF by open field circuit: maximum rotor heating occurs. Also,
damaging over voltage will be induced in the field circuit for all but very
low slip events.
In a cylindrical rotor machine, induced currents flow along the length of
rotor body, creating heat in teeth, slot wedges, and, if present, the
amortisseur winding. Thermal damage is most likely to occur near the
ends of the rotor where currents converge to enter the retaining rings
In a salient pole machine, induced currents are found in the amortisseur
bars located in each pole face
LOSS OF FIELD
Stator end core damage:
Thermal damage at the ends of the stator core of a cylindrical rotor machine
when operated at reduced field current.
This limitation forms the leading Var boundary of the generator capability curve
A LOF represents the extreme in field current reduction.
A LOF from full load can result in leading Var loading in excess of the
generators MVA rating. Typically, the generator manufacturers capability
curve limits leading Var intake to about 40 to 60% of the generator rating
The reduction in terminal voltage that accompanies a LOF markedly increases
the Var capability, but this increase is insufficient to accommodate a potential
2.0pu leading Var inflow.
The voltage dependent Var limitation is circular on the P-Q plane with the
following characteristics:
Centre (Q,P) = 0, K1*et2/Xd
Radius = K2*et/Xd
Excessive end core heating would result in bluing of metallic end core structure,
charring of stator winding insulation and failure of the insulation medium
between laminations.
LOSS OF FIELD
Torque pulsations:
Originate from the electrical and magnetic difference between the d- and q-axes.
More severe for shorted field circuit than an open circuit condition
The torque magnitude associated with a LOF is less severe than that
accompanying an out of step condition with full excitation, but mechanical
damage remains a significant concern following a LOF event
Asynchronous operation exposes the generator and the prime mover to two
stress cycles each slip cycle.
Fatigue is cumulative, and extended asynchronous operation can consume a
considerable portion of the fatigue life of the shaft and associated structures,
including the machine foundations
These pulsations are also potentially resonant with shafts, turbine blades and
other components.
Thank you
1
0.8
0.85
0.6
0.4
Q
0.2
0
-0.2 0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0.8
1.0
0.95
1
0.8
0.85
0.6
0.4
Q
0.2
0
-0.2 0.0
0.2
0.4
-0.8
0.8
1.0
0.9
-0.4
-0.6
0.6
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Criterion for determination of non-recoverable Swings:
Improved cooling techniques have increased generator impedance whereas
system impedance declined due to reinforcement
Electrical Centers moved from transmission system into the GSU and the
generator itself
Following a system disturbance, generator rotors experience angular
perturbations as they attempt to adjust a new steady state operating condition
In a stable system rotor oscillations are damped ; initial angular displacement is
largest and proportional to the severity of disturbance
There exists a maximum swing angle known as critical swing angle (C) from
which the system can not recover
System modeling on a transient stability program is best way to determine C.
Tools and time to use them are generally not available to all and a less accurate
method is often adopted.
A general assumption is made that >1200 is not recoverable and thereafter
instability is imminent
The minimum system impedance and Xd values are typically used to construct
swing loci because lower impedances produce a smaller swing diameter
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Swing Velocity:
A fault changes system impedance instantaneously while impedance change
during a system transient is constrained by inertia and generator time constants
GE publication GER-3179 (J Brady) lists the following average velocities for
the first half of the first slip cycle
Unit Type
s, deg/sec
s, slip cycles/sec
Steam units
1296-1728
3.6-4.8
Tandem units
250-400
0.694-1.11
Compound units
400-800
1.11-2.22
Maximum acceleration occurs after each pole slip at the midpoint of the slip
cycle
Plot indicates slip < 5Hz at the beginning of second slip cycle. This value is
good estimation of upper limit of slip being calculated for a light machine (H=3)
LOSS OF FIELD
The full load LOF event depicted in figure in earlier slide is typical
It produces cyclic Is with variation between 1.14 and 2.13pu each slip cycle
In theory, the stator heating is related to the RMS current over a slip cycle.
The incremental form for RMS current is
IRMS can be calculated from
1T 2
incremental currents and slip
I RMS
I t
cycle duration determine from
T0
the spreadsheet
In the case of the full load LOF event depicted in figure, the RMS current at final
slip was calculated as 1.74pu
ANSI standards require that this current is limited to 22 sec to prevent winding
damage
The stator waveform is not sinusoidal, because slip is not constant through the slip
cycle. Figure in next slide shows the stator current waveform for the same LOF
condition but with Xs reduced from 0.2 to 0.1.
The incrementally calculated RMS current for this condition is 1.34pu. The
corresponding stator overload limit for this current is 50 sec from ANSI standards.
This demonstrates that generator stress can increase with increased system
impedance
LOSS OF FIELD
NPS current induces rotor currents at 2fs whereas frequency of asynchronously
induced rotor current is equal to slip frequency and is usually less than 5 Hz
As frequency increases, skin effect increases the effective resistance of a
conductor . Thus, higher I2R and more heating per ampere are produced by NPS
operation than those by asynchronous operation
The 2fs current produced by NPS current does not have sufficient penetration
into the rotor lots to induce current into the field winding. Therefore, the NPS
limit is, is, in effect, based on an open field circuit
The NPS limits are based on the limiting temperature for pole face amortisseur
winding in salient pole machines and teeth or wedges in round rotor machine
with induced currents at 2fs. A realistic estimate of asynchronous limits requires
an adjustment of conductor resistance for lower frequency asynchronous case
An AIEEE paper gives expression Tmax = CI2t/d2
Where Tmax= the limiting temperature for a component, C= constant for a
particular machine, I= stator current, and d= depth of penetration
The physical differences between conducting structure in salient and round rotor
machines, result in different treatments for the resistance variation
LOSS OF FIELD
The NPS short time limit is defined in terms of K, a constant representing the
maximum (I2eq)2*t value the machine can withstand
The I2eq term refers to equivalent RMS pu NPS current in the event the current
is time variant
IEEE standard C37.102:
K= 40 for salient pole machine
K= 10 for large conductor cooled machine
For pole face amortisseurs on a salient pole machine and other small
conductors, d varies proportional to 1/f
Assume IRMS = 1.74pu at final slip under asynchronous operation
Tmax
CI 2t
d2
Thermal limit K I 2t
Tmax
Cf
Tmax
I 2tf
Kf I tf
NPS limit K I 2
C
100
If machine in Figure 13.2 were limited by pole face amortisseur (K 40),
the expected rotor withstand for asynchronous operation at 5 Hz slip
2
100 K I 2 100 * 40
264 sec
2
2
I f
1.74 * 5
LOSS OF FIELD
For a solid face cylindrical rotor having large diameter configuration, d varies
proportional to (I/f)
Tmax I
Cf
Tmax
(Note resulting limitation is a function of It and not I 2t )
C
4 Itf Tmax
Practical upper limit for NPS current 4 pu K I 2
NPS limit
100
C
If machine in Figure 13.2 were limited by tooth temperature (K 10),
and K It
28.7 sec
4 * If
4 *1.74 * 5
GENERATOR
CAPABILITY CURVE
By
Prof. C. Radhakrishna
CONTENTS
GENERATOR CAPABILITY CURVE
Reactive Capability Curves
Armature current limit
Field current limit
End region heating limit
Generator Characteristics
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10/17/2010 10:20 AM
E t I t (cos j sin )
where is the power factor angle.
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X ad
P E t I t cos
E t i fd sin i
Xs
2
t
Xad
E
Q EI
Eit fd cosi
t t sin
Xs
Xs
10/17/2010 10:20 AM
Figure 3 Field
current heating limit
In any balanced design, the thermal limits for the field and armature
intersect at a point A, which represents the machine nameplate MVA and
power factor rating.
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11
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12
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13
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14
Generator Characteristics
During conditions of low-system voltages, the reactive power demand on
generators may exceed their field current and/or armature current limits.
When the reactive power output is limited, the terminal voltage is no
longer maintained constant.
On most generators, the armature current limit is realized manually by
operators responding to alarms.
The operator reduces reactive and/or active power output to bring the
armature current within safe limits.
On some generators, automatic armature current limiters with time delay
are used to limit reactive power output through the AVR.
REFERENCES :
[ 1 ] Prabha Kundur : Power System Stability and control , The EPRI
Power System Engineering Series, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994.
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15
CONCLUSIONS
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16
THANK
YOU
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17