L e c t u r e 2

P r o p o r , o n A n d S c a l e
A R C H I T E C T U R A L D E S I G N - I

S c a l e & p r o p o r , o n

T h e s c a l e a l l u d e s t o t h e s i z e o f s o m e t h i n g c o m p a r e d t o a
r e f e r e n c e s t a n d a r d o r t o t h e s i z e o f s o m e t h i n g e l s e , p r o p o r , o n
r e f e r s t o t h e p r o p e r o r h a r m o n i o u s r e l a , o n o f o n e p a r t t o
a n o t h e r o r t o t h e w h o l e .

O R D E R

O r d e r i n g i s n o t s o m e t h i n g h u m a n i t y d o e s i n d i v i d u a l l y b u t i s
s o m e t h i n g w e d o c o l l e c , v e l y w i t h a n u n c o n s c i o u s n e e d t o n d
t h e i n h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e o f t h i n g s , t o l a b e l p a r t s a n d t o c o n t r o l
t h e m . F i n d i n g p a O e r n s g e n e r i c t o t h i n g s a n d m a k i n g t e m p l a t e s
i n t o w h i c h t h i n g s c a n b e o r d e r e d a r e u n i q u e c a t a l y s t s o f t h e
h u m a n b r a i n ; d r i v i n g o u r s t r o n g e s t e m o , o n a l c o m p u l s i o n s .

P r o p o r , o n i n A r c h i t e c t u r e

M A T E R I A L P R O P O R T I O N S

S T R U C T U R A L P R O P O R T I O N S
M A N U F A C T U R E D P R O P O R T I O N S

The first proportional relationship begins in architectural design in the material level
and in the level of architectural elements. Many architectural elements are sized and
proportioned not only according to their structural properties and function, but also
by the process through which they are manufactured.

MATERIAL PROPORTIONS
..................................................................................................................................................

All building materials in architecture have distinct properties of elasticity, hardness and durability. And
they all have an ultimate strength beyond which they cannot extend themselves without fracturing,
breaking, or collapsing.
Masonry units like brick, for example, are strong in compression and depend on their mass for strength.
Such materials are therefore volumetric in form. Materials like steel are strong in both compression and
tension and can therefore be formed into linear columns and beams as well as planar sheet materials.
.......................................................................................................................................................................

STRUCTURAL PROPORTIONS
..................................................................................................................................................
The size and proportions of the structural elements are directly related to the structural tasks they

perform and can therefore be visual indicators of the size and scale of the spaces they help enclose.

Beams, for example, transmit their loads horizontally across space to their vertical supports. If the span
or load of a beam were doubled, its bending stresses would likewise double, possibly causing it to
collapse. But if its depth were doubled, its strength would increase fourfold. Depth, therefore, is the
critical dimension of a beam and its depth-to-span ratio can be a useful indicator of its structural role. In a
similar manner, columns become thicker as their loads increase.

By their size and proportion, beams and columns articulate a space.
.......................................................................................................................................................................

MANUFACTURED PROPORTIONS
..................................................................................................................................................
Many architectural elements are sized and proportional not only according to their structural properties
and function, but also by the process through which they are manufactured.

Concrete block and common brick, for example, are produced as modular building units. Although they
differ from each other in size, both are proportioned on a similar basis. Plywood and other sheathing
materials also are manufactured as modular units with fixed proportions.
......................................................................................................................................................................

P r o p o r , o n i n g s y s t e m s

W h y a r e p r o p o r , o n i n g s y s t e m u s e f u l a n d o f
p a r , c u l a r s i g n i c a n c e i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s i g n

G O L D E N S E C T I O N
F I B O N A C C I S E R I E S

M O D U L A R

Why are proportioning systems useful and particular significance in architectural design?
..................................................................................................................................................
The English author Henry Wotton translated de Architectura, which was written by Roman architect

Vitruvius in 1624, and interpreted Vitruvius three conditions of a good building to be commodity
(usefulness), firmness (solidity or strength) and delight (beauty). Proportion plays an important role in all
three, as it provides guidelines for laying out useful spaces, for designing structural systems, and for
creating an aesthetically pleasing environment. The proportions of a space can dramatically change how
visitors feel in it, and the proportions of a facade design can affect whether a building appears welcoming
threatening, or impressive.
.......................................................................................................................................................................

PYTHAGOREAN HAMMERS
..................................................................................................................................................
Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician and philosopher. He propagated the concept of all is number

and believed that certain numerical relationships manifest the harmonic structure of the universe.
.......................................................................................................................................................................
One day when Pythagoras passed a smithy he heard the
clang of three hammers and found the sound pleasing. He
went in to investigate and discovered that the lengths of
the three hammer-heads were related to each other in the
ratio of 6:4:3.

PYTHAGOREAN HAMMERS
..................................................................................................................................................
Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician and philosopher. He propagated the concept of all is number

and believed that certain numerical relationships manifest the harmonic structure of the universe.
.......................................................................................................................................................................
This led him to experiment with tautly stretched
strings of different lengths and he ascertained that
when the lengths were related to each other in the
ratios of small numbers the strings produced
harmonious sounds.

The Greeks tried to find some explanation for the
phenomena they observed. They said something like
this: it makes the soul happy to work with clear
mathematical ratios and therefore the tones
produced by strings of simple proportions affect our
ears with delight.

PENTAGON AND THE PENTAGRAM

..................................................................................................................................................

To Pythagoras the pentagram was a mystical and holy symbol.

.......................................................................................................................................................................
A pentagram is a five- pointed star which is formed by lengthening the sides of a pentagon both ways to
their points of intersection.
.......................................................................................................................................................................
The relation between the length of one of the sides of a pentagrams point and the side of a pentagon is
the same as the golden section. By connecting the sides of the pentagram a new pentagon is formed, from
that again a new pentagram, etc. in this way you get an infinite series of line segments which grow
according to the rule of the golden section.

GOLDEN SECTION
..................................................................................................................................................

Mathematical systems of proportion originate from the Pythagorean concept of all in number and the
belief that certain numerical relationships manifest the harmonic structure of the universe. One of these
relationships that has been in use ever since the days of antiquity is the proportion known as the golden
section.
.......................................................................................................................................................................

THE GOLDEN RATIO can be defined as the ratio between two sections of a line, or the two dimensions
of a plane figure, in which the lesser of the two is to the greater as the greater is to the sum of both.








Also known as the, THE AESTHETIC RATIO or THE DIVINE PROPORTION the golden section has
long been believed to produce some of the most aesthetically pleasing shapes in nature.

GOLDEN SECTION AND FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

..................................................................................................................................
The special proportioning properties of the golden section have a close relationship to a sequence of
numbers called the Fibonacci sequence. This sequence of numbers, 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34..... Is calculated by
adding the two previous numbers to produce the third.

The proportioning pattern of this system is very close to the proportioning system of the golden section.
.......................................................................................................................................................................





2/1
= 2.0000
3/2
= 1.5000
5/3
= 1.66666
8/5
= 1.60000
13/8
= 1.62500
21/13
= 1.61538
34/21
= 1.61904
55/34 = 1.61764
89/55 = 1.61818
144/89 = 1.61797
233/144 = 1.61805
377/233 = 1.61802
610/377 = 1.61803 Golden Section

GOLDEN RECTANGLE
..................................................................................................................................................
Golden Rectangle
A rectangle whose sides are proportioned according to Golden Section is called a Golden Rectangle. If a
square is drawn in its smaller side, the remaining portion of the rectangle would be a smaller but similar
Golden Rectangle..

GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF THE GOLDEN SECTION RECTANGLE

.................................................................................................................................

Golden Section, Square Construction Method

....................................................................................................................................................

1. Begin with a square.
2. Draw a diagonal from the midpoint A of
one of the sides to an opposite corner
B. this diagonal becomes the radius of
an arc that extends beyond the square
to C. the smaller rectangle and the
square becomes the golden section
rectangle.
3. The golden section rectangle can be
subdivided. When subdivided the
rectangle produces a smaller
proportional golden section rectangle
which is the reciprocal, and a square
remains after subdivision. The square
can also be called a gnomon.
4. The process of subdivision can
endlessly continue, again and again,
p ro d u c i n g s m a l l e r p ro p o r t i o n a l
rectangles and squares.

GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF THE GOLDEN SECTION RECTANGLE

..................................................................................................................................................

The golden section rectangle is unique in that when subdivided its reciprocal is a smaller proportional
rectangle and the area remaining after subdivision is a square. Because of the special property of
subdividing into a reciprocal rectangle and a square, the golden section rectangle is known as the spiral
square rectangle. The proportionally decreasing squares can produce by using a radius the length of the
sides of the square.
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Golden section spiral construction

By using the golden section subdivision diagram a
golden section spiral can be constructed. Use the
length of the sides of the squares of the
subdivisions as a radius of a circle. Strike and
connect arcs for ach square in the diagram

GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF THE GOLDEN SECTION RECTANGLE

.................................................................................................................................

Golden Section, Triangle Construction Method

....................................................................................................................................................

1. Begin with a right triangle whose sides
are 1:2 proportion. Draw an arc from D
using DA as a radius, that crosses the
hypotenuse.
2.

3.

Draw another arc along the hypotenuse

from C using CE as a radius to intersect
the base line.

From point B where the arc intersects

the base line draw a vertical that
touches the hypotenuse.

4. This method produces golden section

proportions by defining the length of
the sides of the rectangle, AB and BC
the subdivision of the triangle yields
sides of a rectangle in golden ratio
proportion, since the ratio of AB to BC
is a golden section ratio of 1:1.618.

GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF THE GOLDEN SECTION RECTANGLE

..................................................................................................................................................

The divisions and proportion of the triangle method of the golden section construction produce the sides
of a golden section rectangle, and in addition, the method can produce a series of circles or squares that
are in golden section proportion to each other.
.......................................................................................................................................................................
Diameter AB=BC+CD
Diameter BC=CD+DE
Diameter CD=DE+EF
etc.

PROPORTION IN MAN AND NATURE

..................................................................................................................................................
The power of the golden section to create harmony arises from its unique capacity to unite different parts

of a whole so that each preserves its own identity, and yet blends into the greater pattern of a single
whole.
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The growth pattern of shells are logaritmic spirals of golden section proportions, and what is known as
the theory of a perfect growth pattern. The growth pattern of the nautilus and other shells are never
exact golden section proportions. Rather, there is an attempt in biological growth pattern proportion to
approach but never reach exact golden spiral proportions.

Golden section spiral

construction diagram of
the golden section
rectangle and resulting
spiral

PROPORTION IN MAN AND NATURE

..................................................................................................................................................
Many fish also share relationships with the golden section. Three golden section construction diagrams

placed on the body of the rainbow trout show he relationships of the eye and the tail fin in the reciprocal
golden rectangles and square.
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Golden section analysis of a trout

The body of the trout is enclosed by
three golden section rectangles. The
eye is a the level of the reciprocal
golden rectangle and the tail fin is
defined by a reciprocal golden
rectangle.

PROPORTION IN MAN AND NATURE

.................................................................................................................................................

Just as many plants and animals share golden section proportions, humans do as well. Greek author and
architect, Vitruvius, advised that the architecture of temples should be based on the likeness of the
perfectly proportioned human body where a harmony exists among all parts. Vitruvius described this
proportion and explained that the height of well proportioned man is equal to the length of his
outstretched arms. The body height and length of the outstretched arms create a square that enclose the
human body, while the hands and feet touch a circle with the navel as the center.
.......................................................................................................................................................................

ARCHITECTURAL PROPORTIONS
..................................................................................................................................................
In addition to documenting human body proportions VITRUVIUS was also an architect and documented

harmonious proportions.
The Parthenon in Athens is an example of Greek system of proportioning. In a simple analysis, the faade
of the Parthenon is embraced by a subdivided golden rectangle. A reciprocal rectangle forms the height
of the architrave, frieze and pediment. The square of the main rectangle gives the height of the pediment,
and the smallest rectangle in the digram yields the placement of the frieze and architrave.
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MODULOR
..................................................................................................................................................
Le Corbusier based his measuring tool, the Modulor, on both mathematics ( the aesthetic dimensions of

the Golden Section and the Fibonacci series), and the proportions of the human body.
.......................................................................................................................................................................
Le corbusier saw the modular not merely
as a series of numbers with an inherent
harmony, but as a system of
measurements that could govern
lengths, surfaces, and volumes, and
maintain the human scale everywhere.

MODULOR
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ANTHROPOMETRY
..................................................................................................................................................

Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the size and proportions of the human body. They are
predicted on the theory that forms and spaces in architecture are either containers or extensions of the
human body and should therefore be determined by its dimensions.
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ANTHROPOMETRY
..................................................................................................................................................

The dimensions and proportions of the human body affect the proportion of things we handle, the height
and distance of things we try to reach, and the dimensions of furnishings we use for sitting, working,
eating, and sleeping. There is a difference between our structural dimensions and those dimensional
requirements which result from how we reach or something on a shelf, sit down at a table, walk down a set
of stairs, or interact with other people. These are functional dimensions and will vary according to the
nature of the activity engaged in and the social situation.
.......................................................................................................................................................................

ANTHROPOMETRY
..................................................................................................................................................
In addition to the elements that we use in a building, the dimensions of the human body also affect the
volume of space we require for movement, activity and rest. The fit between the form and dimensions of a
space and our own body dimensions can be a static one as when we sit in a chair or lean against a railing.
There can also be a dynamic fit as when we enter a buildings foyer, walk up a stairway, or move through
the rooms and halls of a building. A third type of fit is how a space accommodate our need to maintain
social distances and to have control over our personal space.

S c a l e i n A r c h i t e c t u r e

V I S U A L S C A L E

H U M A N S C A L E

VISUAL SCALE
..................................................................................................................................................

Visual scale refers not to the actual dimension of things, but rather to how small or large something
appears to be in relation to its normal size or to the size of other things in its context.
.......................................................................................................................................................................
EBBINGHUAS ILLUSION :
Two circles of the same size are perceived to be different sizes because of the size of the surrounding
objects.









MULLER-LYER ILLUSION :
Line segments of the same size appear to be of different lengths based on the shapes that are placed at
the ends

HUMAN SCALE
..................................................................................................................................................

We can gauge a space whose width is such that we can reach out reach out and touch its walls. Similarly,
we can judge its height if we can reach up and touch the ceiling plane overhead.

We can use elements that have human meaning and whose dimensions are related to the dimensions of our
posture, pace, reach, or grasp. Such elements as a table or chair the risers and treads of a stairway, the
sill of a window, and the lintel over a doorway, not only help us judge the size of a space but also give it a
human scale.
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Jama Masjid, Delhi