Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HEIKKI KYROLAINEN
AND
BRADLEY C. NINDL
Guest Editors
26(7)/S1
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
2012 National Strength and Conditioning Association
VOLUME 26 | SUPPLEMENT 7 | JULY 2012 |
S1
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
BRIEF REVIEW
S87
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
,21
2127
2839
.40z
Women
,21
2127
2839
.40z
25.9
26.5
27.2
27.5
20
22
24
26
25.0
25.3
25.6
26.0
30
32
34
36
AND
S88
the
OF
DEFENSE BODY
TM
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the
TM
| www.nsca.com
S89
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
S90
the
TM
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the
TM
| www.nsca.com
S91
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
S92
the
TM
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the
TM
| www.nsca.com
Figure 3. The variety of measurement sites for circumference-based body composition equations that were originally developed by each of the military services
for assessment of body fat in women. This highlights the greater complexity of regional fat distribution in women compared with the intraabdominal fat deposition
that predominates in men. Ultimately, a focus on the waist circumference in both sexes proved to be the most relevant to DoD goals and to be the most accurate
in estimating overfat individuals.
provides meaningful advantage in the equations to an individual ranging close to their upper limit of body fat (110).
Arguments about this loop hole include consideration that
that individuals are being drawn to some form of regular
exercise in a gymnasium and may gain other desired fitness
benefits, meeting the intent of the regulation to promote
fitness habits.
OF THE
ARMY BODY
S93
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
MILITARY APPEARANCE
RATING ASSOCIATIONS
Military appearance is a stated
consideration in military body
composition standards. Part
of an Armys deterrent effect
comes from having soldiers
who at least look as if they are
fit to fight; it would be even better if soldiers could all look like
Figure 4. Relationship between relative body fat and aerobic capcity (mL/kg/min) in male (open circles, r =
a seriously intimidating force of
20.60, n = 964) and female soldiers (solid circles , r = 20.55, n = 236) (119). Body fat was estimated from body
density obtained by underwater weighing. James A. Vogel, an Army Senior Executive Service scientist and leader
powerfully built individuals.
in physical standards research, used this reproducible relationship between percent body fat and aerobic capacity
Previously, the US Army actufrom an earlier dataset from young men to confirm that 20% body fat in young males mapped to a good average
ally had minimum height standfitness level of approximately 50 mL/kg/min; 20% body fat for young men served as the anchor value for all the
other upper limits of body fat in the recommendations of the 1980 panel on military fitness standards (114).
ards for military police set at 100
taller than the population average for men and women based
on the rationale that this proused to select for aerobic performance within this large range
vided a psychological advantage in crowd control (46). The
US review of fitness in the military services in 1980 was
of variability.
reputedly motivated by a nationally televised event in the
In the face of recruitment challenges in the previous
capital where cameras panned across the pot bellies of
decade, many entry standard waivers were given and
members of a military honor guard and the reporters
motivated, but overfat recruits who entered Army training
were still able to achieve their training standards in basic
expressed their reservations about whether this looked like
training (86). This entry waiver was based on success in
an Army that could defend our country (Col. David D.
performing the Harvard Step Test. The investigators inferred
Schnakenberg, personal communication, 1992). The Army
from their data that the test evaluated both aerobic perforconducted a comprehensive study in 1984 to better understand military appearance associations with body composimance and motivation, with motivation of the volunteers to
tion (56). A command-experienced panel made visual ratings
succeed possibly being the more relevant factor to predicting
of military appearance from front, side, and rear view anthrosuccess in basic training. Nevertheless, individuals in this
pometrically posed photographs of .1,075 male and 251
waivered group are most likely to fail weight control standards later in their Army career. There may also be a gender
female soldiers in formal uniforms and in swimsuits. In unidifference in weight management success. A study conform, the correlation between appearance ratings and body
ducted 2 decades ago demonstrated that men but not
fat for men was 0.53, suggesting that uniforms worn well
women could lose fat weight (up to 4% body fat units) durmay partially conceal a pot belly. In swimsuits, the correlation was higher (r = 0.69), and the panel could also visually
ing basic training and continue to meet their standards after
estimate body fat with some accuracy (r = 0.78). The results
the first 6 months in the Army (38). In other words, a young
were similar for the female soldiers. In both men and
man with an upper limit of 20% body fat could enter basic
women, a poor or fair military appearance rating was
training at 24% because he had a reasonable chance of success in meeting his standard by the end of eight weeks of
specifically associated with larger abdominal circumferences
basic training, and continue to be successful in meeting the
(28), although other factors besides percent body fat and
standard 6 months later. Women promptly regained the
abdominal girth also play into ratings of military appearance
weight lost in basic training. The reason for this difference
(56). Further analysis of this dataset demonstrated that median ratings of uniformed military appearance were good
was not further evaluated but may have included sex differat the threshold percent body fat standard in each of the
ences in posttraining aerobic fitness habits, and the physicality
S94
the
TM
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the
TM
| www.nsca.com
total body fat, at which point a steady increase in intraabdominal accumulation began. Fat deposition in other subcutaneous sites in women, including arms, legs, buttocks, and
breast are not generally associated with health risks and in
some cases may reflect an association with reduced cardiovascular and other health risks. Intraabdominal fat (detected
by WC), on the other hand, is strongly associated with
increasing health risks in women as it is with men (31).
At present, there is no plausible rationale for a more
lenient WC or body fat standard than this current U.S. Army
upper limit for men and women. A better understanding of
the interaction between physical activity and adipose tissue
physiology (i.e., fit fat) could change this. A proposal to
link Army physical fitness test performance with body fat
standards, allowing a sliding scale for body fat limits in the
younger age categories (74), was carefully evaluated but
ultimately deemed too complicated to implement (LTG
Timothy J. Maude, personal communication, 2001). Stricter
standards are conceivable for other populations characterized by slighter body builds. In 2008, Japan adopted WC
limits for men and women between age 40 and 74 years with
measurements that trigger weight management interventions at 33.500 (men) and 35.400 (women) (88). Arguments
have been made for body composition standards to be
adjusted to correspond to national weight gain trends as
the Army should reflect the national population from which
recruits are drawn. Such an adjustment, or the suspension of
body fat standards, would signal a deliberate acceptance of
lower fitness and health standards. Some armies, such as the
Peoples Republic of China, have been forced to ease weight
standards for recruits to reflect population trends that reflect
recruit availability (91). The good news for recruiters in
western Armies is that the increase in BMI in several other
countries with weight and health monitoring statistics
peaked around 2000 and appears to have leveled off. The
reason for this plateau in obesity rate is unexplained (87).
OTHER HEALTH
IMPACTS
AND
PERFORMANCE ASSOCIATIONS
AND
S95
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
S96
the
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The important research to be done in military weight
control programs is on how to provide effective assistance
TM
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the
TM
CONCLUSIONS
The Army body fat standards and screening weights have
not substantially changed since 1983. Constant reevaluation
of the standards with new data has reaffirmed that these
upper limits are about right in terms of key outcomes
(physical performance, military appearance, and chronic
health risk) and fairness. Military body composition standards are not intended to predict performance; they are
intended to motivate fitness and nutrition habits that
promote individual physical readiness. Regular physical
activity, good nutrition, and weight management provide
extensive health and performance benefits including physical
and mental performance and resistance to disease. Excessive
fat, particularly intraabdominal fat, is associated with
increased health risk and poor military appearance (the
pot belly). This distribution of body fat is particularly susceptible to environmental influences such as exercise and
dietary control but is also affected by stress hormones and
other metabolic factors. Fat-free mass is an important component associated with strength and work capacity. Minimum levels of fat-free mass, accurately reflected in body
weight of very light weight individuals, are important to
injury prevention, especially in tasks that require strength.
The BMI and WC thresholds related to these standards
approximate emerging data on health, performance, and
appearance. Current research gaps center on effective weight
management interventions to help soldiers achieve and sustain good nutrition and fitness habits throughout their lives.
| www.nsca.com
REFERENCES
1. Allen, TH. Measurement of human body fat. A quantitative
method suitable for use by aviation medical officers. Aerosp Med 34:
907909, 1963.
2. Allen, TH, Welch, BE, Trujillo, TT, and Roberts, JE. Fat, water and
tissue solids of the whole body less its bone mineral. J Appl Physiol
14: 10091012, 1959.
3. Andersson, B, Xu, X, Rebuffe-Scrive, M, Terning, K,
Krotkiewski, M, and Bjorntorp, P. The effects of exercise training
on body composition and metabolism in men and women. Int J
Obes 15: 7581, 1991.
4. Bathalon, GP, Hays, NP, McCrory, MA, Vinken, AG, Tucker, KL,
Greenberg, AS, Castaneda, C, and Roberts, SB. The energy
expenditure of postmenopausal women classified as restrained or
unrestrained eaters. Eur J Clin Nutr 55: 10591067, 2001.
5. Bathalon, GP, McGraw, SM, Sharp, MA, Williamson, DA,
Young, AJ, and Friedl, KE. The effect of proposed improvements to
the Army Weight Control Program on female soldiers. Mil Med
171: 800806, 2006.
6. Beebe, KL, Block, T, Debattista, C, Blasey, C, and Belanoff, JK. The
efficacy of mifepristone in the reduction and prevention of olanzapineinduced weight gain in rats. Behav Brain Res 171: 225229, 2006.
7. Behnke, AR, Feen, BG, and Welham, WC. The specific gravity of
healthy men. Body weight/volume as an index of obesity. JAMA
118: 495497, 1942.
8. Brozek, J and Henschel, A, eds. Techniques for Measuring Body
Composition. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1961.
9. Brozek, J, Wells, S, and Keys, A. Medical aspects of semistarvation in
Leningrad (Siege 19411942). Am Rev Sov Med 4: 7086, 1946.
10. Buskirk, ER, Thompson, RH, and Whedon, GD. Metabolic
response to cold air in men and women in relation to total body fat
content. J Appl Physiol 18: 603612, 1963.
11. Carney, RM and Goldberg, AP. Weight gain after cessation of
cigarette smoking. A possible role for adipose-tissue lipoprotein
lipase. N Engl J Med 310: 614616, 1984.
12. Chen, H, Zhang, SM, Schwarzschild, MA, Hernan, MA, and
Ascherio, A. Physical activity and the risk of Parkinson disease.
Neurology 64: 664669, 2005.
13. Chumlea, WC, Guo, SS, Kuczmarski, RJ, Flegal, KM, Johnson, CL,
Heymsfield, SB, Lukaski, HC, Friedl, KE, and Hubbard, VS. Body
composition estimates from NHANES III bioelectrical impedance
data. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26: 15961609, 2002.
14. Cureton, KJ. Effects of experimental alterations in excess weight on
physiological responses to exercise and physical performance. In:
Body Composition and Physical Performance: Applications for the
Military Services. Marriott, BM and Grumstrup-Scott, J, eds.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1992. pp. 7188.
15. Davenport, CB and Love, AG. The Medical Department of the United
States Army in the World War (Vol. 15). Statistics; Part 1, Army
Anthropology. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1921.
16. Despres, JP, Bouchard, C, Tremblay, A, Savard, R, and
Marcotte, M. Effects of aerobic training on fat distribution in male
subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 17: 113118, 1985.
17. Despres, JP, Pouliot, MC, Moorjani, S, Nadeau, A, Tremblay, A,
Lupien, PJ, Theriault, G, and Bouchard, C. Loss of abdominal fat
and metabolic response to exercise training in obese women. Am J
Physiol 261: E159E167, 1991.
18. Durnin, JVGA and Womersely, J. Body fat assessed from total body
density and its estimation from skinfold thickness: Measurements on
481 men and women aged 16 to 72 years. Br J Nutr 32: 7797, 1974.
19. Ershow, AG, Friedl, KE, Peterson, CM, Riley, WT, Rizzo, AS, and
Wansink, B. Symposium: Virtual reality technologies for research
and education in obesity and diabetesdSponsored by the National
Institutes of Health and Department of Defense. J Diabetes Sci
Technol 5: 212344, 2011.
VOLUME 26 | SUPPLEMENT 7 | JULY 2012 |
S97
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
S98
the
36. Friedl, KE, Moore, RJ, Martinez-Lopez, LE, Vogel, JA, Askew, EW,
Marchitelli, LJ, Hoyt, R, and Gordon, CC. Lower limits of body fat
in healthy active men. J Appl Physiol 77: 933940, 1994.
37. Friedl, KE and Vogel, JA. Validity of percent body fat predicted by
circumferences: Classification of men for weight control
regulations. Mil Med 162: 194200, 1997.
38. Friedl, KE, Vogel, JA, Bovee, MW, and Jones, BH. Assessment of
Body Weight Standards in Male and Female Army Recruits. Technical
Report T1590. Natick, MA: US Army Research Institute of
Environmental Medicine, 1990.
39. Friedl, KE, Westphal, KA, Marchitelli, LJ, Patton, JF,
Chumlea, WC, and Guo, S. Evaluation of changes in body
composition in young women after a physical training program.
Am J Clin Nutr 73: 268275, 2001.
40. Garn, SM. Fat patterning and fat intercorrelations in the adult
male. Hum Biol 26: 5969, 1954.
41. Garn, SM. Comparison of pinch-caliper and x-ray measurements
of skin plus subcutaneous fat. Science 124: 178179, 1956.
42. Garn, SM. Fat weight and fat placement in the female. Science 125:
10911092, 1957.
43. General Accounting Office. Improved Guidance and Oversight are
Needed to Ensure Validity and Equity of fitness standards. GAO/
NSAID-999, October 1998.
44. Girth and death. Stat Bull Metropolitan Life Insurance Co 18: 25,
1937.
45. Glass, JM, Lyden, AK, Petzke, F, Stein, P, Whalen, G, Ambrose, K,
Chrousos, G, and Clauw, DJ. The effect of brief exercise cessation
on pain, fatigue, and mood symptom development in healthy, fit
individuals. J Psychosom Res 57: 391398, 2004.
46. Gordon, CC and Friedl, KE. Anthropometry in the U.S. Armed
Forces. In: Anthropometry: The Individual and the Population.
S.J. Ulijaszek and C.G.N. Mascie-Taylor, eds. Cambridge, MA:
Cambridge University Press, 1994. pp. 178210.
47. Gould, BA. Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics
of American Soldiers. New York, NY: H.O. Houghton and Co, 1869.
48. Hakkinen, A, Rinne, M, Vasankari, T, Santtila, M, Hakkinen, K, and
Kyrolainen, H. Association of physical fitness with health-related
quality of life in Finnish young men. Health Qual Life Outcomes 8:
18, 2010.
49. Hall, KD. Computational model of in vivo human energy
metabolism during semistarvation and refeeding. Am J Physiol
Endocrinol Metab 291: E23E37, 2006.
50. Han, TS, Richmond, P, Avenell, A, and Lean, MEJ. Waist
circumference reduction and cardiovascular benefits during
weight loss in women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disorder 21:
127134, 1997.
51. Harman, EA and Frykman, PN. The relationship of body size and
composition to the performance of physically demanding
military tasks. In: Body Composition and Physical Performance:
Applications for the Military Services. B.M. Marriott and
J. Grumstrup-Scott, eds. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press, 1992. pp. 105118.
52. Heymsfield, SB, Waki, M, Kehayias, J, Lichtman, S, Dilmanian, FA,
Kamen, Y, Wang, J, and Pierson, RN. Chemical and elemental
analysis of humans in vivo using improved body composition
models. Am J Physiol 261: E190E198, 1991.
53. Hodgdon, JA and Beckett, MB. Prediction of Percent Body Fat for US
Navy Men from Body Circumferences and Height. Report No. 84-11.
San Diego, CA: Naval Health Research Center, 1984.
54. Hodgdon, JA and Beckett, MB. Prediction of Percent Body Fat for US
Navy Women from Body Circumferences and Height. Report No. 84-29.
San Diego, CA: Naval Health Research Center, 1984.
55. Hodgdon, JA and Fitzgerald, PI. Validity of impedance predictions
at various levels of fatness. Hum Biol 59: 281298, 1987.
TM
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the
TM
| www.nsca.com
93. Ravelli, GP, Stein, ZA, and Susser, MW. Obesity in young men
after famine exposure in utero and early infancy. N Engl J Med 295:
349353, 1976.
74. Leu, JR and Friedl, KE. Body fat standards and individual physical
readiness in a randomized Army sample: Screening weights,
methods of fat assessment, and linkage to physical fitness. Mil Med
167: 9941000, 2002.
S99
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
103. Seidell, JC, Kahn, HS, Williamson, DF, Lissner, L, and Valdez, R.
Report from a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
workshop on use of adult anthropometry for public health and
primary health care. Am J Clin Nutr 73: 123126, 2001.
104. Sharp, MA, Nindl, BC, Westphal, KA, and Friedl, KE. The physical
performance of woman Army basic trainees who pass and fail the
Army body weight and %BF standards. In: Advances in Industrial
Ergonomics and Safety VI. Agedzadeh, E, ed. Washington, DC:
Taylor and Francis, 1994. pp. 743750.
122. Ward, GM, Krzywicki, HJ, Rahman, DP, Quaas, RL, Nelson, RA,
and Consolazio, CF. Relationship of anthropometric
measurements to body fat as determined by densitometry,
potassium-40, and body water. Am J Clin Nutr 28: 162169, 1975.
105. Sharp, MA, Patton, JF, Knapik, JJ, Hauret, K, Mello, RP, Ito, M, and
Frykman, PN. Comparison of the physical fitness of men and
women entering the U.S. Army: 19781998. Med Sci Sports Exerc
34: 356363, 2002.
106. Shimoka, H, Muller, DC, and Andres, R. Studies in the distribution of
body fat. III. Effects of cigarette smoking. JAMA 261: 11691173, 1989.
107. Spurr, GB. Physical work performance under conditions of
prolonged hypocaloria. In: Predicting Decrements in Military
Performance Due to Inadequate Nutrition. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press, 1986. pp. 99135.
108. Stewart, T, Han, H, Allen, RH, Bathalon, G, Ryan, DH,
Newton, RL Jr, and Williamson, DA. H.E.A.L.T.H.: Efficacy of an
internet/population-based behavioral weight management
program for the U.S. Army. J Diabetes Sci Technol 5: 178187, 2011.
109. Stewart, T, May, S, Allen, HR, Bathalon, GP, Lavergne, G,
Sigrist, L, Ryan, D, and Williamson, DA. Development of an
internet/population-based weight management Program for the U.
S. Army. J Diabetes Sci Technol 2: 116126, 2008.
110. Taylor, MK, Hodgdon, JA, Griswold, L, Miller, A, Roberts, DE, and
Escamilla, RF. Cervical resistance training: Effects on isometric and
dynamic strength. Aviat Space Environ Med 77: 11311135, 2006.
128. Wright, HF and Wilmore, JH. Estimation of relative body fat and
lean body weight in a United States Marine Corps population.
Aerosp Med 45: 301306, 1974.
S100
the
130. Zwiren, L, Skinner, JS, and Buskirk, ER. Use of body density and
various skinfold equations for estimating small reductions in body
fatness. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 13: 213218, 1973.
TM
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.