CORROSION- RESISTANT PLASTIC COMPOSITES IN CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGNCorrosion-Resistant Plastic Composites in Chemical Plant Design iiiLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mallinson, John H. Corrosion-resistant plastic composites in chemical plant design (Plastics engineering ; 17) Rev. ed. of: Chemical plant design with reinforced plastics. 1969. Includes index. 1. Chemical plants—Equipment and supplies. 2. Reinforced plastics. I. Mallinson, John H. Chemical plant design with reinforced plastics. II. Title. III. Series: Plastics engineering (Marcel Dekker, Inc.) ; 17. TP157.M263 1987 660. 2'83 87-27193 ISBN 0-8247-7687-9 First edition originally published in 1969 as Chemical Plant Design with Reinforced Plastics by McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York 10020. Copyright © 1988 by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. All Rights Reserved Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo- copying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. MARCEL DEKKER, INC. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Current printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 38 2 1 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICAContents Preface 1. Why Reinforced Plastics? aa ene Introduction and a Short History The Thermoplasts The Thermosets Reinforcing Material Advantages, Scope, and Use of the Thermosets References Basic Application Principles PRENMUNNHNEN Serene ewe 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 Introduction Common Fabrication Methods Generic Types of Resin Grades of Reinforcement Chemical-Resistant Laminate Surfacing Systems Strength and Corrosion Resistance Thermal Stresses Service Application Guide Chemical Attack: The Counterpart of Metallic Corrosion Practical Test Programs for Piping Systems Curing the Laminate Heat Resistance Oxidation Pyrolysis iii Reranern 13 14 16 22 22 27 29 30 30 45 47 50 51 52 52vi 4 Contents Solvent Attack Tensile Elongation Nondestructive Testing References Custom Contact-Molded Piping Systems 3. 3. Bh bb be wracee SE PEE Pee epee 2 Laminate Construction Product Standard Recommended Purchasing Specifications Purchasing Specifications for Piping Purchasing Specifications for Fittings and Flanges Vacuum Services Costing and Quality Factors to Evaluate Repair Techniques Applied to a Damaged Pipe Insulation Value Reliability: Expected Service Life Head Loss Versus Flow Rate Light Stability: Ultraviolet Release Film and Its Detection Adventages of Hand-Laid-Up FRP Piping Systems Over Machine-Made Filament-Wound Systems: A Review References Filament-Wound and Centrifugally Cast Piping Systems aaae a ee Sees Rowe wars 10 12 13 Filament-Wound Basie Construction Centrifugal Cast Manufacturing Process Centrifugal Cast Piping Material Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugal Casting Standards Relating to Filament-Wound (or Centrifugally Cast) Pipe Small-Diameter Filament-Wound Pipe, 1-12 in. Large-Diameter Filament-Wound Pipe, 14~144 in. Evaluation of Bids by Suppliers Factors that Improve Your Chances of Successful Installation Assembly Systems for Filament-Wound Pipe Fittings Used with Filament-Wound Pipe Filament-Wound Piping Availability and Marketing Edgewise Porosity of Filament-Wound Systems 53 56 57 60 63 64 69 69 12 16 81 82 85 86 87 90 93 94 94 96 97 99 103 103 104 104 107 107 108 109 un ut 12 113Contents vii 4.14 Specifications for Filament-Wound Piping System Intended for Chemical Service 14 4.15 Examples of Filament-Wound Pipe 133 References 143 5. Joining, Supporting, and Anchoring Reinforced Plastic Pipe 145 5.1 Methods of Joining Reinforced Plastic Pipe 146 5.2 Comparative Joining Costs 167 5.3 Burst Tests on Joints 168 5.4 Bolt and Gasket Specifications 169 5.5 Supporting and Anchoring Pipe Aboveground: General Principles 172 References 194 6. Design, Principles, and Practice of Fiberglass Underground Pipe 197 6.1 Introduction 198 6.2 Standard Joining Methods 199 6.3 Types of Fiberglass Piping Construction in Underground Pipe 202 6.4 Excavation and Trenehing 202 6.5 Manhole Considerations 205 6.6 Rigid Connections 205 6.7 Stress (Thrust) Blocks 209 6.8 Concrete Encasement 209 6.9 Thrust Blocks 209 6.10 Design Approach for Buried Fiberglass Pipe 210 6.11 Design Examples 231 6.12 Testing 236 6.13 Special Considerations for Buried Fiberglass Pipe 237 6.14 Definitions 237 References 237 te Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 239 Got RTP Tank Design: General Considerations 241 72 Flat-Bottom Tanks: Design for Internal Loading 250 73. Tank and Vessel Assembly 272viii Contents 7.4 Design of External Pressure 275 7.5 Tank Covers 288 7.6 Structural Design of Towers Under Internal Pressure __289 7.7 Anchoring an FRP Tank 301 7.8 Horizontal FRP Tanks 302 7.9 Horizontal Underground Tanks 303 7.10 Effect of Agitation in FRP Process Vessels aul 7.11 Improving the Reliability of FRP Sandwich Structures in Chemical Service 321 7.12 Very Large Composite Tank Construction 323 7.13 Heating in a Reinforced Plastic Tank 328 7.14 Working in Reinforced Plastic Tanks: Safety Precautions 329 7.15 FRP Tanks for Food Service 330 7.16 Laminate Library 330 7.17 Signs and Causes of Tank Failure 330 7.18 Earthquake Conditions 333 References 336 Duct Systems, Scrubbers, Stacks, and Chimney Liners 339 8.1 Introduction to Duct Systems 340 8.2 Recommended Product Standard for FRP Ductwork With Extensions 343 8.3 Polyester Duct Calculations 348 8.4 Design and Purchasing Information for Duct Systems 355 8.5 Expansion Joints in Ductwork 358 8.6 Supporting Ductwork 361 8.7 Helpful Hints in Reinforced Fabrication of Ducts and Hoods 367 8.8 Repair of Existing Duct Systems 369 8.9 Alternative Duct Construction 369 8.10 Causes, Prevention, and Propagation of Ductwork Fires 371 8.11 Scrubbers 388 8.12 Snuffing Agents 389 8.13 Duct Fires 390 FRP Stacks 392 8.15 Chimney Liners 413 References 1Contents ix 9. Abrasion of Composite Materials in Corrosive Environments WIZ 9.1 Failure by Abrasion 418 9.2 Factors That Affect Abrasion Resistance of Composites 418 9.3 Flow Pattern 419 9.4 Size of the Particle 420 9.5 Effect of Particle Velocity in Slurries and Vapors 422 9.6 Hardness of Eroding Material 424 9.7 Role of Synthetic Veiling 425 9.8 Abrupt Turns in Equipment 426 9.9 Laminate Destruction by Abrasion 426 9.10 Effect of Additives on Laminate Physical Properties 426 9.11 Abrasion Tests at 9.12 Capsule Case Histories of Corbrasion Service 435 9.13 Conclusions 439 References 439 10. Electrically Grounding Reinforced Plastic Systems 441 10.1 How Statie Charges Build Up 442 10.2 An Explosive Example 444 10.3 Reducing the Explosive Hazard 445 10.4 Methods and Techniques of Grounding 447 10.5 Long-term Performance of Conductive Systems 452 10.6 Maintenance of Conductive Systems 454 10.7 Alternative Grounding Systems 454 10.8 Other Conductive Applications 457 10.9 Grounding Resistance: Objectives 463 10.10 Static Electricity: Personnel Hazards 468 References 468 ats Systems: Flakeglass and Fiberglass an History 472 ‘Types of Linings and Service Limitations 474 Testing the Finished Lining 487 Successful Linings 487 Common Lining Problems 488 Costs 488 Lined Systems Versus Stainless Steels in Flue Gas Desulfurization 48812. 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11,12 11.13 11.14 11.15 Spark Testing Safety Procedures for Lining Vessels Other Observations The Japanese Experience Fiber and Flake Linings Applicable Standards and Manuals Lining Maintenance Corrosion-Resistant Reinforced Plastic Linings in Petroleum Storage Tanks Contents 490 490 490 491 492 493 495 496 References 497 Case Histories and Installations 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12,13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18 12.19 12.20 12.21 Chlorine Gas Header Hydroelectric Penstock Breeching Duct Quench Duct Large Stack Butt Hinge Kabe-O-Rap Tank Guyed Stack Zinc Recovery Vessel Large Horizontal Scrubber Filter Tank Composite Agitators Butterfly Valves Pulp Washer Hood Sky Derrick Evaporator Dished Head Eliminating Cavitation Air Pollution Control Equipment Vacuum Booster Dual-Laminate Piping, Vessels, and Structures Sewer Relining by the Insituform Process References Structural Applications of Fiber-Reinforced Plastics 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Introduction Resins Used Reinforcement Fillers or Additives Design Methods and Safety Factors Joining Methods Effect of Temperature 499 500 500 500 500 505 506 506 507 508 510 510 S11 513 513 513 521 521 524 529 530 537 5a1 541 542 543 546 546 548 549Contents xi 13.8 Grating 550 References 552 Appendix: Reinforced Plastic Related Standards, Specifications, and Technical Publications 553 A.l ASTM Reinforced Plastic Related Standards 554 A.2 National Standards 557 A.3 Buried Pipe 557 A.4— Electrostaties and Grounding 587 A.5 Pressure Vessels 558 A.6 Tanks and Vessels 558 A.7 Acoustic Emission Testing Standards 558 A.8 ASTM Special Publications on Composite Materials 558 Awd ASTM Test Methods for Reinforced Plastics 560 A.10 Pumps 560 A.11 Fiberglass Pipe Specifications, Codes, and Standards 560 A.12 Blowers and Exhaust Systems 561 Index 563aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that 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is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.2 Basic Application Principles 21 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.8 Introduction Common Fabrication Methods 2.2.1 Custom contact molding 2.2.2 Filament winding 2.2.3 Pultrusion 2.2.4 Resin transfer molding Generic Types of Resin Grades of Reinforcement 2.4.1 Early history 2.4.2 Present grades of reinforcement Chemical-Resistant Laminate Surfacing Systems 2.5.1 Chopped strand mat Strength and Corrosion Resistance 2.6.1 Hand laid up 2.6.2 Filament winding 2.6.3 Chop-hoop construction Thermal Stresses Service Application Guide 1 Bisphenol polyesters 2 Chlorinated or brominated polyesters 3 General-purpose polyesters .4 Isophthalic polyesters 5 Vinyl ester resins 6 Epoxies 7 Furans 14 16 16 19 20 22 22 22 22 27 27 29 29 29 30 30 30 31 33 36 37 40 42aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or 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reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3 Custom Contact-Molded Piping Systems 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 +10 uu 12 +13 14 Laminate Construction Product Standard Recommended Purchasing Specifications Purchasing Specifications for Piping Purchasing Specifications for Fittings and Flanges Vacuum Services Costing and Quality Factors to Evaluate Repair Techniques Applied to a Damaged Pipe Insulation Value Reliability: Expected Service Life Head Loss Versus Flow Rate Light Stability: Ultraviolet Release Film and Its Detection Advantages of Hand-Laid-Up FRP Piping Systems Over Machine-Made Filament-Wound Systems: A Review References 64 69 69 72 76 81 82 85 86 87 90 93 94 94 96 63aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit 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for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.228 Fiberglass Underground Pipe modulus with water below the pipe [5]. Figure 6.8 shows the same soil plot with water at ground level. In addition to attempting to float the pipe, a substantial reduction in soil modulus has taken place. This has a major effect on deflection and buckling considera- tions [5]. Step 5. Ring Bending This step is to ensure that the calculated deflection does not result in an excessive ring-bending strain. Calculations are done on an empty pipe. 4 t - =6 (42) (4 (6.16) 78 G2) GE) where Ey = maximum ring-bending strain due to deflection, in. /in. The ring-bending criterion is satisfied when a. <2 (6.17) SB = long-term ring-bending strain, in. /in. FS = design factor set equal to 1.50 in the AWWA standard The long-term ring-bending strain Sp can be determined from stress relaxation or creep rupture tests. These are then extrapo- lated at time levels of 100,000 hr or 50 years. The hazard of pro- jecting a short-term test to a long-term extrapolation must be recog- nized. In chemical service, laminates—either contact molded or fila~ ment wound—undergo varying degrees of degradation in physical properties, particularly in the case of elevated temperatures. Losses of 25-50% are quite common. An assessment by the engineer is al- ways necessary, depending on the severity of the service. With this judgment, and in consulting with the pipe and resin manufactur- er, the engineer may wish to increase the safety factor over that recommended. Quite often a safety factor has been factored into the allowable strain. When the necessary testing program to determine Sg has not been conducted, the AWWA standard states that the value can be based on the results of hydrostatic design basis tests, as follows:aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Design Examples 231 Lesser of Egy OF Gg < Eg” (6.21) 6.11 DESIGN EXAMPLES The following example is based on a problem in AWWA C950a-83 [1]. The example is for illustrative purposes only. Step 1. Design Conditions Pipe diameter: 12 in, of filament wound construction Working pressure: Py = 160 psi Surge pressure: P, = 40 psi Internal vacuum: Py = 0 psi Depth of cover: H = 12 ft maximum, 3 ft minimum Wheel load: P = 16000 lb single wheel for all cover depths Overburden specific weight: Yg = 110 Ib/ft3 (at 95% Proctor Density); firm clayey sand; no groundwater Average service temperature: 65°F Service: water distribution system Step 2. Pipe Properties Preliminary pipe class: Py > Py, class 200 Wall thickness: t = 0.18" EI = 1210 Ib ~ in.2/in. = 14090 psi (stress basis) 0045747 in. /in. (strain basis) +008 in./in. (strain basis) 3.08 « 108 psi 2.49 x 106 psi (80% of Ey) 3 gr = SE = 1210 tb - in.?/in, D = 12,18 in. Step 3, Installation Parameters E' = 1000 psi Ky = +103 Kp = «189 D = 1.25 Note: Dj is the deflection lag factor.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Design Examples 233 Cc, = .081 - L (-081= 029) 2 +055 at H = 3 ft -004 at H = 12 ft CP a+i,) L 12 16000C, (1 + 12 1333 C, (1 +1) 1333 (.055) (1.367) 100 Ib/in. at H = 3 ft 1333 (.004)(1) 5.33 Ib/in. at H = 12 ft " " Step 5. Check Deflection = 75 ‘a A, =0 dy < -050D = (.05) (12.18) = .609 in. is the requirement 3 OW, + WK Ae EL + .061 K,B'r' For H = 3 ft _ LCL. 25) (28.3) + 100) ¢.103)¢6.09)3 1210 + .061 (75) (1000) ¢6.08)9 .273 in. Ans +273 in. < .609 Cheek is fine at H = 3 ft. For H = 12 ftaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Design Examples 235 or PO) 2B yt 3K,D KP, +P.) D+ Ete 3(. 189)(113.3) (12, 18) (.18) 3(. 103)( 200) (12. 18)3 + (2.49)(10)°(0. 18)° .00220 + .00112 -00332 in, /in. 00220 + " This the lower of the two values. 00332 in. /in. < .00533 in./in. Check is fine. Step 8. Check Buckling. (Note: This is without groundwater or internal vacuum.) Wot W. ‘ ie! TL Requirement: —“5—~ < q, 1 ery"® % pe [= R, BIE =| D FS = 2.5 R,, = 1,0 no groundwater Bis 1e4e 065(3) =. at H=3ft 4. Bis 1+ ge 06512) B' = .35 at H = 12 ft E' = 1000 psi236 Fiberglass Underground Pipe EI = 1210 psi i _1 1210 9, = 75 [220-0201 wel 12.18 = 28.1 psi at H = 3 ft 5 a, = 35 [ses xan a = 34.6 psi at H = 12 ft also Wo * My _ 98.3 + 100 D ~ 12.18 = 10.59 psi at H = 3 ft Wo* Wy 113.3 + 5.33 D ~ 12.18 = 9.74 psi at H = 12 ft From the above 10.53 psi < 28.1 psi Check is fine at H = 3 ft. 9.74 psi < 34.6 psi Check is fine at H = 12 ft. 6.12 TESTING A good test procedure is important. Use an expandable plug at each end. Test in 80-100 ft lengths, testing three to four field joints at a time. The piping section tests should be water tests at 50 psi held for 15-30 min. All joints must be inspected. In the case of wrapped joints, tests should be run no sooner than the day following wrapping. The installer should be fully qualified and make a satisfactory test joint in the shop. A similar procedure is followed for an adhesive joint. The O-ring joints can be tested the same day. (An alternative test procedure is ASTM D3262.)REFERENCES 237 6.13 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR BURIED FIBERGLASS PIPE 1. Elevated temperature service with the potential for down- grading of laminate physical properties. Broad temperature fluctuations while in service. Shallow burial: anything less than 4 ft is shallow burial. Be especially careful of live loads and vacuum. Uneven bedding or differential settlement of unstable soils. High groundwater levels at the buried pipe elevation. Restrained tension joints. Buried sections plus aboveground runs in the same pipe run. Difficult construction conditions, i.e., flooded trenches. Installation of pipe on pile bents. Heavy silt or shifting sand installations. Junction of flexible pipe with rigid connections, such as thrust blocks or manholes. 12. Elevated service temperature, expansion between installation and operation. eon FSearaae 6.14 DEFINITIONS Fiberglass pipe is defined as a tubular product containing glass fiber reinforcements embedded in or surrounded by cured thermosetting resin. The composite structure may contain aggregate, granular or platelet fillers, thixotropic agents, pigments, or dyes. Thermoplastic or thermosetting liners or coatings may be included. Reinforced thermosetting resin pipe (RTRP) is a fiberglass pipe without aggre- gate. Reinforced plastic mortar pipe (RPMP) is a fiberglass pipe with aggregate. The addition of aggregate (sand) provides: No loss in corrosion capacity . Enhanced abrasion resistance. No loss in laminate physical strength, except tensile strength, which normally is not of paramount importance in buried pipe. Reduced thermal expansion. Covered by ASTM D3262, D3517 and D3754, as well as AWWA C950. REFERENCES 1. American Water Works Association Standard (ANSI/AWWA C 950- 81), First Edition, April 7, 1981. Addendum C 950a-83 approved April 17, 1983. (For the sake of completeness, the author has added to the standard additional processes, grades, and liners to reflect those currently found in commercial practice.)238 Fiberglass Underground Pipe M. EB. Greenwood, Buried Fiberglass—Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Pipe: Performance Through Proper Installation. Presented at Joint SPI/NACE/AIChE Plastics Seminar Managing Corrosion Problems with Plastics, November 5, 1975, San Antonio, Texas. ASTM D3839-79, Standard Practice for Underground Installation of Flexible Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe and Reinforced Plastic Mortar (RPM) Pipe, 1979. R. J. Bailey and D. L. Schlegel, A Developing Consensus De- sign Approach for Fiber Glass Reinforced Thermosetting Pipe, Price Brothers Composite Pipe Systems, a division of Price Brothers Company, Green Cove Springs, Florida. Presented at: National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Niagara Frontier Section, Niagara Falls, New York, September 1980; Managing Corrosion with Plastics, Atlanta, Georgia, a joint meeting of several societies, October, 1981; Society of the Plastics Industry annual meeting, Houston, Texas, January, 1984. A. Gilbu and J. A. Ralston, Design, Production, and Testing of Large Diameter Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Underground Pipe, SPI 28th Annual Conference, Washington, D.C., February, 1973. ASTM D2487-83, Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.240 1.3 1.4 7.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 TAL 7.12 7.13 1.14 7.15 7.16 TAT Storage Tanks and Process Vessels Tank and Vessel Assembly 7.3.1 Vessel assembly 7.3.2 The wrapped joint Design of External Pressure 7.4.1 Calculations of external pressure 7.4.2 A typical barometric condenser design Tank covers Structural Design of Towers Under Internal Pressure 7.6.1 Design of base section 7.6.2 Hold-down lugs for base 7.6.3 Cover design Anchoring an FRP Tank Horizontal FRP Tanks Horizontal Underground Tanks Effect of Agitation in FRP Process Vessels 7.10.1 Baffle design 7.10.2 Sidewall stress and stability 7.10.3 Digester design: Agitator loading on vessel 7.10.4 Stiffening the wall 5 Sidewall vibration analysis of old digester 6 Static calculations on vessel -7 Other concerns 8 Mounting the agitator 9 Torque Improving the Reliability of FRP Sandwich Structures in Chemical Service Very Large Composite Tank Construction 7.12.1 Filament-wound tank on-site construction 7.12.2 Kabe-O-Rap tanks 7.12.3 Assembled parts method 7.12.4 Obloid concept Heating in a Reinforced Plastic Tank Working in Reinforced Plastic Tanks: Safety Precautions FRP Tanks for Food Service Laminate Library Signs and Causes of Tank Failure 272 272 272 275 275 278 288 289 290 295 296 301 302 303 311 312 $12 313 315 915 316 317 318 320 321 323 323 325 326 327 328 329 330 330 330RTP Tank Design 241 7,18 Earthquake Conditions 333 7.18.1 Safety factors 335 7.18.2 Types of construction 335 7.18.3 Hold-down lugs 336 7.18.4 Summary of Seismic Design 336 References 336 7.1 RTP TANK DESIGN: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Reinforced thermoset plastic (RTP) tanks have been made in a great many different shapes and sizes, from 1 gal bottles to 250,000 gal field-erected tanks. The selection of the geometry of construction and the manufacturing methods currently prevalent in the industry dictate certain basic parameters for the designer's consideration. 7.1.1 Cylindrical Tanks The shape, configuration, and design of these tanks is covered by the following standards or documents: NBS Voluntary Product Standard Custom Contact-Molded Rein- forced Polyester Chemical-Resistant Process Equipment PS 15-69: this early standard covered the design of custom contact-molded equipment. It was the first standard in the industry. ASTM D-3299 Standard Specification for Filament-Wound Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polyester Chemical-Resistant Tanks: this was the earliest of the filament-wound tank standards and was originally issued in 1974. Quality Assurance Report for RTP Corrosion-Resistant Equipment, issued jointly by the Society of the Plastics Industry and the Materials Technology Institute in 1981: probably will be used as a basis for future standards; covers basically RTP contact- molded equipment; provides design methods and quality control procedures. ASTM D4097 Standard Specification for Contact-Molded Glass Fiber- Reinforced Thermoset Resin Chemical-Resistant Tanks: issued in 1982. The industry has come a long way since 1969 but it has much further to go. Standards are open to interpretation. The designer242 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels should at least meet the standard. (The author recommends a copy of these standards be obtained to ensure conformance with standard practices.) It is a matter of judgment about how much a standard should be exceeded. For example, D4097, a late standard, calls for 25 psig rating contact-molded flange nozzles to be used with all tanks. On the surface it appears to be a sound choice as no tank for the gravity storage of liquids would exceed that amount. Experience shows, however, that one of the problem areas of tank construction is the nozzles. Flanges are pulled off and nozzles cracked from tank walls: in general, it is a much abused area. The premium to use 100 Ib specification nozzles with no flange less than 3/4 in. thick regardless of size is a small one in the total cost of a tank. Heavier walls and thicker flanges go a long way to ensure rugged, trouble-free construction. (This does not apply to shell man-ways where piping bolt-up is not a problem; 25 1b man- ways may be safely used.) The use of ultraviolet (UV) screening agents for outdoor exposure to prevent UV degradation has been shown to be of little value. The incorporation of an opaque pigment in the resin-rich layer is a better choice. 7.1.2 Manufacture of Cylindrical Tanks Contact Molded A 100 mil corrosion barrier is followed by a structural lay-up of al- ternate plies of 1} oz mat and 24 oz roving. A final 1} oz mat and hot wax added coat finish the job. A UV inhibitor or opaque pig- ment can be added to the hot coat. This is a type II grade 20 la- minate. Glass content is about 35%. A type 10 grade I laminate is of all-mat construction with generally reduced physical strength (glass content, 25-30%). Filament Wound A 100 mil corrosion barrier is followed by a structural lay-up of filament winding. The normal wind angle is 54°45'. The ratio of hoop-axial strength is 2:1. Glass content is normally about 60%. The higher strength of the filament wind permits thinner struc- tural walls, which results in a less expensive vessel. Crucial to the design is an allowable strain of 0.001 in./in. Based on a tensile modulus of 2,000,000-4,000,000 psi (changes with thickness), an allowable wall stress of 2000-4000 psi is quite practical. ‘he fila- ment wind, however, does not have the corrosion resistance of the contact-molded laminate so that if the corrosion barrier is breached & problem may occur. The corrosion barrier is discounted for struc- tural calculations.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.RTP Tank Design 247 SNANSAANIAS ESS be FIGURE 7.2 Base joint behavior in a vertical cylinder. (From Ref. 1.) procurement is standardization and the ability to use those tanks built by highly automated procedures. Bidding from vendor to vendor varies considerably, depending upon many of the other common eco- nomic factors that produce variations in bidding. 7.1.4 Rectangular Tanks Although the designer will probably purchase and use ten cylindrical tanks for each rectangular tank, there are certain cases in which the problem parameters can be solved only by the use of a rectangu- lar tank. Normally this arises when maximum volume must be ob- tained or fitted into a limited space. The design of a rectangular tank is much more difficult than the design of a cylindrical tank. The engineer must check the design for wall stress, deflection in the wall, and possible failure at the corners and must provide all but the smallest rectangular tanks with both horizontal and vertical stiffening. Tank-top problems are also more difficult with rectangular tanks. AU these items add up248 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels FIGURE 7.3 Rectangular sectionalized tank permits building a large tank in a small space, solving the problem of passing through nar- row doors and passageways. to the conclusion that a rectangular tank is a premium tank that costs more because the job is more difficult. For a typical rectangu- lar tank design showing stiffener spacing, both horizontal and ver- tical, see Figures 7.3 and 7.24. Again, rectangular tanks must be provided with a continuous bot- tom support. They may be built in sections and assembled on the site when space requirements make such an assembly necessary. The corners of rectangular tanks seem to be the weakest point. A tank subject to vibration will probably fail at the corners first. A generous radius of 1}-2 in. at the upright corners and the base will minimize this problem. No standards exist for rectangular tanks. Each is a specially engineered custom-made product. 7.1.5 Spherical Tanks Geometric considerations indicate that the largest volume in relation to surface area can be contained in a shape whose surface is aRTP Tank Design 249 sphere. With this fascinating bit of information, and with the knowledge that the material ingredients of FRP tanks represent ap- proximately 50% of the total tank costs, it may be reasoned that the sphere would be a most attractive shape from a cost standpoint. In addition, since a ball can be filament wound with relative ease, we should also be achieving minimum labor costs, which normally repre- sent some 20% of the cost of the tank. (Overhead is the remaining 30%.) Figure 7.4 shows a tank that has been in operation for some 17 years in hot dilute sulfuric acid service. Spherical tanks were popular in the early 1960s, became less pop- ular at the end of the decade, and are enjoying a revival in the 1980s; one of them won the show award at the Society of the Plastic Industries, annual meeting in Houston, Texas, in January 1984. 10 inch Overflow and vent 3/4 inch wall ~ 24 inch Manway to have - (8) gussets 1/2 in.thick e/a of/| 24 inch Manway e/ | with cover 10 inch S/ | Outlet ae “FS on x] New acid proof” brick pedestals . y 3°Sch 40 pipe legs et 4 inch drain \ FIGURE 7.4 Spherical acid wash tank, 2500 gal capacity (by today's standards, the nozzles over 4 inch diameter would not be gusseted).aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 256 00ST—osL aweys aut] entD 00s -0008 sake] snonupuoa useMjeq Ing saehey Jo uoTooATp UE IND Yana, 000‘bT-000‘2T jsd ‘y}3uorjs avoys avays UIsey aeurureyt83UT saeqry eu} ssoaoe ynD uondrzoseq: suoTeaqsniy reuqure]-ssor9 adAy avoyg sossat}g qwayg oyeUTWET Jo sdk, €°2 FIGVLaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Flat-Bottom Tanks FIGURE 7.7 10,000 gal Filament-wound FRP Teflon crystallizer. 259Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 260 *g ‘Jou org :90unog ‘UE g/T Snupu royourerp afoy }10q = az18 10g “peoy oneysorpAy B1sd gt oy dn ‘AvM-ueW TUS-2pts,, t 02 Z/T 6 8/T T ce ve T 0z 2zZ T of a 8/L 4 4 T 28 0% B/E or B/E 2% T SZ 8st Cup st10q (Cut) (" up) aeac0o (cur) aeaco (ur) eztg aeqaurrp jo zaquiny appara oq. pue aSuey pue o8uey 4 aou Hos Jo aajoureta Jo ssOUMOIUL yo aajowerd el FavL SAtM-ueW Jo suorsuourg pwordAy,Flat-Bottom Tanks 261 4 ~~ | FIGURE 7.8 Flush nozzle installation. d = nozzle diameter; d, = cut- out reinforcement diameter greater of 2 x d or the nozzle diameter + 6 in. (see 4A. 11.2); hj = inside shear band length; hg = outside shear band length; hj + ho = hg; hg = total shear band length; tj = inside in- stallation laminate thickness, tw-to; to = outside installation thickness; ty = cutout reinforcement laminate thickness; tw = total installation thickness = lesser of tr and 2 x tn. (From Ref. 2.) divided between them. The author recommends that, except for the in- terior corrosion barriers, the thickness be applied to the outer surface. Beyond the limits of the structural diameter, the overlay should be tapered into the shell on a 6:1 taper. Only cylindrical openings should be made in the shell for reasons of economy and safety. In cylindrical vessels it is difficult to analyze properly openings other than round. Walkthrough manholes have been built and are rectangular with half-round ends. Although liberally re- inforced, these manholes led to tank problems after about 2 years. Good lay-up practices should be followed, such as staggered joints and joints at an angle to the axis of the cylinder. 7.2.11 Fabrication Tolerances [2] Please refer to Table 7.5 for the usual accepted tolerances and tank manufacture. 7.2.12 Workmanship As part of your specifications, insist that all cutouts be tagged and saved for your inspection. The fabricator too often is carelessaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.270 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels TABLE 7.8 Minimum Wall Thicknesses (in.) of Vertical Tanks Relative to Diameter and Distance from Top Diameter from top (ft) 2 24 3 34 4 4 5 2 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 4 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 6 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 8 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 10 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 12 3/16 «3/16 = B/G 8/16 = 8/16 ~S3/16 1/4 14 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 1/4 1/4 1/4 16 3/16 3/16 3/16 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 18 3/16 3/16 3/16 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 20 3/16 3/16 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 22 3/16 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 3/16 5/16 24 3/16 1/4 1/4 v4 1/4 5/16 5/16 Source: From Ref. 3. 7.2.19 Graduated Wall Heights for Economical Construction One of the secrets of providing maximum economies in tank construc- tion is to apply the principle of graduated wall heights. This applies primarily to hand-laid-up tanks, although it may also apply in the larger sizes of filament-wound construction. Except in extremely heavy-walled construction—and by this we mean above 5/8 in.—wall segments of different wall thickness may continue to provide addi- tional economies in wall depths of not less than 36 in. A typical ox- ample of a tank 12 ft in diameter by 24 ft high with graduated wall construction is shown in Figure 7.6 (p. 257.) Such a tank is perfectly capable of storing liquids with temperatures up to 200°F and may have a life expectancy of 15 years. It is very easy for the designer simply to specify a 5/8 in. bottom, a 5/8 in. wall, and a 5/8 in. top. Com- pare this with the graduated design that has been prepared. The premium the designer pays for not using a graduated wall is of the order of 6-35% of the total purchase price of the vessel. WhetherFlat-Bottom Tanks 271 Tank diameter (ft: in. lb units) Sy 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 4 4 1/4 3/16 3/16 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 4 1/4 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 3/8 76 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 3/8 7/16 1/2 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 3/8 T/16 V2 1/2 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 7/16 1/2 1/2 9/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 716 1/2 1/2 9/16 5/8 it is advantageous to provide a graduated wall thickness can speedily be determined by looking at the basie standard for vertical tanks. (See Table 7.8.) When only one graduation exists, that is, 3/16 and j in., the maximum savings would be of the order of 6-8% even for relatively large tanks. This, in essence, comprises the left third of the table. In the center of the table may be found savings ranging from 15 to 25% by following the graduated wall method. On the extreme right of the table, for large tanks, savings range from 18 to 35% by going to a graduated wall design. These factors are extremely important for the cost-conscious en- gineer seeking to minimize capital costs. Any tank whose capacity is less than 2200 gal will gain only marginal savings, if any, with the graduated wall thickness method. Normally, the greater the tank depth or tank diameter, the greater are the possible savings. In larger tanks of 15,000-20,000 gal, the possible dollar savings in tank construction, using the graduated wall method, can be very substantial. The more expensive the resin used, the greater are the potential savings.272 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 7.3 TANK AND VESSEL ASSEMBLY 7.3.1 Vessel Assembly Occassionally vessels are field assembled from panels or parts. This is generally done under the following circumstances: 1, The vessel is too large for road or rail shipment. 2. Field conditions preclude shipping it in one piece. 3. The fabricator does not have the mold for the tank so assem- bles it from a panel mold (four panels) plus tub mold (two parts). The tank is then assembled on site or it can be shop assembled. There is nothing wrong with the method; the problem is in its execution. The use of internal structural wraps is clearly not in accordance with PS 15-69 [4] (see 3.6.5 on page 12, shell joints; also Table 9, p. 13, which specifically spells out "outside" and "inside" width of overlay; also see QAPP, p. 18, 4.A-8.3.3 exterior overlays, and 4.A-8.3,4, interior overlays) [2]. Nor does it follow ASTM D4097 [3] (see p. 4, 7.1.1, 7.1.2, and 7.1.3, and p. 8, Tablo 2, and p. 9, Table 6). Most fabricators make the overlays properly, that is, with the corrosion barrier inside and the structural wrap outside. The problem is with new people and new engineers coming into the business who will, once in a while, combine the corrosion bar- rier and structural wrap in a single massive wrap on the inside of the vessel, little realizing they are creating substantial problems when they do this. There have been a number of attempts to put large tanks together with inside structural wraps instead of using a corrosion barrier of V-M-M or V-M-M-M on the inside and the structural overlay on the outside (V = yell: C veil or synthetic; M = 1} oz mat). In general, putting the structural wrap on the inside may result in problems ranging from wrap failure before the tank is put in service to cata- strophic failure after the tank is in service with tremendous damage possibilities. The structural portion of the wrap should never be exposed to hazardous chemicals. 7.3.2 The Wrapped Joint Inside Versus Outside The structural wrap is equal in thickness to the tank wall. It should go on the outside of a tank. As it exotherms, it hardens. As itaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.274 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels to structural internal wraps is putting internal stiffeners in vessels. These heavy masses, generally half-rounds, also pose problems. The same applies to supports. Stiffeners to prevent collapse should al- ways to on the vessel exterior. Internal supports for beams, trays, or packing require special consideration. Some ideas for low elongation resins are as follows: Limit thickness to 1/4 in. Interrupt the support every 3-4 ft to prevent buildup and transmittal of stress in the support. Build the support outside the vessel in sections. Feed it into the vessel through the manhole. Strap it to the wall with interrupted wraps 3/16-1/4 in. thick. Studies of debonded structural wraps placed internally in large- diameter vessels showed myriad problems. When the wrap debonds from the wall it will fail at its weakest point, which can change from wrap interlaminar shear to de- bonding at the roving in the wall to resin shear on the wrap/ wall interface to a resin change interface in the wall. With very heavy internal wraps (3/4-7.8 in.) with a low elonga- tion resin, debonding in 15-18 ft integral lengths is observed. Putting a wrap on 3-4 ft at a time and letting it exotherm before proceeding has been tried. Even if the applicator moves around the tank, this does not stop the wrap from acting as a continuous integral piece. The affinity of the wrap itself is greater than that of the tank wall. At least in theory the case can be made that internal wraps 1/8~ 3/16 in. thick are fine; in the 1/4~3/8 in. area the quality of wrapping is the determining factor, and above 1/2 in. through 3/4 and 7/8 in. thick the probability of a successful internal wrap application is almost nil. A wrap on the outside of the tank is a very forgiving construc- tion. The same faults tolerated on the outside spell disaster inside. The ASTM D4097 standard [3] differentiates between a circumferen- tial and an axial wrap. Basically, for the same design conditions, an axial wrap (one in a vertical or horizontal direction) should be twice as wide as a circumferential wrap. This is a departure from PS 15-69 and the QAPP, which do not spell out this difference. What this means is that with a 10:1 safety factor the shear bond de- sign strength circumferentially is 200 psi but only 100 psi axially.Design of External Pressure 215 It can be reasoned that if low-exotherm catalysts (cumene hydro- peroxide) were used with high-elongation resins (4-10%), the chance of debonding with heavy internal wraps would be reduced. The best advice is as follows: Do not put structural wraps inside a tank. Put the corrosion barrier inside V-M-M or V-M-M-M and the structural component on the outside Make axial wraps twice as wide as circumferential wraps for the same design conditions. 7.4 DESIGN OF EXTERNAL PRESSURE 7.4.1 Calculations of External Pressure There are a number of methods for determining the collapsing pres- sure of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when they are constructed of glass-reinforced plastics. All involve a known vessel configuration and then an assumption of wall thick- ness. Several trial-and-error calculations will quickly approximate the desired design. Note: Figure 7.12 is based on the (Do/t) lines, scales, and grid used in Appendix V of Section VIII of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code. Superimposed are the second set of lines, which depict a series of idealized stress-strain curves for FRP laminates. These sloped lines are straight, on the assumption that the tensile modulus of elasticity does not vary as the stress level is increased. The FRP chart does not include a safety factor, which must be applied after determination of the theoretical collapsing pressure for a given cylin- der or head. At elevated temperatures the safety factor should be increased to include the effect of temperature on the modulus of elas- ticity. This FRP chart assumes Poisson's ratio is 0.3, Assuming that the actual value of Poisson's ratio is between 0.25 and 0,35, then FRP chart values may be in error by as much as 38. Directions for use of the chart for external pressure on FRP pipe or vessels are as follows (taken from paragraph UG-28¢ of Section VIII of the ASME Code): 1, Assume a value for wall thickness t. Determine the ratios of length to outer diameter (L/Dg) and outer diameter to wall thickness (Dg/t). 2, Enter the left-hand side of the chart at a value of L/D, from step 1.276 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 50 7 T 50,000 ATL fi | » EIN(R leis Ri lsle pe ma B33] 2|3a/3]]3 (Halla lala ae 25,00 18 Hl 18,000 4 14,000 10 10,000 80 . 8,000 s 6.0 6,000 4 5 \ J 40 4,000 2 30 3,000 § = = | Bt 3g 20 \ 2/000 22 i, i a [| ee 32 2-3 aL cz $2 2 SNe a0 SE 7.7 which is satisfactory. Design of the Stiffener Ring In the last 15 years this design practice has evolved from a safety factor of 1.1 (10%) for the ring to the current practice of SF 5.0.280 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels Ww vt, te ~SP where: Wg = collapse pressure, psi, = 13.98 D = outside diameter of shell = 49.375 in. L, = distance between stiffeners, in., = 36 in. SF = safety factor = 5 E = flexural modulus = 1,000,000 1, = required moment of inertia le 1 = (23.98) (49.375) °(36) (5) e (24) (1,000,000) 2 3.3 x 10° 2.4 x 10" = 15 Refer to the stiffener table of Figure 7.14 [2]. A 4 in. radius half- round with a 3/8 in, wall has an I of approximately 32, including the wall section acting with the stiffener. This is very adequate. To calculate the wall section acting with a stiffener, = 1.1VDot ly = length of wall acting with stiffener, in. o = vessel outside diameter, in. t = wall thickness In the example, = 1. 1v (49,375) (0.6875) = 6.4 in, The moment of inertia of a stiffener is the moment of inertia calcu-Design of External Pressure 281 mew S1aWS AND KIOMENT af DERI Of Ya Rowwo SriFeenaR Eis Pears [erent Se aur eH cee or MK AAASAAAIAAR AAAANANAAANEE AWN ASAI ie ANAS | «| \ aa FIGURE 7.14 Half-round stiffener detail. F =R. At locations A, taper reinforcing element into shell taper < 1:6. tg = stiffener thick- ness (in.), to consist of alternate plies of mat and woven roving with a final ply of mat. (From Ref. 2.) lated with Dg as the axis, including the section of wall acting with the stiffener. Critical Length Between Stiffeners In long thin cylinders under external pressure, a critical length exists between stiffeners. In simplified form, Southwell [6] dis- covered this relationship to be, when u = 0.30, 1, = 1.114 fz ¢ t282 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 200 We=KE($)> We * Collapsing pressure. K™ = Coefficient depending on + 100 and 9 given by curves 80 E = Modulus of elasticity of the material. 60 t= Thickness of shell D = Outside diameter of cylinder. 40 Values of K ‘oa a6081 2 46810 2 40 68010 200 Values of FIGURE 7.15 Collapse coefficients: round cylinders with pressure on sides only, edges simply supported; u = 0.30. (From Ref. 7.)284 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 3 Wy = xe (5) where: We = collapse pressure, psi K = coefficient depending on L/D, and D,/t, given by curves E = modulus of elasticity of material t = thickness of shell, in. outside diameter of shell, in. If we apply a safety factor of 6, then the equation becomes “Fale °. If the shell is a separate body from the head, use Figure 7.15. Then, K = 40 40 6 /_0.68 5 w= 3% 40° (i5-378) = (6.666 x 106) (0.0000027) = 18.0 which is the same collapse pressure as was calculated by the first method. Both methods given comparable results. The first method pro- vides a more rapid solution.Design of External Pressure 285 Elastic Buckling of the Shell Elastic buckling of shell can be approximated by 2 te Et pi = 0.807 > 4 ° where: 1 = distance between ribs, in. t = wall thickness Vo = radius, in. E = modulus V = Poisson's ratio = 0.3 p' = pressure at which buckling occurs 6. 2, ts (20 90.68") pl = 0.807 “35)(24.68) _ (872834) (0.095) = 88.48 = 39.9 psi Buckling of the shell would occur at 39.9 psi, but since our operating vacuum is 14.0 psi then our safety factor against buckling is 39. 9/ 14.0 = 2.85, which is satisfactory. Another method used for calculating external loading on cylinders uses the following steps with no graphic assistance [2]: (1) com- pute the value Pe)" 1.73 (2 If the result is less than L/Dy, then (2) compute 2.5 P D E“o/t = 2.602 F 2 (5) ° If the result of computation 1 is greater than L/D,, then (3) compute286 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 2.6E/F ty? pe — 2 Lp. ~ 0.45 (tip °° 0 o where: Dg = outside diameter, in. E = modulus of elasticity F = safety factor = 5 or 6 (5 by quality assurance practices and procedures; 6 in the example) L = length of cylinder of stiffening element, in. Pg = allowable external pressure, psi t = wall thickness, in. Calculations for Dished Heads Under External Loading If we continue with our example, let us investigate the various types of heads. For a hemispherical dished head where the radius of the dish is equal to the tank diameter, refer to Figure 7.12 for a graphic solution; tank diameter = 49,975 and dish radius = 49.375. Let us assume a head thickness of 1.0 in. E = 10° 49.375 in. 49.375 Ja oc _ Too, ~ (100)(1-0) ~ 0.48 L _ 49.975 bt 10 = 49.37 At E = 1,000,000, use the sphere line. At L/100Q = 0.49, go to the left side of the chart to the sphere line, then vertically to E = 1,000,000. Then read B off the right side of the chart (5000). Then, B/D aTowers Under Internal Pressure 289 Flat covers have much to recommend them over dished tops: They are generally less expensive. They are safer. A dished top is a safety hazard to personnel on it, particularly if wet. If personnel are expected as routine traffic on a dished top, the top should have grit in the traffic surface. All necessary measures to ensure safety should be taken. For large tanks the client may specify two workers on the cover at one time. This far outweighs any other loading conditions, such as snow or wind, and will govern the cover design. Insulation, or lack of it, is important. With insulation, snow can accumulate. Remember, a sandwich cover is an insulated cover. Without insulation on thin covers (1/4~3/8 in.) and with media of 120-150°F in the tank, the snow will melt as fast as it falls, but if the tank is empty the snow load remains. For a detailed design of a large cover, see Section 7.6.3. 7.6 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TOWERS UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE Problem Design an FRP packed tower 13 ft 8 in. diameter by 36 ft 0 in. on a vertical side. The tower is to strip amines from a 4500 gpm water feed with 26,500 cfm air at 10 in. water static pressure. The strip- ping air is discharged below the tank cover through windows in the vertical side. Physical Design Basis Wind load, 100 mph Seismic load, zone 1 Snow load, 10 Ib/ft? Packing weight, 3.8 lb/ft? Water hold up, 20% of packing volume Fiberglass density, 0,056 1b/in.3 A 250 lb man on tower cover Packing volume: 15 ft lower section, 15 ft upper packed section, 6 ft top section not packed but used for distribution Safety factor, 10:1 A number of preliminary calculations were made. It was finally de- cided to go through with the design based on the following proposal:290 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 3 in. for lower 15 ft packed section 3/8 in. for upper 15 ft packed section } in. for 6 ft upper distribution section + in. conical cap with eight reinforcing ribs Based on the above, the following weights were worked out: Estimated pounds FRP = 8,200 Packing structural supports = 3,800 Packing = 17,500 Hold up water = 62,000 Total weight = 91,500 Ib 7.6.1 Design of Base Section For a 4 in. wall trial, perform the following calculations. Dead Weight 91,500 146.4 x 62.4 x 2.3 = 4.4 psi = PD aoe _ G.4)164) (20.8) 721 psi Wind wl = qC,A where: q = effective velocity pressure (see Table 7.9) = 34 Cy = dimensionless coefficient from Table 7.10 [2] A = projected area of vessel De = equivalent diameter, slightly larger than Dg to allow for protuberances, ft h = vessel height, ftTowers Under Internal Pressure 291 TABLE 7.9 Effective Velocity Pressures® Basie wind speed (mph) 60 80 100 Height es (ft above grade) af ap at ap af ap 0-30 10 15 15 24 26 38 30-50 13 15 23 26 36 40 50-100 15 17 26 29 41 46 100-200 17 19 31 34 48 53 200-300 19 21 35 38 34 59 300-400 21 23 37 41 58 64 400-500 22 25 39 43 61 68 “If A = 200 ft? use qp. If A is 200-1000 ft2, interpolate between qf and gp. If A is above 1000 ft2, use qf. Source: Extracted from Reference 2. For the complete table, consult the reference. TABLE 7.10 Net Pressure Coefficients Cp (Freestanding Structures Cantilevered from their Base: Vertical Vessels, Tanks, Stacks, Chimneys, and so on)# Shape h/d < 25 h/d > 25 Round (d Vaf > 2.5) 0.6 0.7 Round (d Vqf < 2.5) 1.2 icf Square (wind normal to a face) 1.4 2.0 Square (wind along diagonal) LL 1.5 Hexagonal or octagonal 1.2 1.4 “Note: h = height of structure, ft; d = diameter or least horizontal dimension, ft; qf = effective velocity pressure, psf. Source: From Ref. 2.292 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels A = (15)(37) = 555 Wy = (1.2)(34) (15) (37) 22,644 Ib Wind Moment M,, = 6W,h where My = moment, in. Ib. My, = (6) (22, 644) (37) = 5,026,968 in. lb Sectional modulus id at = (3.14) (827) (0.5) = 10,556 in.® M _ 5,026, 958 ; S= 7" To,556 ~ 476 pst Seismic Calculate period of vibration: S T = period of vibration, sec W = vessel weight including contents, lb/ft h = height, ft Ea = axial modulus of elasticity 1 = moment of inertia of shell, in? g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec”Towers Under Internal Pressure 293 W = 91,500 lb +37 = 2473 h = 37 ft Ey = 1,000,000 le art = (3.14) (829) (0.5) = 865,647 g = 32 p= DG) (2473) (374) 3.53 (000, 000) (865, 647) (32) = 0.024 From Table 7.11 [2], zone 1, when T = 0.024 and C = 0.05, then, _ 4ex?(sH ~ x) M. H2 sx where: Mgx = moment at height H, in. C = seismic coefficiency H = total vessel height TABLE 7.11 Seismic Coefficient C® Period Period Period Zone < 0.4 sec 0,4-1.0 sec > 71.0 sec 1 0.05 0.02/T 0.02 2 0.10 0.04/T 0.04 3 0.20 0.08/T 0.08 “Uniform Building Code specifies C = 0.10 in. in zone 3 for freestanding stacks and other structures. Source: From Ref. 2.294 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels X = distance from top of vessel W = total weight of vessel plus contents, 1b Therefore, the moment at the base is % (4) (0. 05) (91, 500) (377) [3(37 - 37) 2 37 8x = 1,350,109 section modulus = amt (3.14) (827) (0.5) = 10556 Total Stress at Base 8, =8,+5, or 8. = 121 + 476 = 1197 psi _ 15,000 SF = “Tio7 = 12.5 Critical Buckling Stress for a Thin Cylinder [1.4 + 0,16 In (r/t)] Et where: Se = critical buckling stress, psi r = cylinder radius, in. t = shell thickness, in. E, = axial modulus of elasticity d = cylinder diameter s = [4+ 0.16 In (82/0.5)) (10) (0.5) 164 _ 8736 _ F = 1197 > 5.62Towers Under Internal Pressure 295 7.6.2 Hold-Down Lugs for Base The forees on the hold-down lugs may be calculated from 1.695M, - 1.46W. rN 1.695M_ — 1.46W S r s rN Fy = lug force, Ib, from wind moment My Fg = lug force, Ib, from seismic moment Mg Fy = lug force, 1b, from internal pressure Pg r= vessel radius, in. N = number of hold-down lugs W = vessel weight (empty) less bottom For hold-down lug design for the base of the tower, it is nec- essary to have a tight seal between the tower base and the concrete to prevent the escape of the stripping air. A full-face elastomer with 40 durometer and of neoprene or chlorobutyl should be satis- factory, or RTV. A relatively close lug and bolt spacing is dictated because of the lug force and the need for an airtight seal. It is proposed that 64 bolts be used on a 172 in. bolt circle, This positions a bolt every 8} in. Wind 1,695M,, - 1.46W or rN Vessel weight empty = 29,257 Ib. (1.695) (5,026, 968) — (1.46) (29, 257) (82) w (82) (64) 10 — 3,502,648 _ 5248 ~ ¥.296 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels Dead Weight am’e. =" — N - 90,000 ~ 62.4 * 146.7 x 2.3 Ps = 4.3 psi 64 _ 90787 — 29257 ~ 64 _ 61530 _ =“ = 961 Ib Lug force = F. + F = 956 + 961 = 1917 Ib wey The bolting is dictated by the need to maintain a tight seal plus the total lug force. Since the seismic moment (1,336,742) is much less than the wind moment (5,026,968), the wind moment plus dead weight governs. The number of bolts would be 64 (8} in. spacing). The bolts should be 1 1/8 in. in diameter with a root area of 0.693 in.2, With a lug force of 1917 Ib, the bolt stress would be 2764 psi, again a SF of 4.04. To maintain rigidity it is proposed to bend a 6 x 6 x 3/8 in. angle to the skirt radius, encapsulate it, and wrap it to the tower. 7.6.3 Cover Design Roark [8] (Formulas for Stress and Strain, 4th Ed.) is a valuable reference for solution to problems of this type (pp. 216-239). The factors to be evaluated are dead weight, wind and snow load, 250 Ib load on a 4 x 4 in. area, or any combination of these. Gen- erally the 250 Ib load is construed to be a man on the roof. It is unlikely he would be there in high winds or heavy snow. Nor is it likely that maximum snow load and wind load would occur simultan- eously. In any case, for the purpose of this illustration such a load will be worked out. In going through problems of this type, nearly always the 250 Ib concentrated load is the controlling factor in deter- mining roof design. A preliminary design should be made and then the design evalu- ated and revised if necessary. Quite often several designs will beTowers Under Internal Pressure 297 evaluated before it is thought that the optimum is reached. If the service is not severe, the cover interior (100-140 mils) may be a high-performance resin and the exterior portion of the cover an isophthalic resin. As the isophthalic resin may cost only half as much as the liner, considerable savings may be achieved. Good design practices should be followed. Safety factors of at least 5 are desirable. ‘The deflection should not exceed 0.5% of the vessel diameter. Exterior stiffeners can be used. Generally these are like the spokes of a wheel and are excellent ways to limit de- flection. Avoid positioning stiffeners on the cover which will trap water, ASTM 4097 states the minimum thickness of the top head shall be 3/16 in. With the foregoing guidance we can begin. The vessel is 13 ft 8 in. in diameter. The cover will have a slope of 10° ‘to the center. Let us assume a } in. thick cover with eight stiffeners in a pie con- figuration spaced at 45°, Use 6 in. diameter half-rounds, 5/16 in. overlay with an I of 10, including the cover. Dead Weight Stiffener weight = 4.5 lb/ft x 56 ft = 252 lb Weight of cover skin = (13.667)(0.785)(4 lb/ft”) = 585 Ib Wrap, top to sides = } in thick x 8 in. wide = 115 Ib Total weight = 952 Ib This is equal to 0.045 psi. Wind Load aCeA = (34)(1.2) - (1.2)(13.66) = 669 1b This is equal to 0.063 psi acting on half the vessel. Snow Load Snow load = 10 Ib/ft?, This is equal to 0,069 psi. Under the worst- case conditions,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached 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The engineer should be warned that the general-purpose and isophthalic resins, in addition to many of the high-performance chemical-resistant bis- phenols and hydrogenated bisphenol resins, do not contain this all- important chlorine or bromine atom. Fire spread ratings of poly- ester resins lacking the chlorine or brominated addition are relatively high (350-400), and higher than red oak in combustibility (flame spread rating of 100). The addition of antimony trioxide to any of these resins lacking the chlorine or bromine atom is not a means of providing fire retardancy. Because a duct material, such as PVC, is rated as nonburning the engineer should not be deluded into thinking that the possi- bilities of duct fires have been eliminated. Many duct fires are fed by ignited deposits in the duct, The deposit itself may be extremely combustible. In the case of PVC duct systems, with their low melt- ing point, collapse of the duct systems occurs early in the fire, and the melted material, along with the ignited deposits, may drop into the plant or room and become the source of a general conflagration. Plastisol duct systems may spew flaming jelly into an area. The contain- ment of duet fires within the duct is thus of paramount importance. Some polyester duct fires have resulted in extensive amounts of smoke damage since the compound burns with a voluminous amount of dense black smoke. When used in clean-room areas, smoke da- mage alone is something to be reckoned with. The tunnel test (ASTM E84, Standard Method of Test for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials) is the standard refer- ence used for determining the fire spread ratings of materials in ductwork construction, but a word of advice is in order. The tun- nel needs to be calibrated frequently to make sure that the results achieved reflect a true rating. For example, on large orders of ductwork material, purchasers have insisted on tunnel tests being performed on samples of the materials to be furnished. If a tunnel test is desired, make sure that the tunnel has been recently cali- brated. For example, material fire spread ratings of 30-40 have been obtained solely because the tunnel was out of calibration. The same materials with a calibrated tunnel tested 17-25. Off-standard re- sults may mean material manufactured to an improper specification, but it may also mean a tunnel in need of calibration. 8.14 FRP STACKS 8.14.1 General Concepts The light weight, good strength, and chemical resistance of FRP make it an ideal material for stacks up to the temperature limit of the resin (300°F is common).FRP Stacks 393 Self-supporting stacks up to 50-100 ft are built with no guy sup- port, but more commonly guys are used above 40 ft. Many stacks are built to 200 ft or more in height with guyed support. Diameters of 4 and 6 ft are commonplace and represent no design problems. There are many examples of guyed FRP stacks up to 285 ft high and as much as 7 ft in diameter that have been in service for 10 years or longer. Loose chimney liners of up to 1200 ft have been installed in large stacks at high temperatures with unique construction techniques. Many have been done 600-800 ft tall. To provide greater rigidity, it is possible to use sandwich con- struction. Killam [16] in 1971 described a unique freestanding stack that was 13 ft in diameter by 125 ft high. Stacks may also be supported laterally at a 10-20 ft interval from existing supporting structures. This makes a stack most economical to build as only a thin shell is required. Sometimes stacks are car- ried inside a steel framing. Shadduck [17] describes one of these in Austria that is 9 ft in diameter by 495 ft high. Quite often, condensation in the stack is to be guarded against, as in flue gas exhaust. The stack may then be insulated with 1 in. urethane in- sulation over which an 1/8 in. FRP skin is applied. Allowance must be made for differential expansion between the stack and the skin. Insulating a stack raises the laminate temperature to a level approach- ing the internal temperature of the stack. A temperature profile of the stack wall should be calculated for normal and upset conditions. 8.14.2 Stack Design In general, stack design must cover the following areas: Normal dead weight load Guy wire compression Wind load Earthquake analysis . Bending moments Buckling Temperature profile of stack NOapene Shell thicknesses are normally graduated from the top to the bottom for tall stacks. Next, stack shells are normally built in 25-50 ft sections (although some have been built in 75 ft sections), sometimes flanged to facili- tate erection. The guy wires are attached to lugs on stainless steel bands that encircle the stack at the desired elevation. ‘Yo provide resistance to buckling, circumferential stiffener rings are added (lateral pressure or circumferential stress). The basic shortcut394 Duct Systems, Scrubbers, Stacks, and Chimney Liners assumes a stack design that will support a uniform external pres- sure of 5 in. HzO against collapse with a safety factor of 5:1 and a pressure check at 3.0 psi. The flanges in a stack serve the dual purpose of stiffeners. The guy wire bands, if wrapped into the stack, can also serve as stiffeners. Tall stacks also require 1. Lightning protection 2. Colored bands 3. Aviation warning lights (above 200 ft) 4, Sprinkler protection, or quench nozzles 5. An ultraviolet inhibitor as protection against UV degradation by the sun's rays or a pigmented gel coat as a UV inhibitor and to match the color of the surrounding area Stack histories in FRP go back for at least 25 years with a good record of performance. 8.14.3 Precautions Another word of caution: the fire hazard of FRP stacks is very real. 1, Build your stacks of those fire-retardant resins with fire spread ratings of 25 or less. 2, Guard against deposits in the stack or oxidizing compounds that may be deposited. Install flushing connections in the stack to keep the walls clean. 3. Fire protection (or a quench system) is a must. 4. Assess whether the stack should be electrically grounded. See Chapter 10 for suggestions. It is perfectly practical to ground a stack using established techniques so that the re- sistance to ground from any point does not exceed 106 2. On tall stacks or liners multiple grounds should be used. A stack or stack liner should be grounded if any of the following conditions exist: 1. Dry dust is carried in the gas stream. 2, Oxidizing substances are deposited on the stack walls that could furnish oxygen to a fire (sodium chlorate, potassium permanganate, and sodium perchlorate are examples). 3. Upsets can produce a gas stream that is potentially combustible. 4. Consequential damage from fire in the stack is substential. 5. There is danger of ignition from a stack spark.396 Duct Systems, Scrubbers, Stacks, and Chimney Liners 2, Gussets = 25 3. Section 1 Shell, 3/8 in. thick: (3.14) (48) (0. 375) (0. 065) (45) (12) = 1983 Flange: (562)(0.785) — (482)(0.785) (0.75) (0.065) (653) = 32 Bolts 18 Total = 2033 Ib 4. Section 2 (second flange, 32 Ib), 3/8 in, wall 2065 5. Section 3 3/8 in. wall repeat of Section 2 2065 6. Section 4, (3.14)(48) (0.25) (0.065) (40) (12) = 1175 3 in. wall top 50 7. Total dead weight of stack = 7611 Ib Assume the top ring takes care of the top piece. Wind load on top section (4): (300,60) 48-752<85) = 2559 25 (0.60) 48-79) (10) = 609 Total = 3168 Ib Wind load on section 2 (third from top): (28) (0,60) 8-79) (40) = 2438 (20)¢0.60) 48-75 (45) = 244 Total = 2682 lb Wind load on section 1 (bottom section): (20) (0.60) ae (45) = 2193 Ib Stiffener Calculations For stiffener location, the general assumption is made of FRP stack design that the stack must be capable of resisting a uniform external pressure of 5 in. of water, with a safety factor of 5:1 against col- lapse. On this basis, stiffener spacings are calculated. This is to keep the stack round and provide additional resistance to buckling.FRP Stacks 399 Lower portion of Section 2: 26 x 12_ 40.75 5-4 B = 225 BL . 47.7, . P= 57g = 1:78 psi = —Z in. HyO = 9.54 safety factor Check Section 1 for stiffeners: top portion of Section 1: B = 1150 B 1150 , 244 _ P= p,m 7 330 ~ 884 psi Sin. H,0 = 48.8 Lower part of Section 2: 38x 12_ 48.75 = 9-35 = safety factor 8.0 Begin with Section 4, and analyze compressive loads from the top down: compressive forces at point D on bottom part of top piece.400 Duct Systems, Scrubbers, Stacks, and Chimney Liners The compressive forces are the dead weight plus the vertical com- ponent of the guy wire pull. Section 4: Dead weight = 1125 Wind load = b ~ 1125 Ib Tangent A = 5 = 1.0 = 2910 Ib Guy wire design: 2910 cos A= = 4115 Ib Total = 4035 compressive load. Cross-sectional area of top section: (48.507) ~ (48.007) (0.7854) = 2352 - 2304 = 48.25 in.” 5 — 4035 _ ‘ Compressive load stress = 37-55 = 106 psi Assume compressive strength = 18,000 psi. Therefore, Safety factor = 18.000 = 169 very adequate Proceed with Section 3, and analyze compressive loads: Compressive load, section 4 4035 Ib Dead weight, section 3 = 2065 Guy wire pull, section 3: 3168/0.707 4480 Ib Compressive load guy wire 3168 Total = 9268 Ib Total compressive load at base of section 3, area of section 3: (48.757) — (48,00%)(0. 7854) = 2376.5 = 2904 - 72.5 in.” Compressive load stress = —2288— - 328 isin.” 72.5 in.FRP Stacks 401 Therefore, 20,000 Safety factor = o> = 157 OK Proceed with Section 2, and assume guys are also used to sta- bilize column (worst conditions). Compressive load, sections 4 and 3 = 9.268 Ib* Guy wire pull, Section 2: 2682/0.707 = 3,793 Compressive load guy wire = 2,628* Dead weight of section 2 = _2,065* Total compressive load = 13,961 Ib 13, %1 1b _ 193 psi 72.5 in. Therefore, 20,000 = Safety factor 104 193 Proceed with Section 1, and assume guys are also used to sta- bilize column: Compressive load sections 2, 3, and 4 = 13,961 Ib* Guy wire pull, section 1: 2192 = 3,100 Compressive load (wind) = 2,192* Dead weight, section 1 = _2,033 Total compressive load at base of section 1 = 18,186 Ib 18, 161 i 1984 pai 72.5 in. Therefore, _ 20,000 _ Safety factor = J55~ = 80 *At base of Section 2.402 Duct Systems, Scrubbers, Stacks, and Chimney Liners Deflection from Wind Load Examine top section (4): 24 2490 75 = 1494 2910 Ib 48.75 (30) (11) (0,60) 12 = 804 48.75 _ 1767 (25) (29) (0.60) “i? = 3571 ibs (28) (26)¢0.60) “$75 = 1584 48.75 _ _ 341 (207) (0.60) “8-78 = SE (258) (0.60) 48:22 = ass 48.75 1096 (15) (30)(0.60) “9 = Teeq Ib T = 488 + 1096 = 1584 Ib Calculate maximum deflections and stress for section 4: 4 M =u (Max) ~ 8ET 4 1 = (0,7854)(R* - R4y " 1 = (0.7854)(24.254 — 24,04) (0.7854) (345,817 — 331,776) " I= 11,027 m= 8-20¢2004) ___ 3.56 « 101? (max) (800,000) (11,027) 7.05 x 192? wi? _ (5.18) (288%) M fixed end = —- = = 214,824 in. Ib (max) 2 2FRP Stacks 405 Calculate for Sections 1 and 2: owl! Snax &t center = soapy (5) (4.22) (4564) (384) (1, 000, 000) (16,672) _ 9.12 x 10!? 0.14 in. deflection at center 2 2. Mat center = NL = (4-22)(456") max 8 8 _ 109,686 _ . = faq = 158 pai Therefore, _ 15,000 _ Safety factor = “33,- = 95 For section 1, base section, calculate deflection: 4 _ Swi D mare at center = seer I = 16,672 w = 6.85 10 wm = S28 21 ~ 9.010 in. max 6.40 = 10 Section modulus = 694 2, M wi? _ 6.85) (2287) = gg ga max 8 8 . _ 44,511 _ : Stress = Mot = 64 psiimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit 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181, 182 static friction, 182 support, 174F support span reduction vs. temperature, 193T thermal expansion, 177, 179, 180F torsion problems, 184 independent support of valves, 187 rotational torque, 184, 185T, 185—187T torsional strengths, 185T types of hangers, 173T vacuum collapse, 192, 193 valves, 187, 187T vents, 191 warnings, 191-194 Surface resistivity, 458T Tank failure analysis, 330-332 abrasion, 331 avoid freezing liquid, 332 chemical attack, 331 clear specifications, 332 corrosion barrier breaching, 330-331 climinate hammering, 332 exothermic reactions, 331 inspect on delivery, 331 nozzle rupture, 331 over pressure, 330 protect the corrosion barrier, 330-331 Index Tanks anchoring, 301 anchor bolt specifications, 303T anchor bolt torque force, 301T Tanks, earthquake conditions, 333 hold-down lugs, 336 safety factors, 335 summary, 336 types of construction, 335 filament wound, 335 hand laid-up, 335 modular wound, 335 Tanks, flat bottom, 241-247, 250, 218 Barcol readings, 261T, 265-267 bottom support, 269 chemical test, acetone, 267 conical gusseted nozzle, 264F cost economies, 246 cylindrical flat bottom, 241, 250-278 defects, 262, 266 external pressure, 275—288 chart for determining collapse pressure, 276F collapse coefficients, round cylinders with pressure on sides and ends, 283F collapse coefficients, round cylinders with pressure on sides only, 282F critical length between stiffeners, 281, 283 dished heads, 286—288 elastic buckling of the shell, half round stiffener detail, 281F stiffener ring design, 279- 281 typical barometric condenser design, 278—283 wall section acting with stiffener, 280image. not___ availableimage not availableabout the book... First published in 1969 as Chemical Plant Design with Reinforced Plastics, this updated and revised edition of a classic work makes available a wealth of new information and technologies which have appeared since the original edition went to press, This useful reference tells you how to improve the abrasion resistance of fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) by 500% without reducing its chemical resistance . . . recognize and ameliorate the mechanism of FRP corrosion or deterioration . . . choose the most appropriate fabrication method for your individual needs . . . attain large savings by using linings effectively . . . engineer tanks and process vessels for a long service life .. . plus much more, Corrosion-Resistant Plastic Composites in Chemical Plant Design con- tains new tables and charts for higher temperature design considerations . . . provides a compendium of reliable design methods, applications, and formulas . . . details commonly encountered design problems and their solutions for piping, tanks, structures, ducts, stacks, and buried piping . . . discusses failure and failure analysis . . . and gives over 30 case histories for each application to guide engineers with real-world examples. Complete with diagrams and photographs, this valuable reference will serve as an indispensable source for chemical, plastics, civil, mechanical, and plant engineers as well as for technical managers in the resin, glass, pulp and paper, food, utility, and chemical industries. about the author... Joun H. MALLInson is President of J.H. Mallinson, P.E. & Associates, Inc. in Front Royal, Virginia, an engineering consulting firm specializing in chemical resistant reinforced plastic equipment. Formerly he worked in industry as a chief plant engineer and project manager. He has taught at the University of Virginia (1977-83) and Lord Fairfax Community College (1981), and conducted numerous training seminars on reinforced plastics and linings. The author of Chemical Plant Design with Reinforced Plastics, he has written some 25 papers for publication or professional society presentations, and contributed to Composite Materials Encyclopedia and Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook (Marcel Dekker, Inc.). Mr. Mallinson holds a number of U.S. patents on chemical process machinery. He is a member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, and American Society for Testing and Materials. A registered Professional Engineer in the State of Virginia, Mr. Mallison received the B.S.Ch.E. degree (1939) from the University of Pittsburgh. Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 0—8247—7687—9 marcel dekker, inc./new york - basel