PORTER : | : fea ’ Wo R. 1. PORTER IE AYSVEAN:To NOV T26/ FURTHER MATHEMATICS. "4 a “a WT Pinay MCMXCVILELEMENTARY ANALYSIS By A. DAKIN, M.A., BSc. and R. I. PORTER, M.B.E., M.A. 3rd, metricated, edition 27th Impression “Very lucid and well arranged. ... The numerous examples provide excellent practice for both average and more advanced pupils." THE A.M.A. FURTHER ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS By R. 1. PORTER, M.BE., M.A. 4th, metricated, edition 17th Impression “T have been teaching now for 40 years. All that time Thave been looking for a good Analysis book. At last, I think, I have found it. Please pass on my congratula- tions and thanks to Mr. Porter for giving us such a fine ‘A SENIOR MATHEMATICS MASTER Full details from BELL AND HYMAN LTD ‘Denmark House, 37/39 Queen Elizabeth Street, London SE1 2QBFURTHER MATHEMATICS By R. L PORTER MBE. MA. Formerly Headmaster, The Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Penrith BELL AND HYMAN LTD LONDONPublished by BELL & HYMAN LIMITED Denmark House 37-39 Queen Elizabeth Street LONDON SE1 20B First published in 1962 by G. Bell & Sons Limited Reprinted 1963, 1964, 1966, 1967 Revised, metricated edition 1970 Reprinted 1972, 1975, 1978, 1980 ©R.L. Porter, M.B.E., M.A., 1962 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans- mitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, ‘mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Bell & Hyman Limited METROPOLITAN BOROUGH OF WIGAN DEPT. OF LEISURE LIBRARIES ISBN 0 7135 1762 X Printed in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd, Guildford, SurreyPREFACE TO FIRST EDITION Tue books Elementary Analysis and Further Elementary Analysis were designed to provide a complete two-year Vith Form course in Pure Mathematics for all but the outright mathematical specialist. This volume is intended to complete the two-year course for these specialists and also to extend the course to give adequate preparation for the “S” papers of the G.C.E. and similar examinations. In choosing the subject matter, careful attention has been given to the existing or proposed future syllabuses of the different Examining Bodies for the General Certificate of Education. A great deal of thought has been given to the order of presentation of the different topics, but clearly this order is flexible and can be modified to suit different requirements and to fit in with different ideas. As in the previous books, the aim is to introduce pupils as quickly as possible to fresh mathematical fields and to make them acquainted with new mathematical techniques. To achieve this aim and to limit the size of this book it has been necessary in many instances to dispense with formal proofs and rigid lines of approach. Experience has proved the necessity for large numbers of examples of all types, and it will be seen that this requirement is very adequately met. Care has been taken to grade the examples in the text according to degree of difficulty. The needs of revision are catered for by a set of miscellaneous examples at the end of each chapter, together with a comprehensive set of Revision Papers, both A and S levels; a feature which has proved popular in the earlier volumes. My thanks are due to the following examining bodies, who have kindly given permission to use questions set in their past examinations: The Senate of the University of London: © ‘The Cambridge Local Examination Syndicate: © The Oxford and Cambridge Joint Examination Board: (O.C.) ‘The Northern Universities Joint Matriculation Board: (N). 1 am indebted to several past pupils, particularly Mr. J. D. Knowles, Mr. K. Burrell and Mr. J. B. Brelsford, for the assistance they have given in reading and checking the manuscript and the answers. R. P. December 1961PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION Tue need for a further reprinting has given the opportunity of revising the text in order to meet the requirements of the changeover to metric and S.I. units. The number of instances where modification was necessary is small and consequently the book is essentially unchanged. I would like to thank the users of the book who have notified me of errors; it is hoped that most of these have now been eliminated. R.P. March 1970CONTENTS CHAPTER I PHB TRIARGER SS ba) 3k Port Ay” aye ee) Sata Medians. Circumcentre and circumeircle, Orthocentre and pedal triangle. Nine-point circle, Euler line. Incentre and excentres. Concurrence and collinearity. The theorems of Ceva and Menelaus. Simson's line. CHAPTER II atomic Marrone ah. ss ecgeatcs vs aacty eae Basic identities. Important factors. Remainder theorem, Factors of symmetrical expressions. Highest common factor of two polynomials. Ratio and proportion. Equal fractions. Quadratic and rational quadratic functions. Partial fractions— special methods. Miscellaneous equations. CHAPTER III DETERMINANTS. LINEAR EQUATIONS = - . Notation and definitions. Laws of deterrninants, Factorisation of determinants. Minors and cofactors. Linear simultaneous equations. Equations in two and three unknowns. Special cases. Homogeneous linear equations in two and three unknowns. CHAPTER IV More ADVANCED ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF THE STRAIGHT LINE AND CIRCLE Oca.) sche tie Applications of determinants, ‘The line pair. Line pait through the origin. Angles between two straight lines. Bisectors of the angles between a line pair. Tangents to a circle from an external point. Chord of contact of tangents from an external point to a circle. CHAPTER V Systems or Crecuss 6 ee tea Power of a point with respect to a circle. Radical axis of two circles. Radical centre of three circles. Simplified form for the equations of two given circles. Coaxal systems of circles. The equation $, +S, = 0. Simplified form of the equation of a coaxal system. Types of coaxal systems. Limiting points. Orthogonal circles. Condition that two circles should cut orthogonally. Orthogonal systems. The circle of Apollonius. Apollonius circles as a system of coaxal circles. vii PAGE 27 52 81 100viii CONTENTS CHAPTER VI PAGE CompLex NuMBeRs . * + 123 Definition, notation and ‘eometrical representation ofa complcx number. Argand diagram. Modulus and amplitude. Funda- mental processes. Equality, addition, subtraction. Inequalities. Multiplication and division. Geometrical properties of the Argand diagram. Transformations. Exponential form of a complex number. CHAPTER VIL ELEMENTARY THEORY OF EQUATIONS . . . ‘ . » M2 Polynomials and polynomial equations. Basic theorems. Complex and irrational roots. Zeros of a polynomial. Rolle’s theorem. Conditions for two equations to have a common root. Repeated roots. Solutions of equations with repeated roots. Relations between the roots and coefficients of an equation: cubic equation; quartic equation; equation of the nth degree. Sums of powers of roots of an equation. Transformation of equations. CHAPTER VIII Tue Conics. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS : . 161 Chord of contact of tangents from a point to a conic. Polar and pole. Parallel chords of a conic. Equation of a chord with a given mid-point. Normals to a conic. Concyclic points on a conic. General equation of a conic. Systems of conics, S+ 2S’ =0. System of conics passing through four given points. Special cases of the system S + 4S’ = 0. ‘CHAPTER IX De Motvrs’s THEOREM AND SIMPLE APPLICATIONS - 181 De Moivre’s theorem. Values of (cos 0 + / sin 6), where q is a Positive integer. Binomial equations. Factors: x" — 1, x" + 1, 22" — 2x cos n+ 1. Expressions for cos" 0, sin” 0 in terms of multiple angles. Expansions of cos n®, sin 10, tan n0, where n is a Positive integer. CHAPTER X FInirE SERIES. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION . . 196 Finite series. Series related to the arithmetic series. ‘Trigo- nometrical series. Applications of De Moivre’s theorem. Power series. Binomial series and coefficients. Mathematical induction,CONTENTS CHAPTER XI EXPANSIONS - Infinite series. Expansion of a’ function, Algebraic and trigo- nometrical methods. Taylor's theorem. Maclaurin’s theorem. Expansion by differentiation or integration of a known series. Expansion by the formation of a differential equation. Leibnitz’s theorem. CHAPTER XII SYSTEMATIC INTEGRATION. PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS Basic theorems of integration. Important algebraic integrals Integrals involving the function -/(ax* + bx ++ ¢). Trigonometric integrals. Hyperbolic integrals. Reduction formule. General theorems on definite integrals. The logarithmic function [ “dt, ce Infinite integrals: infinite range; infinite integrand. CHAPTER XIII FURTHER PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES ofank: ‘Curves expressed in polar coordinates. Pedal equation. Are Jength and area of surface of revolution. Polar form of radius of curvature. Radius of curvature—pedal form. Area of a closed curve. Theorems of Pappus. Volume of revolution of a sectorial area. CHAPTER XIV ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY OF THE PLANE AND STRAIGHT LINE : Rectangular Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions. Three- dimensional loci. Fundamental results. Direction of a straight line. Direction-cosines. Angle between two straight lines. Direction ratios. The general equation of the first degree. Perpendicular form of the equation of a plane. Perpendicular from a point to a plane. Important results on the plane. The straight line. Symmetrical form of the equations of a straight line. Coplanar lines. Skew lines. Common perpendicular to two skew lines. Simplified form for the equations of two skew lines. ‘Some properties of the tetrahedron. CHAPTER XV ‘Tae SPHERE ‘The equation of a sphere. Sphere passing through four points. Tangent plane to a sphere. Length of tangent lines to a sphere from a given point. Plane section of a sphere. Common points of two spheres. Equations of a circle, Equation of a sphere passing through a given circle, System of spheres passing through the common points of two spheres, PAGE 216 230 261 an 304x CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI PAGE PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION. . < ‘ * - : a: OF Functions of more than one variable. Definition of a partial derivative. Geometrical interpretation of partial derivatives in the case of a function of two variables. Higher partial derivatives. Small changes. Differentials. Total differential coefficient. Important special cases. Derivatives of implicit functions. Total partial derivative. Homogeneous functions. Euler’s theorem. EVEN RATERE: = Soc) Ts ian ae ate Aue 337 ANSWERS . OD a fi Ane a ee INDEX Su aR RR ako) Neca aamiaange a Monee aaaCHAPTER 1 THE TRIANGLE Medians of a triangle. Let the medians BB’, CC’ of A ABC meet in G (Fig. 1). Then as B’, C’ are the mid-points of AC, AB respectively, it follows that C’B’ is parallel to BC and equal tohalf of it. Hence from the similar triangles C’GB’, BCG BG_CG_CB'_1 - ‘4 “GB GC" BC Le. the medians BB’, CC’ trisect each other atG.— . i Fic. 1. Similarly, it can be shown that the medians AA’, BB’ trisect each other at G and therefore the medians AA’, BB’, CC’ are concurrent in G and trisect each other. G is called the centroid of A ABC. Analytically, if A, B, C are the points (x;, 1), (%2; ¥2), (%s) Ys), by writing down the coordinates of A’ and expressing the fact that G divides AA’ internally in the ratio 2:1, it follows that G is the point Gi + 2449) rt yet yd) A Ex. 1. Show how to construct a triangle ABC given the lengths of its three medians. Draw median 4A’ and determine the point of trisection G (Fig. 2). Produce AA’ to G’ where GA’ =A’G' and mark arcs with centres G, G’ and radii respectively two-thirds of each of the remaining two medians. ‘These arcs intersect in a second vertex, B, of the required triangle and Cis determined by making 4’C=BA’. The proof depends on the fact that BGCG’ is a parallelogram as its diagonals bisect each other. Apollonius’ theorem. 44’ is a median of A ABC (Fig. 3). Using the Cosine Rule with the notation of the figure, c= m?+ (Ja)*—2m(4a) cos (180°), Bt = m?-+ (4a)? 2m(4a) cos 0. Adding and using cos (180°—6)= —cos 6, ct + Bt= 2m? + 24a)? ie. AB? + AC?=2AA?+2BA'*— Apollonius’ median theorem. 1 Fig. 2.2 THE TRIANGLE Angles between a median and the side of a triangle. Referring to Fig. 3, where A ABC has B between the median AA’ and side BC, the Fic. 3. more general result to cover the cases B>C and Bp.4 THE TRIANGLE Circumcentre and circumcircle. In Fig. 7, 4’, B’, C’ are the mid-points of the sides of A ABC. The perpendicular bisectors of CA and AB intersect at O. As 0 lies on the perpendicular bisector 7 of CA, cO=40. Similarly, AO=BO. .. BO=CO, hence O lies on the perpendicular bisector of BC, and so the perpendicular bisectors * are concurrent in O. The circle centre O, radius OA, passes through A, B and C and is called the circumcircle of the triangle; O is the circumcentre. Radius of circumcircle. Referring to Fig. 8, ® Fic. 7. ZLBOC=2A. 2. LBOA'=A, and as BA'=A'C=4a, it follows by using the right-angled triangle BOA’, that Similarly, Rosin A ~2sin B“2sinC N.B. OA'= Reos A=}acot A, with similar results for OB’ and OC’. Alternative expression for R. If A~area AABC, then A=4be sin A; sin = 38. 2 Reyne in Ex. 3. In A ABC the altitudes BE, CF intersect at H. Prove that the radius of the circle BHC is equal to the radius of the circle ABC. Quad. AFHE is cyclic, hence 2 EHF =180° - A (Fig. 9). " - BC a Radius circle BHC => 555 7 BHC ~ Zain (180°— A) kK a sind : radius of circle ABC. Fi. 9.ORTHOCENTRE 5 Orthocentre. Through the vertices 4, B, C of AABC lines ZY, XZ, YX are drawn parallel respectively to sides BC, CA, AB (Fig. 10). Fic. 10. It follows that ABCY is a parallelogram, and so AY=BC. Similarly, ZA= BC and hence A is the mid-point of ZY. If AD is an altitude of A ABC, it is perpendicular to ZY. AD is the perpendicular bisector of ZY. imilarly, altitudes BE, CF of A ABC are the perpendicular bisectors of XZ, YX respectively. .. AD, BE, CF are concurrent in a point H which is the circumcentre of AXYZ. Hence the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent. The point of concurrence H is called the orthocentre of \ ABC. Important results associated with the orthocentre () As AXYZ is similar to 4 ABC with twice its linear dimensions, it follows that AH is twice the corresponding length A’O (Fig. 10). Le. AH=2A'0=a cot A. Similarly, BH=2B'O =b cot B; CH=2C’O=c cot C, where with the usual notation, A’, B’, C’ are the mid-points of the sides and O is the circumcentre of A ABC. (ii) If the altitude AD is produced to meet the circumcircle at P, then HD= DP (Fig. 11). For Z DBP= Z PAC (same segment) and 4 DBE —C= LPAC. :, LDBP=< DBE and hence A’s DBP, DBH are congruent (2 angles and common side). “. HD= DP. There are similar results for the altitudes from B and C.6 THE TRIANGLE (iii) OH*=R*(1 -8 cos A cos B cos C). Referring to Fig. 12, LAOC'=C +. LOAB=90°-C. Also ZDAC=90°-C. . LOAX=A-290°-C) =A+2C-(A+B+C) as A+B+C=180°, =C-B. (In the case taken C>B.) Using right-angled triangle AOX, OX= Rsin(C-B) and AX= Ros (C—B). But AH=24'0=2Rcos A, <. HX= R{cos (C— B)~2 00s A]. By Pythagoras, OH*=OX?+ HX*= Rfsin4(C— B)+ {cos (C- B)-2.cos 4}?] = Ri{sin*(C— B)+cos* (C— B)— 4 cos (C— B) cos A+4 cos? A] = R'[1—4 cos A{cos (C— B)+cos (B+ C)], as cos A= —cos (B+C), = R*[1—8 cos A cos B cos C]. Pedal triangle. The triangle DEF formed by the feet of the altitudes is called the pedal triangle of A ABC (Fig. 13). As BCEF is a cyclic quadrilateral, LAFE=C; LAEF=B. <. A's AFE, ABC are similar, and so EF _AE_ABcos A_ BC AB’ AB <. EF=acos A. cos A. Similarly, triangles BDF and CED are each similar to AABC, and it follows that FD=bcos B; DE=c cos C. Also LADF=90°— 2 BDF=90°—A and LADE=90°— ZCDE=90°— A. . LEDF=180°—2A with similar results for 2 DEF and 2 EFD, when A ABC is acute-angled as taken in Fig. 13. It will be noted that H is the incentre of the pedal triangle.NINE-POINT CIRCLE 1 The reader should repeat the previous work for the case when the triangle is obtuse-angled. It will be found that if is obtuse, FD=bcos B, DE=c cos C; LDEF=2B, LEFD=2C. Ex. 4. If H is the orthocentre of A ABC obtuse-angled at A, prove that AH. HD=BH . HE=CH . HF (Fig. 14). As ADBE is a cyclic quadrilateral, HA. HD=HE. HB (intersecting chords). As ADCF isa cyclic quadrilateral, HA. HD=HF. HC (intersecting chords) and hence the required result. Ex. 5. Given the circumeentre, the orthocentre and A one vertex of @ triangle, show how to determine the other two vertices. ‘Suppose vertex A is given together with O and H. Determine 4’, the mid-point of BC, using the fact that OA’ is parallel to AH and equal to half of it (Fig. 15). Z if ‘Draw a line through 4’ perpendicular to OA’ and ® an mark off points B, C on it, each distant OA from O. Fro. 15. Ex. 6. Prove that the area of the pedal triangle of A ABC is [2A cos A cos B cos Cl. Referring to Fig. 13, where A ABC is acute-angled, area A DEF=}DF. DEsin LEDF cos B. c cos C sin (180°- 2A) be cos B cos C sin 24 =be sin A(cos A cos B cos C) =2A cos A cos B cos C. When A is obtuse, area A DEF = ~2A cos A cos Bos C. Hence in all cases the area of the pedal triangle is numerically equal to 2A cos Acos BcosC orto |2A cos A cos Bcos C|. Nine-point circle. The circle which can be drawn through 4’, B’, C’, the mid-points of the sides of a triangle ABC, Fig. 16, will be shown to pass also through the feet of the altitudes D, E, F and through the mid-points P, Q, R of the lines joining the vertices of the 6 triangle to the orthocentre H. Fic. 16.8 THE TRIANGLE As AP=PH and AC’=C’B, C’P is parallel to BH. As BA’ 'C and AC’=C’B, C’A’ is parallel to AC. +. LA'C'P=9°, as BH is perpendicular to AC. Similarly, LA'BP=90°. But also ZA’DA=90° and therefore the circle on A’P as diameter passes through B’, C’ and D. Le, the circle A’B’C’ passes through D and P. Similarly, it can be proved that this circle passes through E, Q and also through F, R. <, The nine points 4’, B,C’; D, E, F; P, Q, Rlie ona circle known as the nine-point circle of the A ABC. Centre and radius of the nine-point circle. It is clear in Fig. 17 that the perpendicular bisectors of AD and C’F both pass through the mid-point of OH. <. The centre N of the nine-point circle is the mid-point of the line joining the circumcentre O to the orthocentre H. Fio. 17. Also as A.4’B'C’ is similar to AABC and has half its linear dimensions, it follows that the radius of the nine-point circle (the circumeircle of A A’B'C’) is 4R. i : _ 8 le. Radius of nine-point circle=3R= 3 5» etc. The Euler line. In Fig. 18, AA’ meets OH at G, a point which will be shown to be the centroid of A ABC. The triangles AGH, A’OG are easily proved similar, and as AH=24'O, it follows that i AG=2GA' and HG=2G0. Hence G is the centroid of the triangle, and in consequence the four points O, G, N, Hare Fio. 18, collinear and OG: ON: OH=2:3:6. The line OH is called the Euler line of A ABC. Ex. 7. If the side BC and the circumcentre O of ABC are fixed whilst A is free to move, find the locus of N, the nine-point centre. The radius, R, of the circumcircle is constant (it equals OB or OC). =. The radius of the nine-point circle =4R =constant. Hence as 4’, the mid-point of BC, is fixed the locus of N is the circle centre 4’, radius 4. Ex. 8. If O is the circumcentre of A ABC and AO meets BC at U, prove that the circle on AU as diameter touches the nine-point circle of A ABC. The centre of the circle on AU as diameter is X, the mid-point of AU.THE TRIANGLE 9 As LADU =90°, this circle passes through D, a point on the nine-point circle of A ABC. In order to prove the two circles touch at D it is sufficient to prove that the centre N of the nine- point circle lies on the radius XD of the circle on AU as diameter. Taking P, the mid-point of AH, then AP is equal and parallel to OA’ (AH =204). 9 <. A’Pis parallel to UA. | Consequently as DX bisects AU it will also oF bgp bisect 4’P, and so it will pass through N, the mid- Fic. 19. point of A’P, and the required result follows. EXAMPLES 1b 1. Triangle ABC is right-angled at A. Locate: (j) the circumcentre; (ii) the orthocentre; (iii) the nine-point centre of the triangle. 2. Calculate the radius of the nine-point circle of a triangle in which one side is of length 4 cm and the opposite angle 36°. 3. Draw the pedal triangle of a triangle ABC, obtuse-angled at 4, and show that its angles are 2.4 - 180°, 2B and 2C. 4. If BE, CF are altitudes of A ABC, prove that the area of A AEF is equal to A cos? A, where A is the area of A ABC. 5. If H is the orthocentre of AABC, prove that A, B, C are the orthocentres of the triangles BCH, CAH, ABH respectively. 6. If the base and circumcircle of a triangle are given, prove that the locus of the orthocentre is a circle equal to the circumcircle. 1. Prove that the circumcentre of A ABC is the orthocentre of A.4’B’C’, where A’, B’, C’ are the mid-points of the sides of A ABC. 8. If His the orthocentre of A ABC and D the foot of the altitude from A, prove: (i) AH=2R cos A=acot A; (ii) HD =2Rcos Bcos C. 9. H is the orthocentre and O the circumcentre of AABC. If AO juced and AH produced meet the circumcircle at X and Y respectively, prove: (i) LBAX=ZCAY; (ii) BX=CY=HC; (iii) HX bisects BC. 40. If the pedal triangle of a given triangle is isosceles, prove that the original triangle is either isosceles or has two of its angles differing by 90°. 1. Find the radius of the nine-point circle of A POR in which angle P is aright angle, PQ=5cm, PR=12cm. Identify the Euler line of this triangle. 12. If XY is the diameter of the circle ABC which is perpendicular to BC, prove that AX and AY are the bisectors of angle BAC. 13. If His the orthocentre of A ABC, prove that the triangles ABC, HBC have the same nine-point circle. 44. If any two of the circumcentre, centroid, nine-point centre and corthocentre coincide, prove that all four coincide and the triangle is equilateral. 45, With the usual notation, prove that H is the circumcentre of the triangle formed by joining the circumcentres of triangles HBC, HCA, HAB.10 THE TRIANGLE 16, O is the circumcentre and H the orthocentre of A ABC. If the circle BOC passes through H, prove that A ~60°. 17. Given two vertices and the nine-point centre of a triangle, show how to construct the triangle. 18. With the usual notation, if AH, BH, CH produced meet the circumeircle of AABC at Hy, Hy, Hs respectively, prove that A is the circumcentre of A HHH, with corresponding results for B and C. 19, The internal bisector of angle A meets the circumcircle of A ABC at P. If M, N are the feet of the perpendiculars from P to AB, AC respectively, Prove that triangles BPM, CPN are congruent and deduce that AM =AN =\AB+ AC). Incentre and excentres. As all points on a bisector of an angle are equidistant from the arms of the angle, it follows that the point of intersection, 1, of the internal bisectors of angles B and C of a triangle ABC (Fig. 20), is equidistant from all three sides of the triangle. Hence / lies also on the internal bisector of angle A, i.e. the internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent in a point J whic the centre of the circle which touches the sides of the triangle internally. Jis called the incentre and the circle is called the inscribed circle of the triangle. In a similar way, it follows that the internal bisector of angle A and the external bisectors of angles B and C are concurrent in a point /,. 4, is the centre of the circle which touches BC internally and AB, AC externally, This circle is the escribed circle opposite A and I, is an excentre, Excentres I,, I, are defined similarly. Referring to the diagram of Fig. 20, it will be noted that the excentres Jy, Tz, Ty form a triangle whose sides pass through the vertices of the triangle ABC. Moreover, since the bisectors of an angle are at right angles, it is easily seen that J is the orthocentre of ALI. Also as A, B, C are the feet of the altitudes of ALAI;, it follows that the circumcircle of \ ABC is the nine-point circle of Aljlyl,. Hence the circumcircle of A ABC bisects each of the lines Tals, Tghy Tyg and also the lines II, Il,, Hy.INSCRIBED AND ESCRIBED CIRCLES uw Ex, 9. If I is the incentre, O the circumcentre and H the orthocentre of ABC, prove that AI bisects angle OAH. As ZAOB=2C (angle at centre), °-C (Fig. 21). Inscribed and escribed circles. In Fig. 22, X, ¥, Z are the points of contact of the inscribed circle and the sides of AABC. As tangents from a point to a circle are equal in length, AY=AZ; BX= BZ and CX=CY. 1. AY+BX+CX=4 (perimeter of A.ABC) Le. similarly, Fic, 22, Now let the escribed circle opposite A touch BC at X, and AC, AB produced at Y,, Z, respectively. Using the equal tangents property, AY,-AZ,; BZ,=BX, and CY,=CX, .. Perimeter 2s= AB+BX,+ X,C+CA =AZ,+ AY, Hence AY,=AZ,=s. and BX,=AZ,— AB=s—c; CX,=s—b. There are similar results for the other escribed circles. Radii of the inscribed and escribed circles. If r is the radius of the inscribed circle (Fig. 23), as AABC= ABIC+ ACIA+ AAIB, A=4ar+dor+her=sr. 4 ~ Alternatively from A AIZ, r= AZ tan 44, ie. (s—a) tan 4A. (s—b)tan4B and (s—c)tan4C. *, r=(s—a) tan 4A=(s—b) tan JB=(s—c) tan 3C. Similarly,12 THE TRIANGLE If r; is the radius of the escribed circle opposite A (Fig. 24), as AABC=ACI,A+ AAIB- ABLC, tbr, + fer, — dar, 4r(b+ ea) =4r,(2s— 2a) n(s—a). similarly, Alternatively from A AI,Z,, AZ, tan $4=s tan $A. tam $A; Fic. 24, similarly, r,=s tan 4B, r,=s tan 4C. Ex. 10. With the usual notation, prove that r=4R sin 4A sin 4B sin 4C. Le. RHS.=25) sin sin $B sin3C (5— sa) wg Si FB sin 3C : ee - Ex. IL. Prove that atatat Ae erere. a wn5- (89-5) 05 (3) a falter 20a b+ + ats Dh ariee ee Distance between incentre and circumcentre. @ Referring to Fig. 25, where PQ is the 8 diameter through P, LI. IM = Al. IP. as i amu crib Ne, e Fic. 25.DISTANCE BETWEEN INCENTRE AND CIRCUMCENTRE 13 Also ZBIP=4A+4B (exterior angle of A AIB). <. IP=BP=PQ sin 2 BOP=2R sin $4. In AAIY, Al=r-cosec $A. 2. AL. IP=r-cosec $4 . 2R sin $4=2Rr. Rt OP=2Rr. Le. OF =R?—-2Rr. Using similar methods, it can be proved that O1f=R!+2Rr,; OLt=R'+2Rr,; O18=R+2Rry. EXAMPLES Ic 1. Prove that 2 BIC=90° +44. 2. Show that the radius of the circumcircle of A BIC is 2R sin $4. 3. With the notation of Fig. 22, prove that Y¥;=ZZ, =a. 4. Show that: (i) Al,=r, cosec $4 =s sec}4; (ii) Il, asec 3A. 5, With the usual notation, prove that the angle IAQ is half the difference between the angles B and C. 6. If AABC is right-angled at C, prove: ()) 2r=a+b-c; (ii) my=s. 7. Prove that the radius of the circumcircle of AAYZ, where Y, Z are the points of contact of the incircle and the sides CA, AB, is $I. 8 Prove that r,=4Rsin}dcos4Bcos4C and write down the corresponding results for ry, r3. 9. In A.ABC, I's the incentre and J, the excentre opposite A. Prove that the circle BIC passes through J. What is the centre of this circle? 10. The internal bisector of 2A of AABC meets the circumcitcle again at P, prove that AP =4(b +c) sec 44. 11. AB is a chord of a circle centre C. Prove that two excentres of ABC lie on the circle. 12, In A ABC if r, =2r, prove that b+¢=3a. 13. If His the orthocentre of A ABC, prove that AH + BH+ CH =2(R+1). 14, In AABC the circle BIC passes through the circumeentre O. Prove that this circle also passes through the orthocentre of A ABC. 15. Show that ry +1y-+1y-1=4R. 16. 4’, BY, C’ are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB of AABC and I, J are the incentres of triangles ABC, A’B’C’. Show that Al=24’J._ If G is the centroid of A ABC, prove: (i) J, G, J are collinear; (ii) 3/G =21J. 17. In triangle ABC, Z.A is obtuse. Prove that the orthocentre H is an excentre of the pedal triangle DEF. 18, In AABC the line AJ, meets the circumcircle again at P. Prove that PB=PC=Ph, 19, AI, BI, Cl are produced to meet the circumcircle of A ABC again in P, Q, R respectively. Prove that / is the orthocentre of APQR. 20. With the usual notation, prove that the radius of the circle Ih/, is equal to 2R. 21, Given the points J, 14, Ja, show how to construct the triangle ABC.4 THE TRIANGLE Concurrency and collinearity Definition. Two segments AB, CD of the same line or of parallel lines are said to have the same or opposite sense or sign according as the directions A—> B, C-> D are the same or opposite, e.g. in Fig. 26, AB, AC, AD, CB, BD all have the same sense, and in consequence ratios such {$b Fic. 26. as 42, AD are posit GB’ Bp * Positive. The segments AB, DC have opposite senses and the ratio is negati Ex. 12, XE ‘P, Q divide AB internally and externally in the ratio 5:2, find AP AQ BP. the ratios Fa OB! AB IF 4 Fic. 27. The ratio in which P divides 4B is 4°. . AP_S cae PB? The ratio in which Q divides AB is 4 The numerical value of this ratio is $, but as AQ and QB are of opposite senses, AQ_ 5 op” 2 BP. The ratio 4B is readily seen to be ->- N.B. When sign is taken into account it is important to note that there is only one point which divides a given line in a given ratio, In the previous example P divides 4B in the ratio 5:2 and Q in the ratio —5:2. Ceva’s theorem. If points L, M, N are taken on the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC so that the lines AL, BM, CN are concurrent in some point O, then BL CM _ AN LC’ MA‘ NB +1 Consider the two possible cases, Fig. 28 (a), where O is inside the triangle, and Fig. 28 (6), where O is outside the triangle. First deal with the signs of the separate ratios and their products. 7 ... BL cM, AN In Fig. 28 (a) all the ratios Fos G74 <7 product is positive. are positive, and theirCEVA'S THEOREM 15 In Fig. 28 (6) ratios ® B a are each negative and ratio cu is positive, therefore their product is once more positive. Fic, 28. Now consider only the magnitudes of the ratios and ignore their signs. In both figures, we have BL_area ABLA, 4, BL_area ABLO LC area ACAL Ic . BL_ABLA-ABLO_ABOA LC” KCAL= KCOL™ ACOA CM _ACOB, AN_AAOC MA” XA0B NB™ ABOC ™™*Tcally. ABOA ACOB AAOC &COA’ KAOB’ ABOC Combining the sign and magnitude results, BL CMAN LC MA NB Converse of Ceva’s theorem. If the points L, M, N on the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC are such that BL_CM_AN_ LC’ MA’ NB * then the lines AL, BM, CN are concurrent. For let AL, BM intersect in O and suppose CO meets AB at a point N’ different from N. By Ceva’s theorem, rea ACOL numerically. Similarly, But =1, sth Using this result and that given, it follows that AN’ _AN NB NB and in consequence N’ must coincide with N, as when sign is taken into account, there is only one point dividing a line in a given ratio. This converse theorem has important applications to the solutions of problems requiring the concurrence of three lines.16 THE TRIANGLE Ex. 13, The incircle of ABC touches BC, CA, AB at X, Y, Z respectively. Prove that AX, BY, CZ are concurrent. As AY =AZ; BZ=BX; CX=CY (equal tangents), aie CUEAZ XC YA ZB Also all three ratios are positive, so the product is positive and the required result follows by the © converse of Ceva’s theorem. =1 numerically. Fic, 29, Ex. 14. A circle cuts the sides of AABC internally, BC at Py, Pe: CA at Qy, Qpi AB at Re, Ry. If AP,, BQ,, CR, are concurrent, prove that AP, BQs, CR, are also concurrent. We have BP, CQ, AR,\/BP2 CQ: ARe PC OA Ry (me Qed ins) £Q- CQ, | AR, ARe PC .P»C ° O,4.0,4 =1 numerically, as BP,. BP,=R,B. ReB, etc. (intersecting chords theorem). BP, CO, AR _ But RC QA’ RB”) (Cev’s theorem) ios BP2, £22, ARs 5. sositive, i ‘ and as each of the ratios 5 > Go jeg iS Positive, it follows that their product is +1. Hence by the converse of Ceva’s theorem, APs, BQs, CRz are concurrent. Menelaus’s theorem. If a transversal LMN meets the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC at L, M, N respectively, then The transversal will either cut one side externally, Fig. 31 (a), or all three sides externally, Fig. 31 (6).MENELAUS'S THEOREM 17 7 CM AN BL, i: In Fig. 31 (a) the ratios wa NB wm are positive and 77 is negative. MAN LCi In nae 31 (6) all the ratios 2! LC’ MA’ NB -. In both cases the product of the three ratios is negative. Let p1, Pa; Ps be the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from A, B, C respectively to the transversal LMN. Then in both cases, by similar triangles, BL_ps, CM_ps, AN_p fens Sean Fane Cumericaly). are negative. But i Ps Pr Po Combining the sign and magnitude results, BL CM AN_ LC’ MA‘ NB™ Converse of Menelaus’s theorem. If points L, M, N on the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC are such that then L, M, N are collinear. For suppose the line LM meets AB at N’. Then we have the two results BL CM AN’ eae BL CM and on. =—1 (given). and hence N’ and N coincide and L, M, N are collinear. This converse theorem has important applications to the solutions of problems involving the proof of the collinearity of three points. Ex. 15. Prove that the points in which the external bisectors of the angles of « triangle meet the opposite sides are collinear. Let the external bisectors of the angles A, B, C of A ABC meet the opposite sides in X, Y, Z (Fig. 32). ‘Then by the bisector of an angle theorem, CY BCs Agee AC YA BA’ ZB BC BX CY AZ Hence Yo" y4' gp" ~ 1 and the re- quired result follows. Frio, 32.18 THE TRIANGLE Ex. 16. A transversal cuts the sides AB, BC, CD, DA of a quadrilateral ABCD at P, QO, R, S respectively. Prove that AP BQ CR DS _ PB QC RD SA Join AC (Fig. 33). Then in A ABC, by Menelaus’s theorem, AP BQ CX PB‘ QC’ XA Similarly in A ACD, +1. 1 CRE DS Axe cx Ax XA XC Multiplying these two results and noting that we have 4F BO.CR PS ay PB QC RD SA ** Many examples are solved by the combined use of Ceva’s and Menelaus’s theorems as illustrated below. Ex. 17. Points X, Y are taken on the sides CA, AB of NABC. If BX, CY meet at P and AX: XC=BY: YA=1:2, find the value of the ratio BP: PX. Let AP meet BC at Z (Fig. 34). 1, By Ceva’s theorem, in A ABC A BZ CX AY ZC XA YB ~, BZ.2.2_), BZ_1, B “Ze i oo Zi Now applying Menelaus’s theorem to AXBC ® with transversal ZPA, Fic. 34. BZ CA _XP_ ZC AX’ PB But Le. EXAMPLES 1d 1. Use the converse of Ceva’s theorem to prove: (i) the medians, Gi) the internal angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent. 2. If ADis an altitude of A ABC, prove that BD: DC =cot B: cot Cand write down similar results for the other altitudes. Deduce that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.EXAMPLES 19 3. Points M, N are taken on the sides CA, AB of AABC such that CM: MA=1:3 and AN: NB=1:2. If NM produced meets BC produced in L, find the ratio BL: CL. 4. ABC is a triangle; L divides BC externally in the ratio 5:2 and M divides CA externally in the ratio 4:3. If AL, BM intersect at O, find the ratio in which CO divides AB. 5. In AABC, BC =2CA; the internal bisector of angle C meets AB at X and Ad’ is a median. If A’X meets CA produced at Z, prove that A is the mid-point of CZ. If also A4’, CX intersect at O and BO cuts CA at Y, prove that Yis a point of trisection of CA. 6. Prove that the lines joining the vertices of a triangle to the points of contact of an escribed circle are concurrent. 7. Points E, Fon the sides CA, AB of A ABC are such that FE is parallel to BC; BE, CF intersect at X. Prove that AX is a median of A ABC. 8. The external bisector of angle A of A ABC meets BC produced at L, and the internal bisector of angle B meets CA at M. If LM meets AB at R, prove that CR bisects angle C. 9. Lines concurrent in the point O are drawn through the vertices A, B, C of a triangle ABC and meet the opposite sides at D, E, Frespectively. Given that 2BD =3DC, CE =3EA, find the ratios AO: OD and CO: OF. 10. Ina trapezium ABCD, ABis parallel to CD. If AD and BC produced intersect at X and the diagonals intersect at Y, prove that XY bisects AB. 11. In AABC, A’ is the mid-point of BC and P is any point on Ad’. If BP meets CA at S and CP meets AB at T, prove that TS is parallel to BC. Hence, given a triangle ABC and a line parallel to BC, construct the median ‘AA’ using only a straight-edge and a pencil. 12, If Pis any point inside a triangle ABC, prove that the external bisectors of angles BPC, CPA, APB meet BC, CA, AB respectively in three collinear points. 13. The altitudes of a triangle ABC are AD, BE, CF. The perpendiculars from A, B, C to EF, FD, DE respectively meet BC, CA, AB at X, Y, Z. Prove that BX: XC=sin 2 BAX: sin Z YAC =c0s C: cos B. Using similar results for CY: YA and AZ: ZB, deduce that the lines AX, BY, CZ are concurrent. 14. AD is an altitude of a triangle ABC right-angled at A. Prove that BD: DC=AB*: AC? by expressing the ratio of the areas of triangles ABD, ACD in two ways. If AB: AC=3:4 and the median BB’ cuts AD at X, find the ratio AX: XD. 15. G is the centroid of AABC and AG is produced to P such that GP=AG. Parallels through P to BC, CA, AB meet CA, AB, BC at L, M, N respectively. Prove that L, M, N are collinear. 16, The incircle of triangle ABC touches BC, CA, ABat X, ¥,Z. If YZ is produced to meet BC produced at L, prove that BX: XC=BL: CL. 17. ABCD is a quadrilateral. Prove that the line joining the mid-points of the opposite sides AB, CD divides the other two sides in the same ratio. 18, Points D, E, F on the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC are such that AD, BE, CF are concurrent. If EF meets BC at K, prove that BD: DC =BK: CK.20 THE TRIANGLE 19. The tangents to the circumcircle of A ABC at A, B, C meet the opposite sides at P, Q, R respectively. Prove: (i) BP: CP=AB*: AC*; (ii) P,Q,R are collinear. 20. A transversal meets the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC at P, Q, R respectively. Points P’, Q’, R’ are taken on BC, CA, AB so that BP=P’C, CQ=Q'A, AR=R’B. Prove that P’, Q’, R’ are collinear. 21. A’, B’, C’ are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle. AP, BQ, CR are concurrent lines through A, B, C which meet the opposite sides BC, CA, AB at P, Q, R respectively. If C’Q meets BC at X, A’R meets CA at Yand B’P meets AB at Z, prove: (i) BX: CX =AQ: QC; i) X,¥,Z are collinear. 22. ABCD is a quadrilateral and X, Y, Z are any points on BC, AD, AB respectively. YZ meets BD at R; RX meets DC at S; ZX meets AC at QO. Prove that Y, Q, S are collinear. 23. P is any point in the plane of AABC. Through the mid-points A’, BY, C’ of BC, CA, AB lines are drawn parallel to PA, PB, PC respectively. Prove that these lines are concurrent. 24. P is any point inside a triangle ABC. The lines AP, BP, CP meet BC, CA, AB at L, M, N respectively. MN, NL, LM meet BC, CA, AB at X, Y, Z respectively. Prove that X, Y, Z are collinear. Simson’s line. If P is any point on the circumcircle of a triangle ABC and if L, M, N are the feet of the perpendiculars from P to BC, CA, AB respectively, then L, M, N are collinear. Referring to Fig. 35, as LPMA=ZPNA=90°, quad, PMAN is cyclic. . LPNM= PAM = ZPBL, since PACB is cyclic. But quad, PBLN is cyclic, so LPBL+ LPNL=180° :. LPNM+ LPNL=180°, and hence LNM is a straight line. The line LMN is called the Simson line or pedal line of P with respect to the triangle ABC. Converse theorem. If P is a point in the plane of a triangle ABC such that the feet of the perpendiculars from P to the sides of the triangle are collinear, then P lies on the circumcircle of triangle ABC. For consider Fig. 35 with the circumcircle assumed omitted and LMN being given as a straight line. Fic. 35. As before PN! ZPAM, also “PNM = ZPBL, since quad. PBLN is cyclic. :, ZPAM=ZPBL, and so the points P, A, B, C are concyclic.SIMSON'S LINE at Ex, 18. Prove that the circumcircles of the four triangles formed by four intersecting straight lines have a common point. ‘The four triangles formed by the four straight lines ABE, BCF, DCE, ADF are triangles ABF, AED, BEC, CFD (Fig. 36.) Consider the circles ABF, AED which have A as one common point; let the second common point be P. As P lies on the circle ABF, the feet of the perpendiculars X, ¥, Z from P to the sides of A ABF are collinear (Simson line). Also as P lies on the circle AED, the feet of the perpendiculars X, W,Z from P to the sides of A AED are collinear (Simson line). Hence the four points X, ¥, Z, W are collinear. «". By the converse of the Simson line theorem, as X, W, ¥ are collinear, P lies on the circle BEC and as Y, Z, W are collinear, P lies also on the circle CFD. Direction of a Simson line. In Fig. 37, LNM is the Simson line of P with respect to a triangle ABC. ‘The perpendicular PL is produced to meet the circumcircle of A ABC again at L’. Then ZABP=ZAL'P (same segment) and ZABP= ZPLN (same segment as quad. BLNP is cyclic). ©. LAL'P=ZPLN, and hence L’A is parallel to LNM. Thus the Simson line of P is parallel to the line joining vertex A to the point where the perpendicular from P to side BC meets the Fic. 37. circumcircle again. If M’ and N' are defined in a manner similar to L’, it follows also that the Simson line of P is parallel to each of the lines AL’, BM’, CN’. Ex. 19. If AD, an altitude of AABC, is produced to meet the circumeircle again at K, prove that the pedal line of K with respect to the triangle is parallel to the tangent at A to the circumeircle. Using the result just proved, the pedal or Simson line of K is parallel to the line joining A to the point where the perpendicular from K to side BC meets the circumcircle again. As KD is this perpendicular, the required point is A itself, So the pedal line of K is parallel to the line joining two coincident points at A on the circumcircle—i.e. the tangent at A.2 THE TRIANGLE Ex. 20. P, Q are any two points on the circumcircle of a triangle ABC. If O is the circumcentre, prove that one of the angles between the Simson lines of P and Q is equal to 42 POQ. In Fig. 39, PLL’ and QUU’ are both drawn perpendicular to BC. ©. The Simson lines of P and Q are respectively parallel to L’A and U’A, and consequently ZL’AU’ is one of the angles between the Simson lines. But, by symmetry, the arcs cut off by parallel chords of a circle are equal, and as chords PL’, QU’ are parallel, are PQ =are L’U’. Fic. 39. ©. As equal ares subtend equal angles at the circumference, LL'AU'=ZPBQ=42 POO, and hence the required result. ‘The Simson line and the orthocentre To prove that the Simson or pedal line of a point P bisects the line joining P to the orthocentre H of triangle ABC. In Fig. 40 the altitude AD produced meets the circumcircle again at H’ and PH’ meets BC at X; HX produced meets PLL’ at L”. ‘As HD=DH', it easily follows that AHXH' is isosceles. Noting that PL” and HH’ are parallel, it follows further that A PXL” is also isosceles. Le. PL=LL". Also ZAH'P= ZAL'P (same arc), and LAH'P=ZL"PH'=ZHL"P. ue ©. LAL'P= ZHL'P, Fic. 40. and hence L'’H is parallel to L’A and so to the Simson line of P. As L is the mid-point of PL”, it follows that the Simson line of P the line through L parallel to LH) bisects PH. EXAMPLES le 1, What are the Simson lines with respect to a triangle ABC of the vertices A,B,C? 2. If triangle ABC is right-angled at A, identify the pedal lines of Band C with respect to the triangle. 3. Points P, Q on the circle ABC are such that PQ is perpendicular to BC. Prove that an angle between the Simson lines of P and Q with respect to the triangle ABC is equal to 2 PAQ.EXAMPLES 23 4. Given a triangle ABC, show how to find a point P on its circumcircle such that its pedal line with respect to the triangle is parallel to the diameter of the circumcircle through B. 5. The pedal line of P with respect to A ABC is parallel to the diameter of the circumeircle through A. Prove that PA is parallel to BC. 6. If PQ is a diameter of the circumcircle of a triangle ABC, prove that the Simson lines of P and Q with respect to the triangle are perpendicular. 7. If AD, an altitude of A ABC, is produced to meet the circumcircle again at P, prove that the Simson line of P makes an angle with AC equal to angle B of the triangle. 8. If Fis the incentre of A ABC and AI produced meets the circumcircle at X, prove that the Simson line of X with respect to the triangle is perpen- dicular to AX. 9. P is a point in the plane of a given triangle ABC such that the feet of the perpendiculars from P to the sides of the triangle are collinear and such that P lies on the median through 4. Find the position of P. 10. The triangle ABC is right-angled at A. The pedal line of a point P on the circumcircle meets AP at Q. Prove that AP is perpendicular to the diameter through O. 11. ABC is an obtuse angle and P lies on the minor arc AB of circle ABC such that AP is perpendicular to BC. If M, N are the feet of the perpendiculars from P to CA, AB respectively, prove that the triangles AMN, ABC are similar. 12. Show how to find the position of a point P which has a pedal line with respect to a given triangle parallel to a given line. 13. If PQ is a chord of the circumeircle of A ABC which is parallel to BC, prove that the Simson line of P with respect to the triangle is perpendicular to AQ. 14, L, M, N are the feet of the perpendiculars from a point P on the circumeircle of the triangle ABC to the sides BC, CA, AB respectively. Prove that the triangles PLN, PAC are similar. If P is the mid-point of minor arc AC, prove that LM: LN=AB: AC. 15, The perpendiculars froma point Pon the circumcircle of triangle ABC to the sides BC, CA, AB meet the circumcircle again in L’, M’, N’ respectively. Prove: (i) M‘N’=BC; (ii) triangles ABC, L’M’N’ are congruent. 16, The altitude AD of triangle ABC is produced to meet the circumeircle at X. The line joining X to any other point on the circumcircle meets BC at U. Prove that the join of U to the orthocentre of the triangle is parallel to the pedal line of P. 17. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral with AB parallel to CD. If P is any point on the circumcircle of the quadrilateral, prove that the feet of the perpendiculars from P to AC, AD, BC, BD are concyclic. 18. The pedal line of a point P with respect to A ABC meets BC at L and the altitude AD at K. If His the orthocentre of the triangle, prove that PK is parallel to LH.4 THE TRIANGLE 19. The altitudes 4D, BE, CF of AABC meet the circumcircle of the triangle again at D’, E’, F’. Prove that the pedal line of A with Tespect to AD’EF is parallel to BC. 20, Triangle ABC is obtuse-angled at C; P is any point on the minor are CA of the circumcircle of the triangle. The perpendiculars from P to the sides meet BC produced, CA, AB at L, M, N respectively. Prove that triangles PLM, PAB and triangles PMN, PBC are similar. If LM=MN, prove that PA: PC=AB: BC. 21. H is the orthocentre of an acute-angled triangle ABC. If P is any point on the circle BCH, prove that the Simson line of P with respect to triangle BCH bisects AP. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 1. If in the triangles ABC, DEF the angles A and D are equal and BC is greater than EF, prove that the radius of the circumcircle of triangle ABC is greater than the radius of the circumcircle of triangle DEF. 2. In triangle ABC the perpendicular bisector of BC meets CA at P and ABat Q. Provethat OP . OQ =O, where O is the circumcentre of A ABC. 3. If His the orthocentre of the triangle ABC, prove that AH? + BC? = BH? + CA? =CH?+ AB. 4. A point D is taken on the median AA’ of a triangle ABC; BD meets CA at X and CD meets AB at Y. Prove that XY is parallel to BC. 5. A, B, C, D are four points in order on a straight line such that AB. AD=AC*. If P is any point on the circle centre A, radius AC, prove that PB: PD =AB: AC. 6. A point E is taken on the diagonal AC of a parallelogram ABCD. If Fis the second point of intersection of the circles EAB, ECD and Ry, R, are the radii of these circles, prove: (i) Flies on BD; (ii) Ry: R,=AF: FC. 7. Points P, Q, R are taken on the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of a triangle ABC such that BP: PC=CQ: QA=AR: RB=1:3. If AP, BQ,CR meet in pairs at U, V, W, prove that VW: AP=WU:BQ = UV:CR=8: the elements of the ratios being in the same straight lines. 8. His the orthocentre and O the circumcentre of the triangle ABC. If A’ is the mid-point of BC and HA’ produced meets the circumcircle at P, prove that HA’ =A’P and that PB is perpendicular to AB. 9. ABC is a triangle, right-angled at B. If the incircle of the triangle touches AC at Y, prove that 2AY. YC=AB. BC. 10. Prove that an external common tangent to two circles divides the line of centres externally in the ratio of the radii. Hence show that the points of intersection of the three pairs of external common tangents to three circles taken two at a time are collinear. 11. ABCDisa quadrilateral. Show how to find a point on the circumcircle of the triangle ABC whose pedal line with respect to triangle ABC is perpendicular to CD.MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 25 12. I,, Jy Ig are the centres of the escribed circles of triangle ABC opposite to A, B, C respectively. Prove that the perpendicuars from Jy fy fy to BC, CA, AB respectively are concurrent, 13, If / is the incentre of triangle ABC and 1, Ig, Iy the excentres opposite A, B, C respectively, prove: @ rsin LAIB=csin4A sin$B; (ii) 1h =4R sin dA =a sec 44; Gil) lp =4R cos $4. 14, The internal and external bisectors of the angle A of triangle ABC cut BC at X, ¥ respectively. Prove: (i) be(b +c) =bBX?+ cCX?+ (b+ )AX?; (ii) be = AX?+ BX. CX; (iii) bole b) = bBY*- cCY*+(b- DAY*. 15, If H is the orthocentre of triangle ABC and the circle BCH touches CA and AB, prove that triangle ABC is equilateral. 16. P is a point on the circle ABC. If the perpendicular from A to the ‘Simson line of P with respect to triangle ABC meets the circumcircle again at Q, prove that PQ is parallel to BC. 17. AD, BE, CF are the altitudes of triangle ABC. Prove that the area of triangle DEF equals 2A cos A cos Bcos C, where A is the area of triangle ABC. 18. If X is a point on the diagonal AC of a parallelogram ABCD, prove that parallels to BX, DX drawn through C, A respectively, intersect on BD produced. 19. If O is the circumcentre and G the centroid of triangle ABC, prove that OG = RH a+ B+). 20, Triangle ABC is right-angled at A; AD is an altitude and P, Q are the incentres of triangles ABD, ACD respectively. Prove that triangles PDQ, ABC are similar. 21. If H is the orthocentre of a triangle ABC, prove that the radii of the circumcircles of the triangles ABC, HCA are equal. If O, S are the centres of these circles, prove that OS and AC bisect each other at right angles. 22, The side CB of a square ABCD is produced to P so that BP=2CB; Mis the mid-point of AD. If AC, BM intersect at X and PX meets AB at Q, find the ratio AQ: OB. 23. P, Q, R are the mid-points of EF, FD, DE, the sides of the pedal triangle of a triangle ABC. Prove that AP, BQ, CR are concurrent. 24, The inscribed circle of a triangle ABC touches the sides at X, Y, Z. Prove that, with the usual notation, the area of triangle XYZ =rA/2R. 25. The triangle ABC is equilateral and 4’ is the image of A in BC. If P is any point on the circle centre 4’, radius A’C, prove that PA? =PB*+ PC. 26. PQ is a chord of the circumcircle of the triangle ABC parallel to AB. Prove that the Simson lines of P and Q with respect to the triangle intersect on the altitude CF. 21. Prove that the only point P in the plane of a triangle ABC such that PAY BC = PB? CA = PC*+ AB, is the orthocentre of the triangle.26 THE TRIANGLE 28, The internal bisector of angle A ofa triangle ABC meets BC at P. The circle which passes through A and touches BC at P cuts CA at X and ABat Y. Prove that XY is parallel to BC. 29, Show how to construct a triangle given: and of the median which bisects the third sid the orthocentre and one vertex. 30. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral; H, K are the orthocentres of the triangles ABC, ABD. Prove that A, B, H, K are concyclic. 31. J is the incentre of a triangle ABC. The incircle touches the sides BC, CA, AB at X, Y, Z respectively. If XI, YI, ZI meet YZ, ZX, XY respectively at L, M, N, prove that AL, BM, CN are concurrent. 32, A circle touches the side BC of a triangle ABC at its mid-point 4’ and cuts CA at P, P’ and AB at Q,Q’. If PQ, P’Q’ meet BC at R, R’, prove by using the theorem of Menelaus or otherwise, that BR: CR =CR’: BR’. 33. If J, fy, Jy, I are the incentre and excentres of a triangle ABC, prove that the circumeircles of triangles gl, Iy/aly are equal. 34, With the usual notation for a triangle ABC, prove that IH® =2r2— 4R® cos A cos Bcos C. 35. ABCD is a trapezium with AB parallel to DC; the diagonals AC, BD meet at E and CB meets DA at X. A line through E parallel to AB meets AD at Fand BC at G. Prove that AG, BF, EX are concurrent. 36. The points P, Q are at the ends of a diameter of the circle ABC. Prove that the Simson lines of P and Q with respect to the triangle ABC intersect at right angles on the nine-point circle of the triangle. 37. ABCD is a quadrilateral and P, Q, R are points on BC, AD, AB respectively. RQ meets BD at X; XP meets DC at ¥; RP meets AC at Z. Prove that Q, Z, ¥ are collinear. 38. A transversal LMN of triangle ABC meets the sides AB, AC internally at L, M respectively and the side BC produced at N. If BM, CL intersect at X and AX meets BC at Y, prove that Y, N divide BC internally and externally in the same ratio. 39. For the four triangles formed by four intersecting straight lines prove: (@ the circumcircles of the four triangles have a common point; (ii) this common point has a common Simson line with respect to each of the four triangles; (iii) the orthocentres of the four triangles are collinear. 40. ABC is a given triangle. Find a point P in its plane for which PAY + PB? + PC? has a minimum value. 1. If three equal circles have a common point A, prove that A is the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the other three points of intersection. 42, Lis the incentre of a triangle ABC and J, I, are the excentres opposite B, Crespectively. Perpendiculars HX, HY are dropped from the orthocentre Ho the lines AL, Iyl. Prove that XY bisects BC. ) the lengths of two sides ; Gi) the nine-point centre,CHAPTER It ALGEBRAIC METHODS Basic identities. The following results are important: L (x-+a)(x-+b)=x?-+x(atb)+ab. (x+a)(x+b)(x+0)=x°+x%(a+b+e)+x(be+ca+ab) (x+a)(x-+b) . . . mfactors=x*+x""1 Sa+x"? Yab+ 2h, a?+b?+2ab. UL. (a+bya—b) Ex. 1. Expand (a- 2-0). (a— 2b~ c)? =a? + (- 2b) + (— 0)? + 2{(- 26-6) + (- HM) + @- 2} =a? + 4b? + + dbe ~ 2ca—4ab. Ex. 2. Prove that (2+ Baba +B? + 2aby(at + BY + 2a%b?) =a® + b*— 2a b8. As (a?+ 5? 2ab)(a? + 6* + 2ab) =(a? + b*)*- (2ab)* at + bt — 2a2b*, Ex. 3. Find the sum of the products, taken two at a time, of the first n natural numbers. We have (3) =r? +2 {sum of products taken two at a time}. Le, sum of products=4{(3n)"~ Yat} =H DP gan + DQn+ D} =agnnt 1){3n(n+ 1) - 22n+ I} gna + In - 1)G3n+ 2). +b? + 3(a*b + bea). a+b? +c8+3(a"(b+e)+b%e+a) +e%(a+b)} + Gabe. + ...m terms)? = Sa°+3) ab + 6yabe. 21 Tl. (a+b28 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Ex. 4, Simplify 8a?+ (b- 0)? + (c- b~ 2a), Write (c-6-2a) as -[2a+(b-oF. Expression =8a* + (b - c)® — [8a* + (b- c)? + 12a%b - ¢) + 6a(b- o)*] = - 124% ~ 0) - Galb ~ 0)? =~ 6a(b- 2a+b-e). IV. If n is a positive integer, (atby= ap BOA) oo + na *b+ Sat ee For the smaller values of n, the coefficients in this expansion can be found simply by using Newton's Rule, which is illustrated below. Coefficients Each number in the diagram (a+b)? 121 is the sum of thenumber above (a+) 13 3 1 it and the one immediately (a+5)* 1>4>6>4>1 to the left. yyy (a+b 15.10 10 5 1 Ex. 5, Expand (x - 2y). The coefficients are 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1. oe Qe Dy) = Lad + Sx - 2y) + 10x%( — 2y)* + 102% — 2y) + 5x - 2) +1(-2y)5 = x5 — 10x4y + 40x3y? — 80x2y? + 80xy4 - 32y5, Important factors. The following results should be known: L a?—b?=(a—b)(a +b). WL. a°+b?=(a+b)(a?—ab+b%), a®—b?= (a - b)(a*+ ab+b*). IL. a°+b?+¢?—3abe=(a+b-+c)[a?+b?+c?—(be+ca-+ab)] or (at+b+e)4[(b—c)? +(c—a)*+ (a—b)?]. Sa? 3Yabe~ Ya [ Sar— dab]. Iv. a‘—b'=(a—b)(a+b)(a?+-b?), at+bt= (a? +-b*)?— ab? '— /2ab + b*)(a? + +/2ab-+ b?), at +a%bt+bt= (a2+ be)? tb? = (a?—ab+b?)(a?+ab+be). Ex. 6, Factorise: (i) (x + 3y - 22)? - 4(2x - 3y + z)*; (ii) 8(a~ 26)? - (a+ by. (i) Expression = [e+ 3y— 22) ~ 2(2x - 3y + Z)M(x + 3y - 22) + 22x - 3y +2) — 3x + Dy - 4zi[Sx- 3y].FACTORS 2 (ii) Expression = [2(a- 2b) - (2a+ b)){A(a - 2b + 2(a- 26)(2a+ b) + (2a + b)'] =[- Sb][12a*- 18ab + 1367]. Ex. 7. If a+b+e=0 and @+*+c=0, prove that at least one of the numbers a, b, ¢ is zero. The expression a*+6°+c* is usually associated with the factorisable expression a? + 6+ c¥ - 3abe. Wehave a? +b8+c3- 3abe=(a+b+ cKa? +b +c - be - ca— ab). But @+B+A=at+b+c=0. +. 3abe=0. Hence at least one of the numbers a, b,c is zero. Ex. 8. Rationalise the denominators of the fractions (i) = ios , 1 ay vi Wi) gaye ; 234VvS_——_W34V5, : we V3" @V3-VSKBV34V3)— 7 l+y34v2__ 1+ v34y2 OM iT V2 UF V3- VDI VIED (14 V3P=2 _ley34v2_(+v3+v20- v3) “24Vva ~ -4 A22V24- V6, 4 sa it OPM tA +3tate2t _3t+ ots 28 Hts 312+ 2 3-2 =3t+6t424. EXAMPLES 2a 1, Expand (x + 1x + 2(x+ 3x +4). 2, Square a~b+2c. 3. Verify the identity (2a+30)° + 2ab + (3a+ 2b)" = 13(a+b)*. 4. Factorise: (i) 4(a-b+0)®-9b-a-0)*s (ii) (&+2y)-Qx-y) Gi) @2+ BF - 30°; (iv) 8a? + 68 - 22 +5). 5. Write down the expansion of (2- x). 6. Simplify (a+b+0)*-(b+e-a)®-(c+a-b)*-(a+b-o}. 7. Expand (x-y+22). 8 Simplify: @ (V2+D*-(W/2-DS GT 1 1 RF 2 9. Show by division that ==} mate xbextestyatext30 ALGEBRAIC METHODS 10, Express with rational denominators: >) 1 - 1 | On? ®7Ran W aszir 11, Substitute x=b+c-a, y=c+a-b, z=a+b-c in the following expressions and simplify the results: @ Sryte2s Gi) Hy 4 At yet axtay. 12. Prove that x+2x2+9=(x?+3)*-4x%, and hence factorise the expression. 13, Factorise 2x*+xy-y® and 2x2+ xy-y®+9x-6y-5. " ” 1 5 1 5 4, simplify (3-9) +(arya) 15. Find the square roots of: (i) x4— 6x34 13x - 12x+4; Gi) 4a + 4a ~ 11026? ~ 6ab* +964, 16. If x= -(y +z), prove that x°+y*+ 29 =3xyz, 17, Simplify aw i) x°-27-9x2+ 21x; (ii) 427-8496; Gi) 42844, 19. Prove that (y- 2)?+(2—a)°+ (x~ y)® =30)- 2)(e-aMx-»). Gerad) Gray +b), ae+b), = WNe-2) O- - 2)" @-2)E-y) 21. If x>0andx-1 x 18. Factorise: 20. Simplify 1, prove that x+1=/5 and evaluate: () x9 A 1 Gi) 4 22, Express x*~ 2x3+7x~4 as a product of two quadratic factors. 23. If the function ax*+2bx-+e can be expressed in the form AG ~ xy) + BO 2), where 4, B are constants, prove that ax,x_ +(x, +x,)+e=0. WA If x+y+z2=2, xr yt+ z=, x8+y%429=5, find the values of: @ yztzxtay; Gi) xyz. 25. Prove that, if x? =(xy)=(xy*)" for all values of x and y, then 2pr=q(p+r). 26. The sum 5p of n terms of a series is given by sq =4n(n+ 1)(n +2), write down sq and find the nth term of the series. 27, Factorise: (i) a*+3a%b*+9b*; (ii) 2a*+a7b® + ab? + bt. 28. Express aa as the sum of two partial fractions. x gy? ~2yt= xym -¥ 29. If x8 2) xy=0, prove that 53-5REMAINDER THEOREM 31 30. If m is a positive integer, prove by long division that aan texte 2 txt xlixtt +xtl, etext] 31. Factorise a? +6?+c®- 2be-2ca-2ab by expressing it in terms of (a+b-o). 32. If a, b, ¢ are real numbers satisfying atb+c=a+b'+=0, prove that at least one of a, b, c is zero. 33. Given that xty+z=4, 22+y*+2%=6, xyz=3, find the value of Sayed 34, Prove that (a?-+ B+ 22+ y+ 24) - (ax-+ by +c2)? (ay — bx)? + (bz - cy)? + (cx - az)", Deduce that, if 7 =Z, then (a+ B+ yt + y*+ 29) (ax by + ez. 35. If x =a(b*- ), y =W(c' — a), z =a - 6°), prove that Beye GLBLE fy Remainder theorem. If a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x—a), the remainder is fla). As the degree of the remainder must be less than the degree of the divisor, the remainder in this case must be a constant. So if the quotient is q(x), it follows that fle) =(x—a)g(x) +1, where r is a constant. ‘This is an identity and true for all values of x. Let x=a, fa) =0q(x) +r. Te. Remainder =r=f(a). As a consequence of this theorem, it follows that if f(a)=0, then (xa) is a factor of f(x). Ex, 9. Factorise 25-1. As f(1)=1-1=0, x~1 isa factor. By division, the other factor is xt-+x3-+x?+x+1. 2 P= Lae Oty at 42tt xt D. Ex. 10. Find the values of a and b if (x2- x2) is a factor of xt ard 4x24 bx- 2. Method (i). As (x?-x—2)=(x-2x+1), both (x-2) and (x+1) are factors of the expression. c. fQ)=32+ 8a-16+2b-2= and f(-1)=2-a-4-b-2=1 Hence a=-1, 5 Hence simplify 4atb=32 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Method (ii). As x*~ x- 2 is one factor, it follows from the form of the given polynominal that the second factor is quadratic, with 2x? and +1 as two of its terms. So let 2xh-+ axd — 4x¥+ bx—2 = (x2 - x— 2)(2x94 Ax +1). Comparing coefficients of x*, — ee .. The given expression (x? - x- 22x87 +x+1), and hence a=-1, b=-3, Remainder when a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x—a)®, The remainder will be a linear function of x which can be written in the form A(x—a)+B, where A and B are constants. So if the quotient is g(x), Sx) = (x a)Pq(x) + A(x—a) +B. Letx=a. f(a)=B. Also SC) = Ax—a)q(x) + (x—a)g'(x) +A. Letx-a. f'@=A. Hence the remainder when the polynomial f(x) is divided by (x—a)? is S@C&-a)+f@). It follows that (x—a) is a repeated factor of f(x) if f'(a)=fla)=0. Ex, 11. Prove that (2x~ 1) is a repeated factor of 4x* ~ 4x3 + 5x2 — 4x +1. Let txt — 4x34 Sx? — Ax 1 16x? - 12x2 + 10x — 4. fQ)=4-F+H-241=0, and £'Q)=2-345-4=0, Hence (2x - 1)* is a factor of the given expression. Ex. 12, Factorise x*+ x*-7x*-8x-+4, given that it has a repeated linear Sactor. The repeated linear factor must be a factor of f(x), i.e. of 484 3x2- 14x-8, A linear factor of this expression can be found by use of the remainder theorem. By trial, f(-2=0. Also A-2)=0. +. (+2)? is a factor of the given expression f(x). Soif Slx)= (2+ 4x+ 490), q(x) must be a quadratic function containing the terms x* and +1. Leto. SI) = G8 + 4x4 408+ Ax+ 1). Equating coefficients of x8, 1=A+4; A=-3. Hence the factors are (e+ 2%G8 - 3x41).SYMMETRICAL EXPRESSIONS 33 Factors of symmetrical expressions. A symmetrical expression in Xx, y,z is one which is unaltered by a cyclic interchange of letters ry E.g. (9-2 z+ (2?—x9(2+x)*+ (x2 yx +)? is a symmetrical function of degree five in x, y, z. Similarly, a°(b—c)+6%c—a)+c%(a—b) is a symmetrical function of degree four in a, b, c. The method of factorising symmetrical expressions is illustrated in the following examples. Ex. 13. Factorise a'(b- c) + b4e-a)+ca- 6). ‘When b = c, the expression = b4(b— a) + bY(a- 6) =0. (6-0) is a factor. As the expression is symmetrical in a, 6, c, it follows that (c- a), (a- 6) are also factors. .B. If putting b=c did not make the expression vanish, we would have Continuing, as the expression is of the fifth degree and there are three linear factors, it follows that the fourth factor must be of the second degree. Also, as the fourth factor must be symmetrical in a, b, c, it must be of the form A(a?+ B+ 2) + Blbe + ca+ ab), where 4 and B are independent of a, 6, c. Le. Expression = (6 ~ cc - ay(a~ b)[A(a* + b* + c2) + B(be+ ca + ab)]. To obtain the values of 4, B, give a, 6, c simple numerical values, avoiding those which make any one of the factors (b~ c), (c~ a), (a—6) vanish. Eg. let a=0,b=1,¢=2, then 2-16=(-1)QK- D4 +4)+BQ)); 54+2B=-7. Let a=0, b=1,c=~1, -1=QK- a DAG + D+ a- 1); 44-2B=-2. Expression = - (6 - olen aXa- Dae ++ bes nab) Ex. 14, Factorise (x+y+z?-(y+z-x)'-(z+x-y)*- (xt y- 2% The substitutions y = +z, x = 4: (+2) do not make the expression vanish. Trying x = 0, the expression = (y+ z)*- (y+ 2)°- @-y?- 2 =0. ©. xis a factor, and similarly so are y and z. As the expression is of degree three, any additional factor must be a constant, say k. So (et yt 28-(ytz- x8 - (2 +x- WP ty - ZB = haxryz. Let x=y=z=1, then 21-1-1-1=k; k= 24. . Expression = 24xyz.34 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Highest common factor of two polynomials. Ex, 15. Find the H.C.F. of 28-+3x243x+1 and x*- x2 x-2. Dividing 2x°+3x?+3x+1 by x°-a*-x-2, the quotient is 2 and the remainder is 5x*+ 5x+5. oe U8 Batt Bet 1 = (8 a8 x 292) 4 S24 x4 1), Consequently, any common factor of the two given expressions must also be a factor of the remainder, 5(x2+.x-+ 1). As clearly the given expressions have not a common factor 5, it follows that the only possible common factor is x*+ +1. By division it is readily seen that QS 43x24 3x41 = GP+ xt NQx4 1); 8x8 x-2= (8424-2). 1 HGR =x84x41, General procedure. Suppose f(x) and g(x) are polynomials with the degree of f(x) > the degree of g(x). Consider the long division of f(x) by g(x). This division can be continued until the remainder term r(x) is of a smaller degree than g(x). If the quotient is g(x) we can write FQ) = (x) « (x) +r). It follows that any common factor of f(x) and g(x) is also a factor of r(x). Consequently the H.C.F. of f(x) and g(x) is also the H.C.F. of the lower degree polynomials, g(x) and r(x). This process can be repeated until the remainder function is sufficiently simple for its factors, and consequently the possible common factor of f(x) and g(x), to be readily discernible. Ex. 16. Find the H.C.F. of 2x4+33+x8+x—-1 and 4-294 2x8-x+1. Dividing the first polynomial by the second, the quotient is 2 and the remainder, 3x* ~ 3x2+ 3x~3. The factor 3 in the remainder can be ignored, and the problem reduces to that of finding the H.C.F. of x*~ x°+2x?-x+1 and x*- x?+x-1. Dividing, the quotient is x and the remainder, x°+1. Hence the only possible common factor of the original polynomials is 2+1, and by division this is verified to be the H.C.F. EXAMPLES 2b 1, Find the remainder when 4x5 + 2x4+ 11x?+ x— 6 is divided by x+3. 2. Prove that (x- 2) is a factor of 2x*- 5x*+5x-6 and find the other factor. 3. Prove that (x*~ 4) is a factor of x4— 3x? - 6x*+ 12x +8 and completely factorise the expression. 4. If (2x~ 1) is a factor of 4x‘ - ax? + 5x - 2, find the value of a. 5. Show that (a ~ 5) is a factor of a — B8 and write down the other factor.EXAMPLES 35 6. The remainder when x5 ax*+2 is divided by x+1 is 4. Find the value of a. 7. Find the H.CF. of 8-22+x-2 and xt-x-2, 8 Factorise: (i) 2x9-5x2-x+6; (ii) a(b-c)+b%c-a)+c%(a-b). 9. If x2 x-6 is a factor of x*+ax*-9x*+bx-6, find the values of aand 6 and complete the factorisation. 10. Find the H.C-F.s of: i) t+ xy—y® and 2x3-Txty + Sxy*- y's (i) 28-Sx84x+3 and x3 ~4x2+ 4x-3. 11. Prove that (y—z)+(z—x)*+ (x- y)?=3(y- zX2-aXx-y). 12. For what values of ¢ is (x-¢) a factor of 3x8 + (c+ 3)x2- (e+ e— Nx- 42 13. By first determining a factor by trial, factorise the following expressions: @ 2+ x2 10x-8; GD) xt 4x43; iii) 2a + Sab + 3ab™ + 26°. 14, Show that (x+ 1) is a repeated factor of x!+ 23+ 2x?+ 5x-+-3 and find the other factor. 15, Find the H.CF. of xt-x?-2x%+x+1 and 2x8-3x%+x42, 16, Factorise: (i) be(b- ¢) + ca(c- a) + ab(a— Gi) afb? - C8) + CP - a*) + (a? ~ B*); Gil) a(6 - 0 + B(e- a)* + ofa BY. 17. When xt+ax3+bx-+e is divided by (x+1), (+3), (x-2) the remainders are 5, - 31, 44 respectively. Find the values of a, b and c. 18, If (x- a)? is a factor of x+px+q, prove that 4p3+27q*=0. 19. By writing x? =X, show that, when is odd, x?-1 is a factor of x™P—1, Hence factorise x*~ 1. 20. Factorise: (i) (x*- yz)(y + 2)+ (7 - zx\(z +x) + rat); Gi) a(b- 0)? + He a)? + ea By + Sade; Gi) @- 0° + (c-a)> +(a- BY. 21, Find the HGF. of x44+2x8+2x-1 and 2xt+xt+atex-1. 22, If'a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x — a)(x ~ 6), show that the remainder can be expressed in the form —* (f(a)x~6)-fONx-a)) 23, Given that x2+2x-1 is a factor of x*+x5+axt+5x3+bx*- 4x +2, find the values of a and b and completely feta the expression. 2A, Factorise: (i) (be+ca+ab)>— BS Aad — al Gi) (@+b+08-(6+c- a) fares “op (a+b- oF. 25, Factorise 4x*+ 9x2 - 11x+3, given that there is a repeated linear factor. 26. Find the factors of (x3 + y*\(x—») +08 +290 -2)+ P+ ¥°)E- x)36 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Ratio and proportion. Equal fractions Definition. The pairs of numbers a,b, @2b,, dgbs, . . - nbn, are said to be in proportion if =? eee 5, by by bn “= then each of the fractions a Basic result. If zt =% 2 : 1a + lay + lay is equal to 1,3, + laby + laby + constants such that b,+hbytIybs+ ... +Inbax0. This result is readily proved by putting each of the original fractions equal to k, and substituting a,=kb,, ay=kby, . . . dn=kbp into the numerator of the compound fraction. This substitution method is useful in dealing with problems on equal fractions. » where ly ly... In are Ex 17, PAPE 9 EYEE _ E4292, prove shat each factionis zero. fraction Poot tees 0. yz x Ex. 18. If 5X2 = 7 = 2p prove that x+y+2=0. Writing each fraction =k; x =k(b-c), y =k(c- a), z=k(a- b). Hence x+ytz=0. Ex, 19. Solve the equations x x+y x- soyte 3 i » yt 4 xt 2yt42-6=0. Let Then x=k; x+y=3k, y=2k; x-y+z=2k, z=3k. Substituting into the quadratic equation, kA + 4k2+ 9k +k +4k+ 12k-6=0, 14k? + 17k-6=0, (Tk-2Qk+3)=0; kad -} hxeh yah rf or ro lppetae ted EXAMPLES 2c ad — de, Sb-dQUADRATIC FUNCTIONS 7 x-y_y p 8 15% = and y+2#0, express z in terms of x, y. 9. Show that, if Enyeh ys, then Sx- Sy +4z Gtysah _xtytz, xeyee” x-ysz x-2 10, 1f* =”, prove that yz 11. Solve the equations: (i) 12, Given that 27277 = 2*=247_ =2+Y 42, evatyate BtMtH, z yet ext ay ace ace 13. 15 = $= prove that wr 14, 16 08 - 1987 182 tog u, prove that xy/24 ut *?-¥, 15, Solve the equations *=9—2=% ax by+cz=a+ B+ ct 16, 1f 222 —* - 2EXAY SPIN ?, prove that q-r Pp P-@ q Quadratic and rational quadratic functions. Ex. 20, Discuss the signs of the functions @ 48-7x-2; (i) -13410x-2x* Sor real values of x. (i This function factorises, 4x —Tx-2= (4x+ IN -2). When x < - 3, both factors are negative and the function is positive. When -4 2, both factors are positive and the function is positive.38 ALGEBRAIC METHODS (ii) This function does not factorise. Write - 13 + 10x - 2x? = - 2[x*- 5x+43] ~2Ge~ $P- AR + A= - Ge DP +H As the term within the bracket is positive for all real values of x, the func tion is always negative. It will be noted that the maximum value of the function occurs when x =$ and is equal to - 4- General case. ast+brtomal st+beo€] ata nord) Bod [loay a) 2 As the least value of (x+ 3.) is zero, the term within the bracket will be of a constant sign if 4ac—b*>0, i.e. if b&<4ac. When this condition is satisfied the function takes the sign of a. . The necessary and sufficient conditions for ax*+bx+e to be positive for all real values of x are: (i) b&<4ac, (ii) a>0. Functions of more than one variable. The methods of dealing with quadratic functions of more than one variable are illustrated in the following examples. Ex, 21. Prove that the function 2x? - 8xy +9y*+ 4x — 10y-+4 is positive for all real values of x and y and determine its minimum value. First obtain a perfect square which includes all the terms containing one variable, say x. Functior | = lx? - 4xyt 2x] + By" - Sy +2} = 2G 2y + I= dy? + Ay - 1] 4 By Sy +2} =2{(x - 2y + 1)? + 4 - 2y + 2} =2{(x- 2y + 1)?+ 410 - 1)*+ 1]}, completing the square for the y terms, =2f(x- 2yt IP 440-18 +H. Hence the function is positive for all real values of x and y. It has a minimum value of 1 when x-2y+1=y-1=0, ie. when x=y Ex, 22. If x and y are real and x*—2xy-2y*+6x-y+11= possible ranges of values of x and y. To determine the possible values of y, treat the equation asa quadratic in x. 3x2 2x 3)-2y*—- y+ 11 =0. As x is real, B>4ac, A - 3824-28-41), 3y*-5y-230, Gy+DO-2)20. y can take all real values apart from those between - } and 2. ), find theRATIONAL QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS 39 ‘Now treat the equation as a quadratic in y. = Dy? - p24 I+ x2 + 6x4 11 = 0. As y is real, (2x+ >A 2)? + x4 1D), 12x*+52x+89>0. But as 4ac> 6? and a>0, this function is positive for all values of x. Hence x can take all real values. Ex. 23. Discuss the sign of the function 4yz+ 2xy - 3x*- y*- 72". Proceeding as in Ex. 21 and noting that it will be simpler to deal with the y terms first, function = {[y? ~ 2xy— 4yz] + 322+ 723} {px 22)? 2x2 — 42x + 329} {(y- x- 22) + 2 - 2? +427]}. ‘So the function is negative for all real values of x, y, 2. Rational quadratic functions. A rational quadratic function is of the Qxttbxtey x2 +b yx + Cy discussed by equating it to y and then treating the result as a quadratic equation in x. form The possible values of such a function can be Bx. 24, Find the possible range of values of 2° "3 if xis real x84 2043, il IoD 2 BQ 1)+xGy-2)+2y-3 20. As x is real, Gy-2824- DQy-3), ie. yi+ By-830. Hence O+4P>%4 ly+4|>2v6. So -4-2Y6>y> -442V6, i.e. the given function can take all values with the exception of those between —4-2y6 and -4+276. Ex, 25. Find the maximum and minimum values oe and sketch the graph of the function. Let yo. 2 BQ-Dtx4Dty-1=0. As x is real, 0+2?240-DO-D, 0>3y2- 12y ie. 0230-4). <. y must be 20 or <4. Hence the maximum and minimum values of the function are 4, 0 respectively.40 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Substituting these values for y, we find x=~-1, 1 respectively and consequently the turning-points on the graph are maximum (- 1,4); minimum (1, 0). Further information to assist in sketching the graph: (i) The graph only exists for 0 409 ~ Day PUL -2)+ Dy +20, This inequality is satisfied when the quadratic function y*(1— 2) + 3Ay +22 is positive, ‘The required conditions are: (i) 1-2>0, Gi) MAL) > GE. Condition (ii) reduces to’ - 242+ 5) 30, from which aS -§ Condition (i) is satisfied when ai. Both conditions are satisfied, and the original function can take all values, when A< -EXAMPLES 4 EXAMPLES 24 1. Show that the function 6x - 10 - x* is negative for real values of x. 2. For what ranges of values of x are the following functions negative: @ 2x94 Sx-12; Gi) 204 11x- 3x8? 3, Prove that the function 4x*— 12xy + 10)* is posi 4, Find the value of 4, other than zero, for which (Bx ~ 2p)? + Cx - yx - 2y) if x and y are real. is a perfect square. 5. Find the maximum value of the function 6+3x-x* and sketch its graph. 6. Obtain the minimum value of x*+2xy + 2+ 2x - 6y +5. ' : x-1 7. If x is real, show that the function 2. 25. Prove that, for all real values of x and 2, the function =" between fixed limits if b®<4e. Biber Partial fractions. Special methods, The basic methods of express- ing an algebraic fraction as a sum of partial fractions have been dealt with in the previous volume. Two useful methods of simplification will be illustrated here. Case I, Linear factor in denominator. Consider the algebraic & 2 where the degree of f(x) is less than that of g(x), and eee We can write a(x) =4(x) .(x—a) £4) A 4 PO), g@)"x-a* gay where p(x) is a polynomial of degree one less than q(x) and A is a constant. fraction) and $08) = Aq(x) + (e—a)pC2). Putting x=a, fla)= Aq); A= fo. Hence the partial fraction corresponding to the factor (x—a) in the ela) qWa(x—a) denominator isPARTIAL FRACTIONS “a3 This useful result can be expressed as follows: The partial fraction corresponding to a factor (x— a) in the denominator is Al(x—a), where A is the result of putting x=a in every part of the original fraction except (x—a) itself. 2x- Ex. 27, Express in partial fractions: (9) == 5 i) GSE (-a)@-5) @ 2x-4 4) 1,62 1, 2) 2 1 x(x 1x = 3) ENDCd at C2) 2x-1 @@x-3 3 () ane 8) "a= b x=" bm ax-b Ex. 28, Express : in partial fractions. x(x+1) . (+n) The partial fraction corresponding to the factor x ee x T.2...n x al ‘The partial fraction corresponding to the factor x+1 ot “x+l (DI.2...0 +1 GDM! ‘The partial fraction corresponding to the factor x+2 Similarly, the partial fraction corresponding to the factor x+r (iy) alee “xer Gort Hence, tia 1 1 x@+)...@tn) x ml xtt GDM x42 @-2!21 -Iy 4 Cpt Fs Ser Geni to xen al Case II. Repeated linear factor in denominator. An elementary treatment of this case has already been given, but it is laborious when the linear factor is repeated more than two or three times. A simpler method is illustrated in the following examples.4 ALGEBRAIC METHODS f+xt] Ex, 29, Express in partial fractions: (i) ay ii) 7, @-'G@s2 tt @ Divide 1+2e by 1+x, giving the 1+ajFae quotient as a set of terms in ascending powers of x up to the term in x‘. Atx Then At tex aateat— ae. cet =x 2xt1 1.1 11 1 ene Saat ete x eT see (ii) Writing x~1 = y, the fraction becomes Baxt wr3yt3, =x Ay +3) axes? Remainder > x* By dividing 3+ 3y + y* by 3+y in ascending powers of y and taking the quotient as far as the term in y’, it follows that a 3 iy ayede- wn Lidyt byt dye ped Dividing by y* and replacing y by x-1, Ee ee (= 142) = DET 3-18" = 1) 27-1)" 27D) EXAMPLES 2¢ (Miscellaneous partial fractions) Express the following functions in partial fractions: Qyzaoeee * x(— I@e- 1) oe FIT DET x + 1+ 2)Ge+ IRF) x 3S Gray ‘ lex x+2 5. GED -1) G+ Ee & ae a Sxtx= 28-4) 8 + GD x-2 % acts iy 1S. aseEQUATIONS 45 Ox x43 17. Express“ Gti ) as the sum of two partial fractions of the forms AxtB ig Ce+D Gp etl 1 1g 18, Prove that, if m is itive i — : rove nis a positive integer, Gyn rt 2@ oy 19, Express a as the sum of four partial fractions. 20. If f(x) is of lower degree than F(x) and F(x) = (x - @,)(x - a3) $x) _ fla) 1, fl) 1 FOX) F(@) x= 0," F(a) x- a (xan), prove that Miscellaneous equations I. Irrational equations of the form »/(ax + b)++/(cx + d)=+/(px+4). The solution of this type of equation usually involves a repeated squaring process, and care must be taken to ensure that the resulting roots are checked in the original equation as additional roots are introduced by squaring. Ex, 30. Solve the equation -/(2x+3)~V(x+l)=Vx~2). Squaring both sides, Qt 34x41 2 (2x + 3+ D}=x-2. ing the irrational term, 2x +6 =2v{(2x+3\x+1)}. D iding by 2 and squaring, x? + 6x +9 =(2x+3\(x+1) 2. Onx?-x-6 x=3, -2. On substitution, x =3 is seen to be a root of the original equation. Substituting x= - 2 leads to square-roots of negative numbers, and hence x= -2 is not a solution. Ex. 31. Solve the equation ¥/{3(x ~ 2x - 3)} - V{(x - 2x - Dp =x- 2. The factor +/(x 2) can be removed after noting the solution x =2. Then VGE-D}-VE-N=VE-M OD Proceeding as before, 3(x-3) +(e - 5) - WVBR - Ix- f= x-2, 3x- 12 =2V{3(x- 3Xx-5)} (Gx ~ 12) = 43x2 - 24x + 45) 3x2 - 24x +36 = 0 x=2,6. On substitution it is found that x =2 is not a solution of equation (i), but it has already been seen to be a solution of the original equation. The value X= 6 is also a solution. “. Solutions are x =2, 6,46 ALGEBRAIC METHODS I. Reciprocal equations. There are two classes of reciprocal equations, in which (@ the coefficients of terms equidistant from the ends are equal, eg. x4— 2x84 3x*-2x+1=0; (ii) the coefficients of terms equidistant from the ends are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, eg. 8 +3x!— 2x8 + 2xt-3x-1=0. Method of solution. If the degree of the equation is odd, x= —1 is a root in case (i) and x=1 is a root in case (ii). The corresponding factors should be divided out and in the resulting cquation of even degree, say 2m, divide throughout by x" and group the terms in pairs XM we mh ay etc. Then let x + =X and solve for X. The method for equations of even degree is included in that above. Even degree equations which are partly class (i) and partly class (ii) can sometimes be solved in a similar manner (see Ex. 33). Ex, 32. Solve the equation x*— x4 — 8x*- 8x*- x+1=0. This is a reciprocal equation of type (i) and of odd degree. By substitution it is seen that one root is x= - 1. Dividing out the factor x+1, the equation becomes x4— 2x8 - 6x?- 2x +1=0. Dividing by x* and rearranging, (+3) -2(x+})-6-0. 1 1 y2- ox Let xt 5=X, then x84 442—=X* or att ye X?-2, ©. X#-2X-8=0 X=4, 2. xt tea; 5 xt-4x+1=0 x=2tv3. The roots of the equation are ~1, -1, ~1, 2473. Ex. 33. Solve the equation 2x4 - x3 -7x44x+2=0. This is not strictly a reciprocal equation, but it can be solved by a similar method. Dividing by 2* and rearranging, 2(s+h)-(x-j)-7-0.EQUATIONS 47 Let x-box; then t+ axts2, x 2 os (X84 2)-X-7=0 2x#-X-3 Replacing X by x—1 and solving the resulting quadratic equations, we have x=2, -bH-14Vv5. Il. Miscellaneous polynomial equations. It will be sufficient here to consider only those equations where one or more roots can readily ‘be obtained by trial or where there is a given relationship between some of the roots. Ex. 34. Solve the equation x9 - 62+ 5x+6=0. If there is a simple root it will be a factor of 6. By trial, x=2 is a root. But 28-622 + 5x46 =(x- Dat 4x-3). As the roots of x*- 4x~3=0 are x=2- 7, the solutions of the given equation are x=2, 24.7. Ex. 35, Solve the equation 2x++8x*—9x*-19x-6=0, given that the product of two of its roots is 2. As the product of two roots is 2, the quadratic factor which yields these two roots when equated to zero must be of the form x2+ ax-+2. Let 2x44 8x3 9x8- 19x 6 =(x2+ ax + 2)(2nd quadratic factor). ‘Clearly in the second quadratic factor, two terms are 2x* and - 3. . Expression =(x2+ ax +2\(2x2 + bx - 3). Equating coefficients of x°, 8-2a+b. Equating coefficients of x, —19= - 3a+2b. 2. a=5,b=-2. The equation is (2+ 5x+ 2228 - 2x - 3) =0, hence x=H(-5£V1D, EVD. EXAMPLES 2f Solve the following equations: 1. Vxt-V(e-3)=V (r+ 5). 2 W(x-D=x-4, 3, x+22-9x-9=0. 4, 2x 3x8 11x+6=0. 5. 3VQx+1)-4V(e-3=Vi6x41). 6 xt x8 4x2 41-0. 7, 43x - 2a? 3x41=0. & VQ-N+V(- 1-2) =3. 9, VA2x(x—D}-Vixte— Bmx. 10. 2x54 xt 78 Tx? x4+2=0. 11. @-1)?- 83 =0. 12. (x+2)*- 16(x- 1)*= 0.4B ALGEBRAIC METHODS 13, Solve the equation x‘+x°~ 16x*~ 4x-+48=0, given that the product of two roots is 6. 14, Solve the equation x8+3x+3=V(2x2+6x+5), by using the substitution y=x7+3x+3. 15, Solve the equation 2x*~ 3x°- 15x? + 10x +24 = 0, given that the sum of two roots is unity. 16. Solve: (i) (x~2chx- 26) =(a+b- cNa-b+0); Gi) 8+ 9 =26, x4y + xy? = - 17. Solve: (i) V(2x-5)+V(6x- 9) =x- 1; Gi) VL - x4 x4) 4+ V1 +2423) =3. 18, Find real solutions of the equation x‘+ (x - 1)*=1. 19, Solve the equation x*—2x9-16x*-8x+16=0, by using the substitution x =2t. 20. Find the values of a and b if x*- x-2 is a factor of Sl) = x94 4x8 - x3 ~ 13x*- bx - 12 and solve the equation f(x) = 0. 21, Solve the simultaneous equations, yz=2%y+z)+6, 2x=2(z4x)+2, xy =Axty)+ il MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 1. Simplify (a+ b— 08 +(b+e~ a)?+(a+e-by. 2, Factorise: (i) (a- 1)°- 8+(@+ 18+ (a? - 1); Gi) x8 -y®— 228+ zx 4 Byz, (ety? xy 4 Prove that the expression 2x?~ 6xy-+ 5y*+ 2x - 8y + 14 is positive for all real values of x and y. 5. Find for real values of x: (i) the sign of the function 2x2~ 13x+ 15; - 4x2 — 2x41 (ii) the possible values of the function Pore ret ax+b moa’ Prove that x= f(y). 2x-5 @= aoe ax 5 3. 1 z= % simplify 6. If y= f(x), where f(x) = 7. Express in partial fractions: (i) ——— O oe Re + 8. Factorise: (i) x(y- 2) + y(z— x)*+ 2-9): ae 2+ yz — x) + 24x - yr 9, Express x24 Jy xt+4y xt 3, each in terms of X, where X=x+!.MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 9 10, Solve the equations: (i) 9x*~ 24x3- 2x*- 24x+9=0; (i) Sy" 7x4 =17, Sxy ~ 6x4 = 6. 11, @ Find the sign of the expression 2-5 ~4x* for real values of x. (i If x is real, prove that Pepeeeeees 12. Prove that the roots of the equation (b?— 4ac)x*+ 4(a+ c)x-4=0 are real if a, b, c are real and find the condition that they are equal. 13. Solve the equation x* - 4x4 +7x% - 2 = 0, given that the product of two roots is 2. 14, Express with rational denominators: @ Gio ieyecw 15. If x, y are ar prove that x?— 4xy+5y?+2x-8y+520. For what values of x, y is the function a minimum? 16, (j) Factorise 4a + 3a%B*+ bt. Gil) Te x4 ~ 48x + 28 = (x? + ax+ 2x2 + 4x-+ 5), find the values of and b. Ea 1 BPS GIT D coefficient of x" in the expansion of the function in a series of ascending powers of x. 18. If f(n) =3n° + Tn, prove that f(n+ 1) ~ f(x) is a multiple of 5. 19. Solve: (i) x*- x*- 5x+2=0; Gi) Vdx-2)+ Veer I)- VT-52)=0. 20. A rational integral function of x, 4(x), is divided by x*-a?. Prove that the remainder is HO“ 9), , HOKICD, 21, Find the range of values of 4 for which the expression wan 24x 4? is positive for all real values of x. ave Oars —» where x, y are positive integers. as a sum of four partial fractions and find the y 2, If = er-rG arian erie express x in terms of y and z. 23, If x>0, prove that: (i) x+ 4 22; Gi) x +2201 D 2m, 2A. Resolve —s5¢=-—jyp into partial fractions. 25. Find the values of 2 for which the function x*4+ 8xy ~ 5y*—2(x4-+y4) can be expressed as a perfect square. If x*4-y*=1, prove that -71ab and b*<4c*. function 29. If » prove that each fraction is equal to 1 xtytz epee or ty 30. Find the least positive values of: 12, Gi) x84 20x+2a+ ab+59. @ x+ 31. If x, y are real and 16x*+8xy+9y*~ 64y=0, prove that O 5. ‘The point of intersection is (- 1, - 5).6 LINEAR EQUATIONS Special cases, Referring to the general solution (A), it is clear that exceptional cases arise if |a, by oF dyb,— a,b, =0. ay by When this condition is satisfied there are two possibilities, either by cy) and |e ¢,| do not vanish, in which case the equations have no Bs cs! | Ce finite solution and are said to be inconsistent, or |b, cy ay cy bs Ca dy Ca also vanish, and then the values of x and y are indeterminate and the equations are not independent. It should be noted that when and a, b,)~ 0, if either of the deter- a by minants |; ¢|, |@ ¢| vanishes so does the other, as in fact ba cal lay ca a Ls a by cy There is a simple geometrical explanation of these special cases, for the original equations can be represented as two straight lines and the condition ja, by] =a,b,—a,b,=0, Jay by 4b, ial a,” By is satisfied when the lines are parallel and in consequence have no finite point of intersection unless they are coincident. This latter case arises when ie. when in addition one of the determinants |, c,|, |e 4] also bs cal Ia cy vanishes. Ex. 13. Solve the equations (1-2)x+2y-1=0, x+y+4-2=0. Discuss the case }= 1. We have Le. When 2 = ~ 1, the solutions at inite, and in consequence the equations are inconsistent. In fact, the equations become x+y-4=0, x+y+5=0.EQUATIONS IN THREE UNKNOWNS 67 Equations in three unknowns. Consider the simultaneous equations axtbyt+eztg=0, 2... @ axtbyt+eqzt+d=0, .. . . ii) agxtbyteztd=0. . . . . (ill) Let Ay, By, . . . be the cofactors of a,, b,, . . . in the determinant A=|a, by cy], Ja, bs ca] ay bs c,| where the elements are the coefficients of x, y, z in the given equations. Now multiply the equations (i), (ii), (iii) by 41, As, 4s respectively and add. Then x(a,A,+0,A,+ 454s) + (b,A, + p4y+ 554s) +2(C1Ay + Cada + Cys) + yA + dyAgt dyg=0. But @A,+a,4,+0,4;=A and 5,4, +b,A,t+bads =CyAy + Cad Cy4g=0. w, xk —(d,A, + dyAg+dgAy) =-d, By | =—]b, ey dy. dy by cs by Cy dy id By Co bs Cy ds! Similarly, by multiplying the equations by B,, By, By respectively, yA=+]a, co dy). Cn Jas cy ds| Also zA=—|a, by dy). ja, by d,| jay by dy Combining these results z -1 a, by dy) a, By C4 ay by dy} Jay be Co 4, by ds| | as bs cs xy Bia a) [acd] bs Cx de} |e Cy de 1s ¢3 ds] |as Cs ds where the signs in the numerators are alternately plus and minus and the determinants are obtained from the set of elements a, by cy dy a, by Cy dy az by Cy dy omitting in turn the first, second, third and fourth columns.8 LINEAR EQUATIONS Ex. 14. Solve the equations 3x-yt4z+2=0, x+2y-z+3=0, -2x+3y+z-5=0. We have x c= S Z oe -1 4 2 3 4 4 [3-1 2 3-1 4 2-1 3 | 1-1 3 1 2 | | 1 2-1 3 1-s| |-2 1-5] [-2 3-s} |-2 3 1 x -y_ 2 = a0 RQ ie. x=-2, y=O, ze. In dealing with linear equations in three unknowns it is often more convenient to reduce them to two equations in two unknowns and complete the solution from that stage. Ex. 15. Solve the equations x+y+z2=0, 2x-y-3z—4, 3x+3y=7. Eliminating z between the first two equations gives Sx+2y=4, Solving the equations Sx+2y-4=0 3x43y-7=0, x -y 1 =14412” -35+12" 15-6 ie. * xen ya's from the first equation, zed Special cases. Referring to the general solution (B), it is evident that special cases arise if A=|a, by ¢,/=0. dq by cs) az by cs) In this event either x, y, z are all infinite and the equations are inconsistent, or x, y, z are indeterminate of the form 8 and the equations are not all independent, being equivalent to two independent equations or just one. I. The equations are inconsistent if A=0 and none of the determinants Ai=|bi cr dif, Aa= Ja, cy dy], As=]a, 5, di}, vanish. by Ca de la, cy dy ja, by dy) bs cy dy Js cs ds| Jas by d,| Il, The equations are not independent if A=O and also two of ‘Ay, Ay Ap=0. In this event it can readily be shown that all the latter determinants vanish. Geometrically, as will be proved in a later chapter, a linear equation in three variables represents a plane in three-dimensional space. Consequently the system of three equations represents three planes with the following possible configurations and results.SPECIAL CASES 0 i) The planes meet in a point; the equations have a unique finite solution. (ii) At least two planes are parallel; the equations are inconsistent with no finite solution and A=0; Aj, Ay, Ay#0. (ii) The planes intersect in three parallel lines; as (ii). (iv) The planes intersect in a common line; the equations are not independent, being equivalent to two independent equations with a line of solutions and A=A,=A,=A,=0. (v) The planes coincide; the equations are not independent, being equivalent to a single equation with a plane of solutions and A=A,=A,=A,~0. (vi) Two planes coincide and the third plane intersects them in a line; as (iv). (vii) Two planes coincide and the third plane is parallel to them; the equations are not independent and also inconsistent. There are no finite solutions and A=A,=A,=A,= In dealing with sets of linear equations it is important to remember that the elementary method of solution is often the more convenient, especially when investigating special cases. Both this method and the determinant method will be illustrated in the following examples. Ex. 16. Show that the equations 2x+Sy+3z=0, x-y+4z=2, ly-5z+4=0 are not independent. Method (i). “i 5 3)=0, on expansion, 1-1 4 0 7 -5| and A=] 5 3 0[=0; Ay=|2 -1 4-2) 7-5 4| Hence the equations are not independent. Method (ii). The result of eliminating x between the first two equations is the equation 7y- 5z+4 = 0, which is identical with the third equation. Hence the equations are equivalent to the two equations 2x+5y+3z—0, 7y-5z+4=0. They are satisfied by all points lying on the line determined by the two planes with these equations. Ex. 17. Show that the equations x+y+z-1=0, 2x-3y-2z+4=0, 3x-2y-2+2=0 have no finite solution. Method (i). A=1 1061 P| ce] 3-2-1 #0. and “3 et 2- t ”. The equations are inconsistent and tave No finite solution.70 LINEAR EQUATIONS Method (ii). Eliminating x between the first equation and the other equations taken consecutively, leads to the equations Sy+4z=6, Sy+4z=5. ‘These equations are clearly inconsistent, and in consequence so are the original equations. Ex. 18. Of the equations x-y+z=5, 2x+y+4z=12, 3x+3y+7z=18, 4x—y+6z=22, one is inconsistent with the other three. Find this equation and modify its constant term in order to make it consistent with the others. Eliminating x between the first equation and the other equations taken consecutively leads to the equations 3y+22=2, i) 6y+4z=3, i) 3y+2z—2, i) As (ii) is inconsistent with (j) and (iii), it follows that of the original equations, the third is inconsistent with the others; by changing the constant term of this equation to 19, (ii) becomes y+ 4z—=4 ie, 3y+22—2, and the equations are now consistent. They are in fact not independent and have a line of solutions. Ex. 19, Solve the equations 2x-y+z=0, 3y+z=0, x+y+az—=b, where and b are constants witha#1. Discuss the case a=1. ‘We have ee ee ieee eee el -11 0) j21 0] [2-1 O|" 2-11 31 of jo1 of jo 3 of fo 31 la-6| j1a-5] [1 1-5] {1 1a ie. So if a#1; x= If a=1 and 60; x, », z are each infinite and the equations are inconsistent, Ifa=1 and b=0; x, y, zare each indeterminate and the equations are not independent, EXAMPLES 3d Solve, where possible, the following systems of equations: 1, 2x-y+3=0, 2, 3x-4y+1=0, 3. 6x+y+3=0, xt+2y-1=0. x+2y-3=0. 3x-2y+9=0. 4. x+y-4=0, 5, Sx+2y-5=0, 6, 3x-2y-1=0, 2x+2y-3=0. x-y-8=0. 9x- 6y-3=0.EXAMPLES a 7. 3x-Ty-35=0, 8. 3x-Sy+10=0, 9% x+3y-10 2x+ Sy-4~=0. 6x-10y+17=0. ~2esdy 10. x+y+z-2=0, U. 2x-y+z-3=0, 12 x+y-10 x+2y+32-1=0, 9 x+2y-2-1 ytz-3 3x-y-Sz-1=0. 3x+y+z-6=0. xtz+1 13. 2x-y-z=6, 14 xt 2y-32-0, SL xy +2-1=0, xt3yt2z= 1, 3x43y-2=5, 2x -3y-2z4+4=0, 3x-y-Sz= 1. x-2yt2eal. 3x-2y-242=0. 16. Ixt+y-22+9=0, IT x+2y-243=0, 18, 2x+4y-24+3=0, x-2y-2+ 2x+y+2-1=0, 3x-5y+4z-5=0, Sxty-z45 3x+3y+2=0. Sx-y+3z+4=0. 19, 4x~y+3z-7=0, 20, -3x+3y+22-5=0, 2x+3y-22-4=0, Sx-2y+2+6=0, x-4ytz=0. 2e+y+3z41=0. 2. 3xty-22~3=0, ~9x-3y+ 62+9=0, 6x-+2y~42-6=0. 22. Find the points of intersection of the following pairs of straight lines: @ 2y-x+6-0, Gi) 4x-y+1=0, (iii) 2x+5y=1, x+3y-2=0. 3x+Ty-3=0. 3x-4y=-4, 23. Solve the following systems of equations for the ratios x: y: z: @ 2w-y+z-0, (i) x-3y42z=0, — (iil) 4x-2y+2=0, 3x+2y-42=0. 2x+5y-2=0. 3x+5y-4z=0. 24. For what values of are the equations 2x-(Q+2)y-1=0, 6x—3y-2=0: (@ inconsistent; (ji) not independent? 25. For what values of u are the following sets of equations consistent? @ x+3=0, Gi) 2x-py+3=0, (ili) 4x+y-7=0, y-2=0, xty-4=0, x-y xtyty=0. 3y-11=0. 3x-uy-1=0. 26. When x ~ 1,4, the function ax*+ bx+c takes the values 15, 9, 3 respectively. Find the value of the function when x= 0. 27. For what values of 2 are the following systems of equations: (a) incon- sistent; (6) not independent? @ 2x-ry 44221, (i) Ax+2y47z=0, iii) 3x-2y-6, 3x-22=4, ay+nz 3x + 6y+4z—4. 28. Solve the equations x+y+z=1, ax+byteznk, xt by + ez =k if a, b, ¢ are not zero. 29. Solve the equations Sx+2y=3, 2x+3y-Sz=1, dx-Sy+15z=p. For what values of 4 and u are the equations: (ji) inconsistent; (ii) not independent?n LINEAR EQUATIONS 30, Prove that the equations x+y+2~=0,y+4-22-4=0,2x+ 5y+62-8=0 are not independent and show that their solutions can be expressed in the form x=2,- 6, y=4~ 2d, z=A, where 2 is a parameter. 31. Solve the equations 5x+y-2z=0, 13y+3az=b, 2x+ay+z=1 and discuss the special cases: (i) a=3, b¥5; (ii) a=3, b=5. 32, One of the following equations is inconsistent with the others. “Find this equation and by a modification of its constant term make it consistent: @ x-y+24+2=0; (ii) 2x42y+24+7=0; Gil) 3x4 5y+2412=0; (iv) 4y-244=0. 33. Solve the equations axt+y+2—1, xtaytz—=2, x+ytdz—It, Examine the special cases: (i) 4=1, (ii) A= ~ 2. 34. Solve the following systems of equations by first reducing them to equations in three unknowns: () 2x+y422-1=6, x-2-2=0, Bytz4+=, 32425, Gi) xty4z4tex-yt2-t+4=2x-3y-2- 31-5 =3x-2y+2z4St+ 120. 35. For what values of 2 are the following equations consistent: 2x-dyt22=0, xty-de=4, Wx yt z=2, Tx Sy 6z=1? 36. The expression ax3+bx+cx+d takes the value zero when x=1 or -} and takes the value 3 when x= -1 or 2, Find the value of the constants a, 5, ¢, d. Homogeneous linear equations. Linear equations of the forms where the constant terms are zero, are homogeneous. Such equations are always satisfied by zero values of the variables; eg. equation (i) is satisfied when x= equation (ii) is satisfied when x= Consideration will be given here to the conditions necessary for sets of homogeneous linear equations to have solutions in which all the variables are not zero. Equations in two unknowns. Consider the equation ax+by=0. Apart from the obvious solution x=y=0, we can look for other solutions by assuming at least one of the variables is not zero, say y, and dividing the equation by this variable. le. a%+b,-0; *=—4. y y Hence the equation can be solved for the ratio x: y.HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS B The condition necessary for two equations a,x+byy=0, a,x+b,y=0 to be satisfied simultaneously by values of x and y not both zero is readily obtained. ‘The required condition is —58= —4s, a, ay ie. Ayby— yb, = ja, by} or a, By 0. It is easily shown that the converse result is also true. Ex. 20, Find the values of > for which the equations (\-1)x+2y =0, 4x+(Q+ Dy =0 can be simultaneously true for non-zero values of both x and y. In each case, give the value of the ratio x: y which satisfies the equations. ‘The required condition is a= 4 441 2 bh Le. -9=0; A=+3. When 2=3, the equations become 2x+2y=0. When = ~ 3, the equations become ~ 4x+2y Equations in three unknowns. The two equations a,x+byy+ez=0, a,x +byy + ¢,2=0, can be solved uniquely for the ratios x: y: z, except in the cases when @ x=y=2-0, Gi) 4 a identical. in which event the equations are 2 For assuming z#0 and writing Xx=3, Y= z the equations become X+bY+e= aaa 4-0. 1 a o ar ay Al oF ea ea] lay 2 ie. ealay aol “E "ay dy Cy| |e be or ay cal ja, by). Jp Cy] Jay dsl4 LINEAR EQUATIONS Ex. 21. Solve the equations 3x+y-4z=0, 2x+3y+2=0 for the ratios yz We have Fae xy: or If there are values of x, y, z not all zero, such that the equations axtby+eqz=0, ax tbyytcqz=0, agx+byy+eqz=0 hold simul- taneously, =0 and conversely. ag by cy} then ls by ey as By ey For assuming z#0 and writing X= z y=, the equations become aX+b,¥+c,=0, aX+b,Y +e, a,X+b,¥ +e From the last two equations, x -Y¥ 1. bz Ca] |a2 Co] faa ba bs es! |as cy) lay bs Substituting for X, Y in the first equation, a4|by Co) Dylan Ca|+cy|aq by bs cs] lay ca) day gl ie. A=|a, by ¢,)=0. Jaz Be Ce Jas bs ey Conversely, if A=0, then a4, +b,B,+e,Cy=A=0 and yA, + bgBy + gC, = @,A, + bsBy +c,C,=0, where 4,, By, C, are the cofactors of a,, by, ¢ in A. But all three of 4,, By, C, only vanish if vanishes identically. Consequently, if A=0, then there exist numbers x, y, z not all zero, where x:y:z=4,: B,: C,, such that the three equations axtby+eyz hold simultaneously. ax tbyy+ez=0, ayxtbytege=0HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS 15 Ex, 22. Find the values of % for which the equations 3x-y+z 3x-+hy- Sz=0, Ax 3y+4z=0 are consistent for non-zero values of x, y, 2. ‘The equations have solutions other than x=y=z=0, if 3-1 1]=0. Set A -3 4) Te. -22+1TA-42=0 A= 3, 14, Ex. 23, Prove that the straight lines 5x~-3y-2=0, x-2y-1= 2x-+3y+ 10 are concurrent. ‘The straight lines are concurrent if there are values of x, y which satisfy the three equations simultaneously. Consequently, making the equations homogeneous by writing z=1, it is necessary to show that the equations 5x-3y-2z=0, x~2y-z=0, 2x+3y+2=0 are consistent. This is so because A=|5 -3 -2)=-0. 1-2-1 23 1 Ex. 24, Eliminate >, p. from the equations x= =~": ‘The equations can be expressed in the form A= 2tx.1=0, 2yr-u+ yl =0, AA-w-z.1=0. Treating these as equations in 2, u and 1, it follows that as they are consistent x -2 x ay -1 y z -1 -2| =0, or ~ 6yz+22x-xy=0. EXAMPLES 3¢ 1. Prove that the following equations are consistent: (i) 4x-3y=0, 6y-8: (ii) x+3y=0, ~2x-6y=0; (iii) ax+by=0, abx-+b*y=0. 2. Find the values of for which each of the following sets of equations are consistent for non-zero values of both x and y. In each case give the ratio of x to y. () x4 4y=0, Gi) 8x-2y=0, Qx-y=0. Ax-2y (iv) 8x-4y=0, dx-y=0. ii) Q- Ix +y x+y6 LINEAR EQUATIONS 3. Write down the result of eliminating x, y from each of the following ‘sets of equations: @ px-qy=0, qx+py=0. ). ax—-by=0. 4. If atx+by=bx-ay=0 where x#0 and a+b¥0, prove that a+ B= ab, 5. Solve the following sets of equations for the ratios x: y: z: @ x+y+2z2=0, i) 3x+4y-22=0, Gill) —xt+mytgz= 2x-y+z=0. 2x-3y+32=0. -xtmy+re 6. Eliminate x, y, z assumed not all zero, from each of the following systems of equations: @ ax+by+ez=0, (ii) my+nz=0, iii) xt+y+z=0, 3x-yt2=0, xx, + yy, + 22,=0, x+2y-2=0. 2X, + Wat 2750. 7. Prove that each of the following sets of straight lines is concurrent: @ x+2y-3-0, Gd) Gi) ax+by=1, 3x-y+1=0, bx-+ay=0, x-5y+7=0. (a-25)x+ (6-2ay)= 1. 8, Find the values of 2 for which the equations dxty+1=0, x4 Q-Dy-2=0, 4x+2y-1=0 are consistent and in each case complete the solution of the equations. 9. Eliminate x, y, z from the equations ax+hy+gr=0, hx+by+fe=0, gxtfyrez=0. 10. Find the values of 4 for which values of x, y, z, not all zero, can be found to satisfy simultaneously the equations in each of the following sets: @ Aw+ytz-0, Gi) x+2y+22=0, Gill) (1-2)xty+2=0, x+y-22=0, dx-y-2=0, (2-94 dx42y-2=0, 9x-2y-22=0. x+y+B-2) 11. If the four equations x+y+z=0, x-2y-2=0, ax+by+cz=0, bx+cy+az=0 are satisfied simultaneously by non-zero values of x, y, 2, determine the values of the ratios x: y: z and a: bc. 12, Eliminate x, y, z, assumed not all zero, from the equations: @ xtbytez=0, axty+er=0, ax+by+z=0; Gt y#2). 13. Show that the result of eliminating 2, u from the equations HEF YN ty 2= 22 +Uzy can be expressed in the form |x yz a 21 X2 a ZaMISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 7 14, By writing X=xy, Y=x+y, Z=1, eliminate x, y from the equations ayxy t+ b(x+y)+e=0, agrytb(xty)+eq=0, xy-t(x+y)+P=0 Jeaving the result in a determinant form, PY, aD, ye, 15. If (= map? "= Gy’ Prove that pmn(b - c)+qni(c - a) + rim(a- b)=0. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 1. Solve the equations 2x+y+6z=2, 6x-Sy-18z=-10, 4x-2y-3z= 2, Prove that, 1 1 be ca Be+be® at ca® 4. Factorise: (i) [1 1 1; Gi) {1 1 14. abe abe a BF a be 5. Solve the equations x-y-3z=0, 2x+y-30z=0, x+y-2z=2 for 2, ¥, Zand give the limitations on the value of 4. 6, Solve the equations: @ |3x-2 2 3x [=0; Gi) Jaa x]= 4 x+1 1 jcc c| 2x 1 2-1 |b x bl a ‘i x z 7. Eliminate x, y, 2 from the equations a=*» b= =?» ex. 8. Factorise A=|x+2 3 3 {and hence solve the equation A=0. 3 xt4 5 3 5 x+4] 9. Solve the equations xXt+ytz—atb+e, x-y+2z=2U2b-0), ax-by+ez=(b-atcb+a-c). 10. If a, b, ¢ are unequal and|1 be+ax a*|=0, prove that x=a+b+e. 1 catbx BY 1 abtex & 11, Evaluate: (i) Jat+b4+2e 0 b © bt+c+2a ob c a ct+a+2b8 LINEAR EQUATIONS 12. The expression ax? +bx? +cx+d takes the values 1, 0, 4, — 11 when x equals 1, 2, —2, 3 respectively. Find the value of the expression when x equals 0. =0= ape 13, If ax-+by +ez=0~-x/a+-y/b+ z/e, prove that 5a? +25 =O. a~b-c 2a 2a _| isa perfect cube. 2b b-c-a 2b 20 2 c-a-b 14, Prove that 15, Of the four equations x+3y+4z=1, x+y-2z=0, 2x+3y- y+3z=l, one is inconsistent with the other three. Find this equation and modify its constant term to make it consistent. 16. If a, 6, care unequal and|a*+a a 1]=0, prove that a+b+c+1=0, +b b 1 ere 17. Prove that [1+x 1 1 1 |=xy(xy+2x+2y), 1oltx 11 1 1 ity 1 1 oi ft ty ' 18. Evaluate the determinant [lta 6 a 1+b ¢ a b ite 19. Solve the equation | 2x x+1 2-x|=0. xt3 4 1 3-x 2 -4 20. Prove that (a-x} (a-y}* (a-2 (-x (b-yF (6-2 (c~ x (€-y? (- 2? 21, Solve, if possible, the equations x+y+kz=4k, x+kyt+z=— 2x+y+z=-2, in the cases: (i) k not equal to0 or 1; (ii) k=0; (iil) k ~ He ~ aya By e-2(x-y). a b c bte cta a+b a — abe b®-abe c*- abe 22, Factorise the determinant 23, Prove: (i) {1 11 1)=(6-a)*; (ii) Ja b a b[=0. baad baba abaa cedd aabbl lddec 24, Solve the equations: @[2-x 1 1 x x+2x-2 4-x 3-x 4-2] 2x x43 x-3 3-x 2 T-x 3x x44 x44MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 0 25. Prove that if ax+by+cz=0, bx+cy+az=0, cxt+ay+bz=0 are ‘simultaneously satisfied by non-zero values of x, y, z and if a, b, c are real, then either a~b=c or a+b+c=0. In the latter case prove that x=y= 26. Find the square root of the determinant 0 a b el. Canoe -b-d 0 f| -c-e-f 0 27. Prove that the two determinants abe aii fe FP & abe b+e ctaatb have the same linear factors. 28, Prove that |2bc—a* — a® a BB Wa-F e 2 ab-c express the determinant as a product of real factors. is divisible by abe(a +b +c) and 29, Find the three values of 4 for which the equations 2x +9y+62=0, x+y+2z=0, Tx- y-+z=0 can be simultaneously true for non-zero values of x, yand z. In each case give the values of the ratios x: y: z which satisfy the equations. 30. 1 the Dit ¥s_ 4724, by equating each ratio to u and eliminating ie ratios 1:2: 4, ‘chow that Ja, Bq |= ay by Ce 1-6 @ 31. Find the values of @ for which the equations x+a*y+a=0, ax+y+at=0, ax+ay+1=0 are consistent. 32, Expand the determinant |x°+y2+3 2xt+y®+1 x24 3y*+2), +L 2843 P+ 2 Y42 ted xt yt 33. Factorise: (i) |a bc dj; (ii) [xt at BF dabe lx? a? BF 2} jcdab x abe bedal rida 34, Find the values of for which the equations Sx~-2y-6z=2x, 2x-3y-4z=2y, x+y=z, may be satisfied simultaneously by values of X, YZ not all zero. 35. Prove that 3 is the only real value of 2 for which the equations —2xtyt22=0, x+dy+3z=0, x+3y+Az=0, where x, y, z are not all zero, are consistent,80 LINEAR EQUATIONS 36. Expand the determinant] -1 cos yb cos ¢ cosy -1 cos 6) joss cos@ -1 4.c0s « cos (« ~ 9) cos (x ~4) cos (a - ) where «= 4(0+4+4). 37. Solve the equations ax+by+cz=0, x+y+z=0, and show that its value is abe iid xy point out the special cases which arise. 38. Prove that | 0 @ 5 X| =~ (cx~ by + azXep - bq +ar). a Oc | I-b-c 0 2 pars 39. If z=(1+a°)x and z is given by the equation z 2a1-a|~0, l-@z 2a l-@2a z and @ has the value wy show that the two possible values of x are sin” and sin 3 40. Show that the simultaneous equations ax+y+z=p, x+ay+z—q, X+y+az=r, have a unique solution if a has neither of the values 1 or ~ 2. Show also that, if a=-2 there is no finite solution unless p, q, r satisfy a certain condition, and then there are an infinite number of solutions. Discuss the case a=1.CHAPTER IV MORE ADVANCED ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF THE STRAIGHT LINE AND CIRCLE Applications of determinants I. Equation of the straight line determined by the two points Gr, Yds On Y2)- Suppose the equation of the line is Ietmytn=0. 2 6. 2.) @ As this equation is satisfied by the values (xy, 94), (a ¥2)s bx, +myytn ii) Ixy+myztn Gi) n from the equations (i), (i), (iii) gives the equation of the line in the form x y 1/=0. M1 1 Ixz Ya An immediate corollary of this result is that, if the points (x1, 91), (Xa 92), (a Ys) are collinear then, a 1 2 Ya 1 Xa Ya 1 and conversely, if the determinant vanishes, then the points are collinear. Ex. 1. Find the equation of the straight line joining the points (- 3, 4), (2, 1). Required equation is xyl -341 211 ie. 3x45y-11=0. Il. Point of intersection of two straight lines. ‘Suppose the lines have equations Ux+mytny hx + my +=. alMORE ADVANCED ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 82 Then solving the equations, the point of intersection is given by _x — ple my ma] ~ fhm] [my ma tal (by mal [by mg Asa corollary it follows that, if the three straight lines Lx+my+n=0, =0, and conversely. Am my iy my a! Jy mg ns! are concurrent, then Ex. 2. Find the value of > if the straight lines 4x - y+1=0, 2x-3y+2=0, x+4y~1=0 are concurrent. We have A-1 | -3 J 1 4-1 -54+7=0; rA=F- ie. Area of the triangle with vertices A(x, y;), B(x, ¥2), CX, Y2)- ML. Equation of BC is x y 1=0. X2 Ye 1 Xs Ys 1 Hence, as the length of the perpendicular from (x, y,) to the straight line ax+by+e=0 is 3 US, it follows that the length of the perpendicular from A to BC is x D1 1+ V{O2— ya)? + (ta x9) Ya Xa Va I Also the length BC = VAQ2—¥9)?+ (x2—%)9)- Area of A\ABC=+4|x, ¥y 1 Xa Ye 1 Xa Ys 1 ‘Sign of area—it is usual to treat the area as positive when the vertices are taken in counterclockwise order. Ex. 3. Find the numerical value of the area of the triangle with vertices G, 2), (- 1,4), 2, 2. Area= +3] | i =9 unit? numerically.EXAMPLES 83 EXAMPLES 4a 1, Find the equations of the straight lines determined by the following pairs of points: @ G4), (-1, 5) Gi) (2, 0, (- 3, 4); GiD (-5, D, (-2, - 25 Gv) @ ), 6,4). 2. Prove that the following sets of points are collinear: OOD62-96,195 623.0965, Gi 0,00, (» -} t 3. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the following pairs of straight lines: @ 2x-y+3 ® 3 (iv) Ty-3x= 2, . 2y+4x=-5. 4, Show that the following sets of straight lines are concurrent: @ 5x+2y-8=0, Gi) 3x-y+4=0, x-Sy+2=0, x+5y-1=0, x+Ty-6=0. 6x+14y+1=0. Gil) x 6y 42 Gv) xty= 3x+5y+6 x-y+l 1x4 3y+22= x(1+2)- wiytl 5. Find the areas of the triangles determined by the following sets of points: @ ©, 0), G, 2), @, 3). Gi) ©, 0), (-5, - 3), (- 6, ~8). ii) 1, 2), G, 4), 2 ©. Gv) (-4, 5), G, - 2), ©, - 4). (¥) (~3, -2), (1, 4), @ 3). (i) 2, 1), 2s, 30), @, 20). 6. Find the equation of the chord joining the points (at,?, 2at,), (at3, 2at,) on the parabola y* = 4ax. 7. Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the tangents hy-x= at, ty-x=at,* to the parabola y* = 4ax. 8. Find the values of 4 for which the following sets of straight lines are concurrent: @ x-4y+3=0, Gi) x-29+2=0, Gil) Ax+y-5=0, 2x-2y+1=0, dx-y+3=0, 3x-2y-4=0, x+3y-6=0. x+2y=0. Dx-9y+1 9. Find the equation of the chord joining the points, 2) 7" the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2, 10. Show that the area of the triangle with vertices (¢, 1-2), (+3, 0, (¢+2, +2) is independent of 1.84 MORE ADVANCED ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 11. Find the equation of the chord joining the points (63,43), (t,%, on the curve y*= 2°, 12, Prove that the points (3+ 4f, 2 6t) where ¢=t,, fy fg, are collinear. 13, Show that the area enclosed by the straight lines x=a, y =b, y= mx is 1 Im O- ma 14, Find the area of the triangle whose sides are the lines 2y+x=0, 3y+2x+4—0, 2y+3x+9=0. 15, Find the area of the convex quadrilateral whose vertices are the points 2, ~ 1, 5,0), 4, 6), @, 3). The line pair. Consider the two straight lines 4x+my+n=0, Ax tmgy +n,=0. Then the equation (hxtmy +n \lax+ mgy+n)=0 is satisfied by the coordinates of a point on either line and by no other values. It therefore represents the two lines as a combined locus of the second degree in x and y. Conversely, if a second degree expression f(x, y) can be expressed as a product of two linear factors, then the equation . . Se, y)=0 represents a line pair. E.g. as the equation x xy dye xt4y—2=0, (et y-De-2y+2)=0, it represents a line pair made up of the lines x+-y—1=0, x— 2y+2=0. Condition for the general equation of the second degree to represent a line pair. The general equation of the second degree is ax*+ Whxy + by* + 2gx + 2fy+c=0. Suppose a0; multiplying throughout by @ and completing the square of the terms in x, LHS.=(ax-+hy+g)*—hYy*+ aby*— 2hgy + 2afy+ac—g* (ax+ hy +g) —{y(h?— ab) + 2(hg— af)y + (g*—ac)}. For the equation to represent a line pair, the L.H.S. must be the product of two linear factors in x and y. This will be true, if, and only if, yh? — ab) + 2hg — af )y +(g*—ac) is a perfect square. .. The required condition is that (hg — af? = (1? — ab)(g*— ac). can be writtenTHE LINE PAIR 85 Expanding and removing the factor a, abe + 2fgh—af?— bg?— ch?=0, ie. a(bc~f*)—W(ch—fe)+ e(fh—bg) or A=ah g[=0. hb f| gfe This condition is readily shown to be true also in the special cases a=0, 640; a=0, b=0, h#0. Ex, 4, Find the value of » if the equation dxy + 5x+3y-+2=0 represents a line pair. We have A=|0 4 $ 303 $42 ie. 10» 5|=0 203 534] 42 -300=0; 2=0, 38 . When 2=0, the equation represents a single straight line and so the required value of a is 44. Ex. 5. Show that the equation x*- xy 2y*—3x-+9y-4=0 represents a line pair and find the point of intersection. As the separate linear equations are required, it will be simpler here to show that the second degree expression does factorise. a= xy 2? =(a- 2x ty), J. x= xy - 2y*- 3x4 9p -4 = (x 2yt At y+ BD Equating coefficients of x and y, A+B=-3, So the equation can be written (x-2y+ IXx+y~4) = 0—a line pair. Solving the equations x-2yt+1=0, x+y-4=0, x_-y_l 7 J. The point of intersection is ( 3)86 MORE ADVANCED ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Line pair through the origin. Consider the homogeneous equation of the second degree ax*+ Yaxy+by?=0. £v(i—ab) ~~} Solving for y, . The equation represents a pair of straight lines passing through the origin. If #*>ab, the lines are real and different; if #*=ab, the lines are real and coincident; if h® is a parameter. 21. Show that all chords of the curve 3x*- y*- 2x-+ 4y = 0 which subtend a right angle at the origin pass through the point (1, ~ 2). 22. If the equation (ax + by)?+2gx + 2fy + ¢ = O representsa line pair, prove: @ af—bg; (i) the lines are parallel. Find the perpendicular distances of the origin from the separate lines and hence determine the distance between the lines. 23, Show that the condition that the line pairs ax*+2h,xy+b)*=0, a,x + Zhgxy + byy* = 0 have a line in common is that (aby ~ anh)? = AChba~ hebiMhay~ ha). 24, Show that the equation of the lines drawn through the point (x, y;) parallel to the lines ax*+2hxy+by*=0 is a(x x)? + 2h(x - xO 9) + BO? = 0. 25. Theequation ax?-+ 2hxy + by? + 2gx + 2fy +c = 0 represents two straight fines; write down the transformed equation when the origin is moved to the point (2, ). Deduce that if (2, 8) is the point of intersection of the lines, axthp+g=0, hat+bp+f=0. 26. Use the result of the previous example to determine the points of intersection of the line pairs: (@ 2x2 xy 2y8+2x+ My-12=0; (ii) a*- 3xy-y* + 2x-3y +1 =0. 21. If the origin lies on one of the bisectors of the angles between the lines x24 2hxy + y*+2gx + 2fy+ c= 0, prove that g*=f?. 28. Find the equations of the diagonals of the parallelogram formed by the pairs of parallel lines ax? + hxy + by? + 2gx+2fytc=0, ax?+ 2hxy+by*=0. Tangents to a circle from an external point. Let the equation of the circle be xt+y=a, by) and let the given point A have coordinates (x1, 91). Fro. 43. Suppose the straight line joining A to a variable point B(, 8) cuts the circle at Py, Ps.94, MORE ADVANCED ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Now the coordinates of any point P on the line AB can be expressed as (a3, a8 +H), AFT’ OFT where 2: 1 is the ratio in which the point P divides AB. P will lie on the circle if ha + x4) 2 AB+ Ys) 2 _ Car) + CR), ie. 902+ BY—a2) + 20(ax, + By, —al) + (x2+y2—a")=0. The roots %, 22, of this equation correspond to the points P,, Ps. <. The line AB is a tangent to the circle if =, ie. if (ax, + By. — a?) = (a + BR at)(x,2+ yy? — a"). This is the condition that the point («, 8) lies on one of the tangents from A to the circle and consequently the equation of the pair of tangents is Gox, Fy at = (8 + y*— a) + ys? a8), More generally, if the circle has the equation Saxttytt2gxtYyte=0, and Sp=xx ty, textxytfotyte, Syaxity?+2gx,+2yte, then the equation of the pair of tangents from (x,, y,) to Sis S?=SS,. Ex, 11. Find the equations of the tangents which can be drawn from the origin to the circle x*+ y*- 2x - 6y+5=0. In this case, S=x2+y?- 2x-6y+5, Sy =20+y0- (x+0)- 3040) +5 =-x-3y+5, Su <. The equation of the pair of tangents from (0, 0) to the circle is (-x-3y+ 58 = 504+ 98 2x- 6y +5) ie, 2x? - 3xy- 27 =0, or 2x+y=0; x-2y=0. ‘Chord of contact of tangents from an external point to a circle. Let the equation of the circle be S=xtt+y*-at=0, and let the given point A have coordinates (x,, y,).CHORD OF CONTACT OF TANGENTS 95 Suppose the coordinates of L, M, the points of contact of the tangents from A to the circle, are (a4, 61), (a2, Ps). (19 ‘The equation of the tangent to the circle at Lis g, Xa, + Ry —a?=0, and as A lies on this line, mmtyh-a@=0. . .@ Similarly, as A lies on the tangent to the circle at M, M%tVP—-a=0. 2. - @ Equations (i) and (ii) show that both the points (2, a, (ay Bs) lie on the line x,x+y,:y—a*=0. Hence the equation of the chord of contact LM is xX, +yy,-a?=0. More generally, if the equation of the circle is Saxtty*+2gx+2fytc=0 and Sy=xx,tyyitaxtavtfotwte, then the equation of the chord of contact of tangents from (x, »;) to Sis S,=0. N.B. The chord of contact LM is spoken of as the polar of A with respect to the circle; A is the pole of LM. Ex. 12. Tangents are drawn from the points (0, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4) to the circle x+y2—4x+2y—0. Prove that the three chords of contact are concurrent. ‘Using the above result, the chords of contact are 2y-2x+y+2=0; x+3y- 2x4 1)+y+3=0; 2xt4y-2Ax+2+y+4=0; ‘These three lines are concurrent in the point (1, 0). EXAMPLES 44 1. In each of the following cases find the equation of the pair of tangents which can be drawn from the given point to the given circle: (4, 3), a8+ 2-2 = 05 Gi) (-3, 0), 2+ =1; Gil) (- 1, 2), 228+ 294-1 = 0; Gv) ©, 0), x2-+y*- 5x+2y+2=05 (@) ©, 1), A+ +4y = 0; (i) (-2, 1, a+ -4x+y= 05 (Wii) (- 3, - 4), 28+ -4x-2y-5=0.96 MORE ADVANCED ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 2. Find: (i) the equation of each of the tangents which can be drawn from the origin to the circle x*+ y®- 4x 4y +4 =0; (ii) the equation of the chord of contact of these tangents. 3. Find the equation of the pair of tangents from the point (2, 4) to the circle x*+ y+ x-3y = 0 and determine the acute angle between the tangents. 4. Prove that the tangents to the circle x? + y#+2x-4y+3=0 from the point (1, 2) are at right angles to each other. 5. In each of the following cases, find the equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from the given point to the given circle: @ (, 2), 2+y?-2=0; (i) (- 1,2), x8+y®=4; Gil) (-3, - 4), 28+ 298-3 (iv) ©, 0), 284+ y2+ 4y+2=0; (W) 1), a+ y2+ 2x4 6748 (i) (-2,-4), 28+ 98 6x+1=0. 6. By first obtaining the equation of the chord of contact, find the coordinates of the points of contact of tangents drawn from the point (1, 2) to the circle x2+ y*—4x+6y=0. 7. Tangents are drawn from the points (1, 0), (0, ~ 1), (1, ~2) to the circle x*+ y*- 2x - 2y = 0, show that the chords of contact are concurrent, 8. The chord of contact of tangents from the point P to the circle 29+ y*+ 4x—2y—2=0 passes through the point (1, 0), find the locus of P. 9. Verify that the chord of contact of the tangents drawn from the point P(h, k) to the circle x*+ y*-+ 2gx + 2fy+¢=0 is perpendicular to the straight Tine joining the centre of the circle to P. 10. If the chord of contact of tangents from the point (g, f) to the circle 23+ y8+ 2px + 2fy+e=0 passes through the origin, prove that g?+f?+c=0. 11. Show that, for all values of ¢, the chord of contact of tangents from the point (2,1-4) to the circle x*+)*-4x-6y+1=0 passes through the point (3, 1). 12, Find the condition that the tangents from the point (f, k) to the circle w+ y+ 2gx+ 2fy+c=0 are at right angles. 13. Find the point of intersection of the tangents drawn to the circle 2x3+y"=4 at the extremities of the chord y-x~1=0. 14, Tangents are drawn from the point (2, - 2) to the circle x*+y*= 2. Find: (j) the equation of the chord of contact; (ii) the equation of the circle on this chord as diameter. 15. Prove that the tangents to the circle x*+y*= a? at the extremities of the chord /x-+my =1 intersect at the point (a*/, a®m). 16. By using the properties of similar triangles, determine the point of intersection of the exterior common tangents of the two circles (x - 2)*+ y?=1, (x-4)'+y*=4, Hence obtain the equation of the pair of exterior common tangents.MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 7 17. Find the point of intersection of the interior common tangents of the two circles (x + 1)?+y?=1, (x-4)?+y*=4 and hence find the equations of ‘these tangents. 18. Find the equation of each of the exterior common tangents of the two circles x24 y"— 3x-4y+4=0, x°+ y®— 12x— l6y+64=0. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 1. Find the value of a if the three lines 3x+y-2=0, ax+2y-3=0, 2x-y-3=0 are concurrent. 2, Show that the points (— 2, 3), (1, 9), (~ 5, ~ 3) are collinear. 3. Theequations of the sides of a triangle are 8x - Sy- 1=0, 7x- 4y+1=0, x-y+1=0; find: @ the coordinates of the centroid; (ii) the area of the triangle. 4, Two equal circles of radius two units have centres at the points (0, 1), G, 4); find the equations of the exterior common tangents. 5. Show that the variable line (.- 2)x-+ (24~ 3)y-2+ 1 =0 passes through a fixed point and find the point. 6. Find the condition that the lines ax+hy+g=-0, hx+by+f=0, gx+fy+c=0 are concurrent and find the coordinates of the common point. 7. Find the values of 2 for which the equation 2x?+9xy-+4y*=2x+2y represents a line pair. : 8 Write down the equation of the lines joining the ends of the chord x-2y=2 of the circle x2+y*=1 to the origin and determine the acute angle between the lines. 9. The points (xy, 71), (x) ¥2) are opposite vertices of a square, find the coordinates of the other vertices. 10, Find the equation of the line pair intersecting in the point (- 2, 1) and making angles of 45° with the line 3x+y+5=0. 11. Show that the area of the triangle with vertices (at,%, 2af,), (at,2, 2at.), (atyte, af; + t,) is numerically equal to 4a%t, - 12). 12. Show that the lines joining the origin to the points of intersection of the line 2x - 3y-+4 = 0 with the curve x*-+ 4xy + 2y"+12x+4y = 0 are at right angles. 13, If the equation ax?+3xy-2y®-5x+5y+e=0 represents a per- pendicular line pair, find the values of and c. 14, Find the circumcentre of the triangle with sides x+3y~0, 2x+y-10=0, x-7y+10=0. 15. A, B are two points on the line x~ y+ 1 = Oat distance 5 units from the origin O; find the area of triangle OAB. 16. Show that the lines a,x+b,y +c, = 0, agx-+ bay+¢q—0 meet the axes in four concyclic points if aa, 6,5,=0. In this case prove that the equation of the circle passing through the points is ayag x? +99) + (aye + ane )x + (Oyen + bycay + C4e2 = 0.98 MORE ADVANCED ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 17. Write down the equation of the pair of tangents from the point (3, - 2) to the circle x*+y*=3 and find the acute angle between them. 18. Prove that the perpendiculars from the points (- 8, 10), (1, 2), (1, 11) to the lines y- 3x+5=0, 2y-x= 0, x+y~ 15 = Orespectively are concurrent, and show that the same property is true of perpendiculars drawn from the vertices of the second triangle to the sides of that determined by the given points. 19, Find the equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from (-1,-2) to the circle x%+y?+4x+10y+24—0 and determine the coordinates of the points of contact. 20. Find the acute angle between the line pair x? 4xy+y?=0 and by factorisation prove that the equation x3 + 3x%y ~ 3xy*— y® = 0 represents three lines through the origin equally inclined to each other. 21, Find the values of 2, » for which the equation (Qx+y—4\xt 2y- 5) +2x+ 2y- xt y- + yet y- O(2x+y-4)=0, represents a circle. Deduce that the equation of the circumcircle of the triangle formed by the lines x+y-6=0, 2x+y-4=0, x+2y-5=0 is 22+y= 17x- 19y+50=0, 22, Show that the circle drawn on the common chord of the curve 3x24 Sxy-3y2+2x+39=0 and the line 3x-2y-1=0 as diameter passes through the origin. 23, Prove that the vertices of the quadrilateral whose sides are given by the equations /.x+my+nr=0; r=1, 2,3, 4, are concyclic if Carmi, ham lala+ mam) + Carma lems la + mym,) = 0. 24, Find the point of intersection of the tangents drawn to the circle at+y?-2x+4y+2=0 at the ends of the chord 2x- 4y=7. 25. Show that the two straight lines y*— 2xy sec 6+ x*=0 make an angle® with one another. 26. Prove that the equation of the chord of the circle a+ yh ext 2fpre=O whose mid-point is (x’, y’) is (x' + 2V(x-x')+O"+NO-y')=0. 21, Show that the bisectors of the angles of each of the line pairs ax? + 2hxy + by®=0, ax®-+ Dixy + by*+ (x24 y*)=0 coincide. Deduce that the angle between one line of the first pair and one line of the second is equal to the angle between the other two lines. 28, The distance of the point (a, ) from each of two straight lines passing through the origin is 2; prove the equation of the pair of lines is eB ya)? =2%(x8 +), 29. A chord of the curve ax*+ by* =1 subtends a right angle at the origin, Prove that it touches a fixed circle, centre the origin.MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 99 30. Find the equation of the pair of lines through the origin which are at right angles to the lines ax?+ 2hxy+by*=0. Deduce that the line pairs ax? + Dixy + by?-+ 2px + 2fy + ¢ = 0, bx? 2hxy + ay® = O meet in four concyclic points and find the coordinates of the centre of the circle which passes through these points. 31. By expressing in polar coordinates, or otherwise, prove that the equation x(x? ~ 3y)= my(y? - 3x2) represents three straight lines through the origin making equal angles with one another. 32. Prove that the lines joining the origin to the points of intersection other than the origin of the two curves a,x*+2h,xy+by*+2g,x=0, Ggx2-+ Ungry + bey? + 2gex = 0 are perpendicular if ge(a, + by) =ey(a2+ b,)- 33. Prove that the area of the triangle formed by the lines axt+2hxy+by=0 and ix+my=1 is (i - ab)((am? - 2him-+ bP). 34. Find the equation of the circumcircle of the triangle formed by the lines 2x°+3xy-y*=0, x+y=1. 35. Show that the product of the perpendiculars from the point (a, 8) to the lines ax?+ 2hxy + by* =0 is equal to (ax? + 2haB + bB*)/-/{(a- 6)? + 4A}. 36. The line pair y*- m@x*=0 intersects the curve ax*+by*=1 in the points A, B, C, D. Show that the equation ax*+ by*—1+A()*- mix?) =0 represents a curve passing through 4, B, C, D and deduce that the equation of the circle through these four points is (1+ (ax? + by? 1) + (a 6)? mx?) = 0. 37. If the point (~1, -1) lies on one of the lines whose equation is ax! + 2hxy + by? + 2px+ 2fy+e+f=0, prove that it also lies on the other. 38, Show that the condition that two of the lines represented by the equation ax?+3bx’y+3cxy?+dy®=0 may be at right angles is that a? + 3ac+ 3bd+d*=0. : 39, Show that all chords of the curve 3x?- y*- 2x+4y = 0 which subtend a right angle at the origin pass through a fixed point. 40, If S,= 3x24 Dey y24 Sxty+2=0, Sy=dx*+ Sxy - 6% 3x4 5y-1=0, show that the equations 5;=0, S,= 0 represent line pairs. Interpret the equation S,+X5,=0 and show that 2 can be chosen so that the equation represents a circle. Deduce that the line pairs S;~ S,-0 intersect in concyclic points and find the equation of the circumscribing circle.CHAPTER V SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES Radical axis of two circles Definitions. The power of a point P with respect to a circle S, centre A, radius a, is defined as the expression AP*—a*. If the equation of the circle S is x?+y*+2gx+2fy+c=0 and P is the point (2, 8), then the power of P=AP*—a?, +gPt(BtfP- (e+ fr eae =B+ B+ IatIBre . -. @ Le. to obtain the power of a point with respect to a circle whose equation Sx, y)=0 is expressed with unity coefficients of x? and y*, simply substitute the coordinates of the point into the expression f(x, y). If P lies outside the circle, the expression (i) will be positive and equal to the square of the tangent from P to the circle. If P lies within the circle, the expression (i) will be negative. Ex. 1. Find the power of the point (-1,2) with respect to the circle 2x A 2y!+3x+y-2=0 and state whether the point lies outside or inside the circle. Write the equation of the circle in the form xt ye det dy-1=0. Then the power of the point =(~ 1)?+(2)?+3(- 1) +4@Q)-1 =3} As the power is positive, the point lies outside the circle. The radical axis of two circles is defined as the locus of a point P which moves such that its powers with respect to the circles are equal. For all points of the locus outside the circles this is equivalent to defining the radical axis as the locus of a point from which the tangents to the two circles are equal in length. The equation of the radical axis of two circles. Let the equations of the circles S;, S, be respectively x+y +gixt By tey=0, xtty*+2gextByter=0, and let the point P have coordinates (2, 8). 100RADICAL AXIS 101 Then P lies on the radical axis of the circles if a? + B2+ 2g;a+2fB+e,= a+ B+ 2geatIfsPtce, ie. if 2algi—B2)-+ 28(F,—fa) +1 Co=0. Hence the equation of the locus of P, that is of the radical axis of the circles, is 2x(B1— 82) + 2G fe) + 1-2 = 0. This is a straight line perpendicular to the line of centres of the circles. N.B. If the equations of the circles are represented as S,=0, S,=0, then the radical axis is S,—S,=0, it being assumed that the coefficients of x2 and y* in S, and Sy are unity. Special cases (@ If the two circles intersect in real points X, ¥, then the equation —S,=0 is the equation of the common chord XY. Le. the radical axis of two intersecting circles is the common chord of the circles. Gii) If the two circles touch at a point X, then the equation S,— S,=0 is the equation of the common tangent at X. L.e. the radical axis of two circles which touch each other is the tangent at the common point. Geometrical construction of the radical axis of two non-intersecting circles. Draw any circle 2, to cut the given circles at A,, By; Ay, Bs (Fig. 45). Let A,B, A,B, intersect at P,. Bye Fra. 45. Then, as P,A,.P,B,=P,A,.P,By, intersecting chords of Xy, it follows that the square of the tangents from P, to the circles S,, S, are equal, and consequently P, lies on the radical axis. By drawing a second circle E,,a second point P, is obtained and P,P, is the radical axis.102 SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES Radical centre of three circles. The radical axes of three circles taken in pairs are concurrent in a point called the radical centre, except in the case where the centres of the circles are collinear, in which case the radical axes are parallel. For representing the circles by the equations S,=0, S,=0, S3=0, the radical axis of the circles 5,, S, is -S-0 2.2.2... @ and the radical axis of the circles 53, S, is “4-0 2.0... Gil) The coordinates of the common point R of these lines will satisfy any equation derived from (ii) and (ii), i.e. the point R lies on the line — S,=0, adding (ii) and (iii). But S,—S,=0 is the radical axis of S, and S,, and hence the three radical axes of the circles taken in pairs are concurrent in R, the radical centre. Ex. 2. Find the coordinates of the radical centre of the three circles xt y=, x84 y?— det 2y+1=0, 2x24 299+ 5x-6y+2=0. ‘Writing the equation of the third circle in the form 224 y+ fr 3+ 1=0, and referring to the circles as S,, Sp, Sy, then the radical axes of Sy, Sy and Sy, Sq ate respectively att yt 2- (P+ 2-44-24 =O and x+y 2- Gt y+ fx - eas ie. 4x-2y-3=0, -$x+3y-3-0. Solving these equations x=4#) y=33- the radical centre of the cicis i the point (fs 32) Simplified form for the equations of two given circles, Take the line of centres of the circles as the x-axis and their radical axis as the y-axis. As the ordinates of the centres of the circles will be zero, the equations can be taken as x+ytt2gxte=0 and x2+y*+2g’x+e"=0. The radical axis of these circles has the equation 2x(g—g’/)t+e—c'=0. But the radical axis is the axis of y, i.e. x=0. . Ignoring the special case, g~g’, when the circles are concentric, it follows that cmc’,EQUATIONS OF TWO CIRCLES 103 Consequently, the equations of the two circles can be taken as wet yet Igxte=0, xtty*t+2e'xte=0. ‘These simplified equations should be used in the analytical treatment of problems involving two circles as is illustrated in the proof of the following proposition. The difference of the powers of a point with respect to two given circles is proportional to the distance of the point from the radical axis of the circles. The equations of the given circles can be taken as Spenitytt2ewt ond 24 y?+ 2gax+c=0, Let P be the point (2, A Then the power of P w.r.t. S,=a2+ Bt+2ga+e and the power of P w.r.t. Sy= a+ B?-+2gq2-+e. <. Difference in powers =2a(g,—g,)- But « is the distance of P from the radical axis, x=0, and (g,—g,) is constant; hence the difference in the powers of P is proportional to the distance of P from the radical axis. Ex. 3. PT is a tangent from a point P on a given circle Sy, centre A, to a second circle S,, centre B. If PM is the perpendicular from P to the radical axis, prove that PT?=2PM . AB. Take the equations of the circles as Syaxtsy42gxte=0; Spaxttyt+2ggrte=0. Let P be the point (a, 6). Then PT? =a2+ B+ 2ggn te, But as P lies on the circle S,, O=a?+ B+ 2gatc. Hence PT* =2a(g,- 83) =2PM . AB. EXAMPLES Sa 1. Prove from the definition that if the power of a point with respect to a circle is positive, zero or negative then the point is outside, on or inside the circle respectively. 2. Find the powers of the point (1, - 2) with respect to the following circles and in each case give the position of the point in relation to the circle: @ x8+y2+8x-y+6=0; (i) x4+y?-4x+2y = 0; Gil) 4G2 + y®) - 6x4 2y-8=0. 3. Prove that the point (~ 2, 1) lies inside the circle x*+)?+4x-1=0 and outside the circle 2x + 2y*-2x—3y = 0.104 SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES 4. Find the equations of the radical axes of the following pairs of circles: @ | A+y*-6x+4=0, Wi wtrytad, x+y? 2x+y-6=0; 2x? + 2y8- 4x =3; Gi) 2+ y*-2x4+-y- 36x84 y4)+x- 6y~4=0. 5. What is the radical axis of two equal non-intersecting circles with centres A, B? 6. Find the equation of the radical axis of the circles x*+y?=1, x*+y®—6x—4y+9=0, Drawan accurate diagram showing the circles and their radical axis. 7. Draw two non-equal, non-intersecting circles and obtain their radical axis by a geometrical method. 8. Prove that the circles (x + 1)*+ y*= 4, (x-3)+(y- 3)?=9 touch each other externally and find the equation of their radical axis. Show the circles and the radical axis on a diagram. 9. Find the coordinates of the radical centre of the circles BHP tae tdyt4=0, xP+ yt 4y+3=0, x24) 8x-2y-16=0. 10. Three circles are such that each intersects the other two in real points. Prove that the three common chords are concurrent. J1. Show that the radical axis of the circles x2+)*+24x+0=0, 2*+y%+ Dgx +c~0 is independent of the values of the parameters %, Ay. 12. Prove that the radical axis of two unequal circles is further from the centre of the larger circle than from the centre of the smaller circle. 13. If P is a point on the radical axis of two circles, centres A, B, radii a, b, and N is the foot of the perpendicular from P to AB, prove that AN?— BN* =a*— 5? and deduce that AN - BN =(a?— 5?)/AB. 14. A point P moves such that its power with respect to a circle 5; is twice its power with respect to a second circle S,. Prove that the locus of P is a circle whose centre lies on the line joining the centres of S, and S. 15. Prove that the system of circles represented by the equation x7+ y+ 2c +¢= 0, where is a parameter and ¢ a constant, is such that the radical axis of every pair is the same straight line. 16. Show that the circle © will bisect the circumference of the circle $ if the centre of the latter circle lies on the common chord. Deduce the condition that the circle x*+y#+2gx+2fy+e=0 should bisect the circumference of the circle x*+ y*~4~0. 17. Prove that the locus of a point which moves such that the difference of the squares of the tangents from it to two given circles is constant is a straight line. 18. Find the condition that the circle x2+ y® - 2x —28y+e=0 should cut the circle x*+ y*~ 2a'x-28'y+c'=0 at the ends of a diameter of the latter circle.COAXAL CIRCLES 105 19, P's any point on the radical axis of two non-intersecting circles S, 3. Prove that the chords of contact of the tangents drawn from P to the circles intersect on the radical axis. 20. A variable circle 3 cuts two given circles S,, Sy at Pi, Q1; Py, On respectively. Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of P,Q;, P202 is a fixed straight line. 21. Two fixed circles have their centres at A, B; a number of circles $ are drawn so that each circle S bisects the circumference of each of the fixed circles. Prove that the centres of the circles S lie on a fixed straight line perpendicular to AB. 22, Triangle ABC is obtuse-angled at A. The altitudes AD, BE, CF intersect at the orthocentre H. Prove that HE. HB=HF . HC, and hence show that H lies on the radical axis of the circles drawn on AB and AC as diameters. 23, Prove that the radical axis of two circles bisects the common tangents of the circles. In triangle ABC, prove that the radical axis of the incircle and the escribed circle opposite A passes through the mid-point of BC. 24, A variable circle passes through two fixed points 4, B and cuts a fixed circle at P,Q. Prove that PQ intersects AB at a fixed point. Coaxal circles A system of circles which is such that the radical axis of any pair is the same as that of any other pair is called a coaxal system. From the definition it follows that: (@ the centres of the circles are collinear, as the line joining each pair of centres is perpendicular to the common radical axis; (ii) @ coaxal system is determined by any two of its member circles. Suppose two circles of a coaxal system are Spexttytt ext Byte, Spaxtty"t 2gyxt Byte, Consider the equation S,+2S,=0, where » is a parameter. Apart from the value 4=—1, when it represents the radical axis of the two given circles, the equation represents a system of circles. Take any two circles of the system S,+%Sq=0; Sy +%~5p=0. Then the radical axis of these two circles is S+mSe_ Sit 225s _o Thx, IF,” care being taken to make the coefficients of x* and y* unity before subtraction. Simplifying, S\Q2—A1)— SyQg— = 0 ie. S,-S,=0 as yA%y. 0.106 SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES Consequently, the radical axis of any pair of circles in the given system is the same straight line, the radical axis of the original pair. Hence the equation S,+%S,=0, »4-1, gives the coaxal system determined by the two circles S,=0, S,=0. Replacing the parameter 4 by », where 2= “Wy the equation S,+S,=0, becomes S,+u(S,—S,)=0. But L=S,-S, is the equation of the radical axis of the system and so the equation of a coaxal system can be expressed in terms of the equations of one of the circles and the common radical axis in the form Sy+uL=0. As the coefficients of x* and y* are unity, this is often the more con- venient form for the equation of a coaxal system. N.B. If the circles S,, S, intersect in real points, then the equation S,+2S,=0, represents the system of circles through the common points and consequently, in this case, this is the coaxal system determined by the two circles. Ex. 4. Write down the equation of the coaxal system determined by the circles x*+ y =4, x9+ y*— 6x+4y+10=0 and find the equation of the circle of the system which passes through the origin. The equation of the coaxal system is Hy 6x+4y+ 104224 y2—4)=0, This equation is satisfied by the point (0, 0) if 10-4.=0; r=} _*. The equation of the circle of the system which passes through the ome Ux2+ y2— Gxt dy + 10) + 528+ 4-4) = 0 Tod +y)~ 2x4 8y =0. Ex. 5, Two circles of a coaxal system have equations x2+ y*— x+3y+1=0, w+ y°+x-2y+1=0. Find: (i) the equation of the radical axis; (ji) the equations of the two circles of the system which touch the x-axis. (@ Radical axis L=S,-5,-0 L=5y-2x=0. (ii) The equation of any circle of the coaxal system can be written att yt x4 3y4 1 tu(Sy-2x) <0, This circle meets the x-axis, where xt x(2n4+1)+1=0.COAXAL CIRCLES 107 Hence this circle touches the x-axis if QurDi=4) nb -$ 1. The equations of the circles of the coaxal system which touch the x-axis are Att yP—x43yt I)+5y— 2 =O; AxP+ ~- x4 3y+ 1)-3Sy- 2x) = 0. Le. 2G2+y)—4x+ ly +2=0; 22+ y")+4x-99+2=0. ‘Simplified form of the equation of a coaxal system of circles. Let two circles of the system have equations Syaxt+y*+2gxt Byte=0; Spaxttyt+ grt May tea=0. Take the common radical axis as the y-axis. Then the equation 2Agi-Be)x+ Af —Ay + er—c2=0, must reduce to x=0. o Ahi Consequently, when the common radical axis is taken as the y-axis the equation of any circle of the coaxal system reduces to xt+y?+2gxt 2fyte=0, where f and c are constant in value for all circles. The fact that f is constant shows that the centres of the circles all lie on a straight line perpendicular to the radical axis. The equation is further reduced by taking this line of centres as the x-axis; it becomes xt+ytt2gxtc=0. To stress the fact that c is constant for all the circles of the system and only g varies, the equation is usually written xt+y+Dx+c=0, where 4 is a parameter. Hence the equation of a system of coaxal circles can be expressed in the form x*+ y*+2ax+0=0, where > is a parameter and c a constant. Conversely, the equation x?+y?+2xx+e=0, where 2 is a parameter and ¢ a constant, can be shown to represent a system of coaxal circles. For take any pair of circles with =, 2s The radical axis of this pair is 2x04 —4)=0, ie. x=0. So the radical axis of each pair is the same and the system is coaxal.108 SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES Ex. 6 Show that, in general, two circles of a coaxal system will touch a given straight line. Take the equation of the coaxal system as +yR4Drte=0 and let the given line be dx-+ my+-n=0. The circle touches the line if the length of the perpendicular from its centre (—2, 0) to the line is equal to its radius (0 - c), =n . Verena VO-O or, squaring and simplifying, m0? + 2ind— (n?+ IPe-+ mtc)=0. Apart from the case m=O, this is a quadratic equation, and consequently, in general, there are two circles of the system touching a given line, ie. if ‘Types of coaxal systems. Every circle of the coaxal system ++ Dxte=0 cuts the radical axis, x=0, where Y+e=0. The following three cases arise according as c is less than, greater than, or equal to zero. Case (i). Suppose c is negative and equal to —k. Then every circle of the system cuts the radical axis in the same two points (0, +k). Consequently, the system consists of a series of circles passing through two fixed points A, B (Fig. 46). SC Fic. 46. Fic. 47. As the equation can be written in the form (xt y=2+ ke, it follows that the least circle of the system has its centre at the origin and its radius equal to k. Case (ii). Suppose c is positive and equal to k*. Then as y*+k*=0 has no real solutions, no circle of the system cuts the radical axis (Fig. 47).TYPES OF COAXAL SYSTEMS 109 Writing the equation in the form, (etait y= it follows that the radius equals /(0?—K?). Hence 4 cannot lie between —k and +k, and as 4 approaches either of these values the radius tends to zero. Consequently, there are two point circles in the system, circles with zero radius, at the points (.:k,0). These points L;, Z, are called limiting points; it will be noted that they are reflection points in the radical axis. N.B. In case (i), where c<0, the circles meet in real points (0, +c) and the limiting points (+-+/c, 0) are imaginary. In case (ii), where c>0, the circles ‘meet in imaginary points (0, +=\/—c) and the limiting points (+/e, 0) are real. Case (iii). Suppose c=0. Clearly in this case the common points and the limiting points all coincide at the origin. The system consists of a series of circles touching each other at the origin. The least circle of the system is a point circle at the origin (Fig. 48). Limiting points. As defined above, the limiting points of a coaxal system are the centres of the circles of zero radius in the system. They will be real when the circles of the system are non-intersecting. It is important to remember that the limiting points are point circles in the system; for example, if the point (3, —4) is a limiting point then the circle (x-3)8+ (y+ 4)?=0, is a member of the coaxal system. Ex. 7. A coaxal system has limiting points (- 1,2), (0,3). Find: (i) the equation of the radical axis; (ii) the equation of any circle of the system. @ The equations of the point circles are S,= (+1 +(QV-28=0; Sp=x2+(y-3*=0. ©. The radical axis Z= S,~ S,=0, has the equation x+y-2=0. This line is, of course, the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the limiting points. Gil) The equation of any circle of the system can be expressed in either of the forms Fic. 48, S,+9S,=0 or S,+uL=0. Le. + 18+(y- 2844+ (9-39 =0 or (e+ DE+-2P+uer+y-2D=0.110 SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES Ex. 8. If one circle of a coaxal system, of which the origin is one limiting point, is x2+y2+4x+2y+4=0, find: (i) the equation of the radical axis; Gi the coordinates of the second limiting point; (iii) the equation of the second coaxal system formed by circles passing through the limiting points of the original system. @ The equation of the point circle at the origin is, Sy=x2+y*=0. Also Spuxtsyt+dx+2y+4=0, The equation of the radical axis is 4x+2y+4=0; ie. 2x+y+2=0. Gi) Any circle of the coaxal system has the equation xttyt+uQxt+y+2)=0. The radius of this circle is /(u2- 2) and its centre is (-4, -4y). So for the point circles, $u*— 2, ie. w=0,% The value 4=0, gives the origin. The value n= gives (- $+ - $) as the second limiting point. (iii) If 2=0 is the equation of one circle passing through the limiting points and M=0 is the equation of the line joining these points, then the equation of the second coaxal system is =+,M=0, where 2 is a parameter. The centre of E must be on the radical axis of the original system. Take as centre the point (0, 2) where the radical axis meets the y-axis; as passes through the origin its radius is 2. So Leaxt+(y+28-4=0; ie. 2t+y"+4y=0, and M=x-2y=0. Hence the equation of the second coaxal system is xP + y+ dy + (x 2y) = 0. To find the limiting points of a given coaxal system geometrically. ‘We can assume that the radical axis has been given or has been con- structed. Take any point P on the radical axis and construct a tangent PT to one of the circles S of the system. Now construct the circle, centre P, radius PT; this will cut the line of centres at the limiting points L,, Ly. The proof is immediate as PL,, PL, are the tangents from a point P on the radical axis to the point circles L,, L,, and each of these tangents is equal to PT, the tangent to S. Fi. 49.LIMITING POINTS m1 Ex. 9, Show how to construct the two circles of a given non-intersecting coaxal system which touch a given line. ‘Suppose the given line meets the radical axis at P (Fig. 50). With centre P, radius PL,, construct a circle to cut the given line at X,, X- Then Xy, Xe are the points of contact of the required circles. The centres of these circles Cy, Cp are obtained by drawing perpendiculars at X;, X, to the given line. Ria. 50. ‘The proof follows from the fact that the length of the tangents from P to all the circles of the system is equal to PL, or PLy. EXAMPLES 5b 1. Write down two alternative forms for the equation of a circle of the coaxal system determined by each of the following pairs of circles: ( x84 Pal, x84 2-20 = 05 Gi) 2+ =2y; x8+y?-3x-y4+1=0. Gi) 224 y})- x-2=0; 22+ j*- 4y-2=0; (iv) x2+ y*- 5x+2y-3=0; 3x*+3)*-2y-6=0. 2. Find the equation of the circle of the coaxal system determined by the circles x? + y* =4, x*+ y®- 6x + 2y + 5 = 0 which passes through the point (0,3). 3, The radical axis of a coaxal system is L = 0, and one circle of the system is S=0; write down the equation of any circle of the system in each of the following cases: @ Lexty, S=x2+y*- 6x-2y+2; (iv) Lax, S=axt+ay*+ 2px 2fyte. 4, The radical axis of a coaxal system is x+1=0 and one circle of the system is x2+y*-5x+2=0. Find the equations of the two circles of the system which have a radius of 1. 5. Make rough sketches of the coaxal systems represented by the equations: @ x84 y4+Dx-1=0; Gi) 28+ y2+Dx+1=0; Gill) 2+ y*+De=0. 6. Prove that through any point there passes one, and only one, circle of a given coaxal system. 7. Prove that the circles x2+)*-6x-16=0, x*+y*-3y-19=0, 2x2 + 2y— 18x + 3y— 29 = 0 are coaxal and state the equation of the common radical axis.12 SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES 8. Find the coordinates of the limiting points of each of the following systems of coaxal circles: @ 24 y%+2e+4=05 (i) a+ y242949=05 Gill) x24 y2+A—2) = (iv) at+ 8-24 14 8x=0; | (y) P+ P+ Mx+y-D=O; (vi) 3849? 10x49 +97 + 9%4 Bx+9) = 0, 9. Prove that (1, 2) is one of the limiting points of the coaxal system «x-1P+ (y- 28+ 22+ y+ 6x + 5)=0 and find the other one. 10. Find the equation of the radical axis and the coordinates of the limiting points of the coaxal system determined by the circles xt y+ 10x-4y-5=0, 2x24 2y*+ 12x ~ 6y-3 = 0, 11, Write down the general equation of the system of coaxal circles having each of the following pairs of points as limiting points: (i) (0, 0), (2, 1); Gi) ©, 0), ©, - 4); Gi) A, D, @ -D; Gi) 2, -3), 4,0. 12. Draw two unequal non-intersecting circles and find by geometrical construction: (j) the radical axis; (ji) the limiting points of the system determined by the two circles. 13, The limiting points of a coaxal system are (~2, 1), (3, 3). Find: (@ the equation of the radical axis; (ji) the equation of the circle of the ‘system which passes through the origin. 14. The limiting points of a coaxal system are (1, — 1), (3,0). Construct, on squared paper, the circles of the system which touch the line y = 2. 15. Prove that the radical axes of a given circle and each circle of a given coaxal system are concurrent. 16. The circle x2+y®+ 4x - 6y+3=0 is one of a coaxal system having as radical axis the line 2x-4y+1=0. Find the coordinates of the limiting points of the system showing that one lies on the line x+3y-2=0. Also find the equation of the other circle of the system which touches this line. 17. Find the equation of the circle which has as diameter the common chord of the circles x?-+y®—2x+2y—3=0, x2+)®—x+7y-1=0. 18. Find the equation of the circle which has for a diameter the chord cut off on the line x y+2~0 by the circle x2+y? = 4, 19. If the line of centres of a coaxal system meets the radical axis at O and ar is the radius of a circle of the system with centre 4,, prove that 0.4,?— ay* is constant. 20. Two circles, centres 4, B, have radii a, b. Prove that the locus of the centre of a circle which bisects the circumferences of the two given circles is the radical axis of circles, centres A, B, radii b, a respectively. 21. Given the limiting points of a coaxal system, show how to construct the circle of the system which passes through a given point. 22, Pisa point on the radical axisof the coaxal system x2+y®+2ax+ k= Show that the chords of contact of tangents from P to the circles of the system are concurrent. 23. Show that the equation of the system of coaxal circles with limiting points (x,, 7s), (Xp, Ys) can be expressed in either of the forms: G) Ce~xy)h+ (y~ yyP + (x — 29) + OP - Ya or Gi) (= xy O— yD Hall AMRF A FH) +04 - VOY + Fy} =O,