Water Contamination Research

Water Contamination Research
CollectedNotesonToxicsLeachingfromPlastic,MetalandCementationsContainers,
BacterialRegrowth,andDisinfectionByproducts
May2005
ThisdocumentisdesignedtobeviewedinOUTLINEmodeinMicrosoftWord.
ThesearetherawresearchnotesforWaterStoragebyOasisDesign.
Thereisnoanalysisorsynthesishere.Thehealtheffectsdependonthe:
Material
Additives,moldreleaseagents,coatings,etc.
Contacttime
Contactarea
Temperature
Ageofthematerial(somebecomelessnoxiouswithtime,somemore)
Exposuretosunlight
Susceptibilityoftheindividual
Totheextentwewereabletomakeanysenseoftheinformationbelow,ouranalysiscan
befoundinourwaterstoragebook:
http://www.oasisdesign.net/water/storage/
Muchofthismaterialiscopyrightedbyothersandisreproducedhereunderthefairuse
doctrine.Thesourceforthematerialisgivenatthestartofeachsection.
Water Quality Standards

National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Regulations
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html
http://www.ehso.com/ehshome/DrWater/drinkingwaterstds.htm
NationalPrimaryDrinkingWaterRegulations(NPDWRsorprimarystandards)are
legallyenforceablestandardsthatapplytopublicwatersystems.Primarystandards
protectdrinkingwaterqualitybylimitingthelevelsofspecificcontaminantsthatcan
adverselyaffectpublichealthandareknownoranticipatedtooccurinpublicwater
systems.Table1dividesthesecontaminantsintoInorganicChemicals,Organic
Chemicals,Radionuclides,andMicroorganisms.SeeSettingStandardsforSafeDrinking
WatertolearnaboutEPA'sstandardsettingprocess.Followtheselinkstodownload
copiesofNationalPrimaryDrinkingWaterRegulationsandNationalSecondary
DrinkingWaterRegulations.
National Sanitation Foundation. 2001. NSF Standard 61 Drinking

Water System Components
http://www.nsf.org/Certified/PwsComponents/
Searchabledatabaseofcertifiedcomponents
Leaching from metals

Lead
http://www.denverwater.org/waterquality/pbwater.htmlWhere
Brassfaucetscanlegallycontainasmuchaseightpercentleadbyweight.Soldersand
fluxareconsideredleadfreewhentheycontainnotmorethan.2percentlead.Before
1987,soldernormallycontainedabout50percentlead.
Alwaysusecoldwaterforfoodandbeveragepreparation.Hottapwatercanleachhigher
amountsofleadorothermetalsfromplumbingorthehotwatertank.Ifyou'reconcerned
aboutelevatedleadlevelsinyourwater,runthetapuntilthewaterbecomescolderbefore
usingit.Remembertocatchtheflushedwaterforplantsorotherhouseholduse.
Aluminum
Aluminum Toxicity: Issues and Insights
http://www.bayeralbumin.com/web_docs/WP_AluminumToxicity.pdf
PeoplearecontinuouslyexposedtoAlbyingestingwater,food,anddustparticles.2
Estimatessuggestthatadultsconsumeapproximately3to5mgofAlintheirdailydiet.
HealthyindividualscaneasilyhandlenormalAlintake,sinceabsorptioninthe
gastrointestinal(GI)tractislow.4TheGItractprovidesefficientprotectionagainstAl
absorption,anditisestimatedthatlessthan1%ofingestedAlisabsorbedbythebody.5
Infact,healthyindividualshaveverylowlevelsofAlbecausetheGItract,skin,and
lungsareeffectivebarrierstoAlabsorption,andthekidneysefficientlyeliminate
absorbedAlbyexcretion.
Peoplewhoareatriskfromaluminumpoisoning:
Dialysispatientsandotherswithimpairedrenalfunction
Newbornsandprematureinfants
Theelderly
PatientsreceivingTPN
Burnpatients
Effectsofaluminumtoxicity:
Associated:
Dementia
Encephalopathy
Learningdeficits
Possiblyassociated:
ALS
Parkinsonsdisease
Alzheimersdisease
Report of the New South Wales Chief Health Officer, 1997

http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/public-health/chorep97/env_watalum.htm
Drinkingwaterprobablycontributeslessthan5percentofthetotalhumanintakeof
aluminium.Althoughsomestudieshavesuggestedatentativelinkbetweenaluminium
andAlzheimersdiseaseanddementia,theevidenceasawholedoesnotsupportacausal
association.Accordingly,thereisnohealthbasedguidelineforaluminiuminwater.
Copper
acidicwatercandeterioratecopperpipes.
http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/health/how_and_why/041596.htm
A Comparison of Metal Leachate Rate and Zebra Mussel Control

Efficacy for Coatings and Materials Timothy D. Race and
Mark A. Kelly
sgnis.org/publicat/proceed/1994/319.pdf
ABSTRACT:Laboratoryimmersedtestcouponsofconventionalantifoulingcoatings,
metalpigmentedcoatings,thermalsprayedmetalliccoatings,andmetalsubstrateswere
evaluatedformetalionreleaseratesovera2yearperiod.Identicaltestcouponswere
evaluatedforfoulingovera15monthperiodatBlackRockLock,Buffalo,NewYork.
Thispapercomparestheefficacyofthesematerialsandtheirreleaseratesasafunctionof
time.Otherantifoulingproducts,includingcapsaicinbasedcoatingsandabiocide
impregnatedplastic,wereevaluatedatthefieldsite.Controlpanelsareheavilyinfested
after15monthswhilethemajorityoftestmaterialscontinuetopreventzebramussel
attachment.Estimatedminimumeffectivereleaseratesforcopperandzincare
determined.
MetalSubstrates.Copperandbrasssheetmaterialswerecompletelyeffectiveagainstthe
zebramusseloverthe15monthtestperiod.Aluminumbronzehadalowcolonization
rate.FromFigure6thedownwardtrendincopperleachrateisfairlyevidentforeachof
thesematerials.Thefinaldatapointforbrassisprobablyaberrantandthuscopperleach
ratesforthe3materialsfollowthetrend;copper>aluminumbronze>brass.Brassalso
hasafairlysteadyzincreleaseofabout2ug/cm2/day,whichprobablyreinforcesthe
materialsefficacy.Thecopperleachrateforthesematerialsprogressivelydecreaseswith
time.Adirecttimedependentrelationshipbetweenfieldandlaboratoryexposed
materialsmaynotexist.Inotherwords,theleachratesafter15monthsoffieldand
laboratoryexposureareprobablynotthesame.However,thetrendsandrelativeleach
ratesareprobablyreliable.Theleachingdatawouldseemtosuggestthataluminum
bronzeandcoppersheetmaterialswilleventuallyhavecopperleachratestoolowtobe
effective.Thedecreaseinleachratesareprobablycausedbytheaccumulationof
insolublecorrosionproductsonthesurfaceofthetestmaterials.Ifthisisthecase,then
periodicrejuvenationofthesesurfacesbymeansoflightabrasionwouldbepossible.
ZincContainingCoatings.Thethermalsprayedzinccoating,thewaferborneinorganic
zinccoating,andgalvanizingallexhibitedrelativelylowlevelsofmusselattachmentat
15months.Zincleachrateswereapproximately6,3,and5ug/cm2/day,respectively,at
600daysoflaboratoryexposure.Thezincmaterialsserveasecondaryfunctionas
corrosionprotectiononsteelsubstrates.Evenatmodestlevelsofcolonization,zinc
coatingswouldofferasignificantadvantageintermsofcostandsimplicityovertheother
antifoulants.Zinccoatingsmarketedforcorrosionprotectiondonotrequireregistration
undertheFederalInsecticide,Fungicide,andRodenticideAct.
Fish tank zinc

http://www.zetatalk.com/nonproft/99001991.htm
ThefishtankswerecloseddowninmidJanuary,asayellowdyeinthefishfoodhad
cumulatedtothepointofpoisoningthecatfish.Thiswastheonlyadditive,andturnedthe
clearwateramustardyellowandcreateayellowfoam.Thiswasoneofthelessons
learnedinaclosedcycle,onemusttakegreatcarewhatisaddedtothesystem.(2002
Note:ithasbeenlearnedthatthegalvanizedtanks,whichleachzinc,highlytoxictofish,
wereprobablytheculprit.Anepoxypaintisrecommendedtopreventthisinthefuture.)
Coatings
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/storage.pdf
tankTurnovernostagnantwater
2.1.4ChemicalContaminants
Coatingmaterialsareusedtopreventcorrosionofsteelstoragetanksandtoprevent
moisturemigrationinconcretetanks.Throughthe1970's,coatingsusedinfinishedwater
storagefacilitieswereprimarilyselectedbecauseoftheircorrosionresistanceandeaseof
application.Thisledtotheuseofindustrialproductslikecoaltars,greases,waxesand
leadpaintsasinteriortankcoatings.Theseproductsofferedexceptionalcorrosion
performancebutunknowinglycontributedsignificanttoxicchemicalstothedrinking
water.Greasecoatingscandiffergreatlyintheircompositionfromvegetableto
petroleumbasedsubstancesandcanprovideagoodfoodsourceforbacteria,resultingin
reducedchlorineresidualsandobjectionabletastesandodorsinthefinishedwater
(Kirmeyeretal.1999).
AnoldgreasecoatingonastoragetankinteriorinthestateofFloridawassuspectedof
causingwaterqualityproblemsinthedistributionsystemsuchastasteandodor,high
chlorinerequirementsandablackslimeatthecustomerstap.TheWisconsinAvenue
500,000gallonelevatedtankwasoriginallycoatedwithapetroleumgreasecoatingwhen
itwasbuiltin1925.
In1988,thestoragefacilitywascleanedandthegreasecoatingwasreapplied.In1993,a
tankinspectionrevealedthatthegreasehadsaggedoffthetankwallsanddepositeda
thickaccumulationofblacklooseoozeinthebottombowlofthetank(68inchesdeep).
Athinfilmofgreasecontinuedtocoattheuppershellsurfaces.Althoughthismaterial
hadperformedwellasacorrosioninhibitor,itwasintroducingdebrisintothedistribution
systemaswellascreatingapossiblefoodsourceandenvironmentforbacteria.TheCity
decidedtocompletelyremovethegreaseandreapplyapolyamideepoxysystem.This
workwascompletedin1996(Kirmeyeretal.1999).Sincethetankwasreturnedto
service,waterqualityhasmarkedlyimproved.Therequiredchlorinedosageratehas
decreasedfrom4.05.0mg/Lto3.5mg/L.Thechlorineresidualatthetankoutlethas
improvedfrom<1.0mg/Lto1.4mg/L.Nomoreblackslimecomplaintshavebeen
received.
Epoxy
There is evidence that epoxy coatings leach various organic additives into water.
Permeationandleaching
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/permleach.pdf
The rate of leaching of organic additives was found to decrease exponentially
with time. Therefore, it is recommended that newly lined pipes be pre-soaked
prior to release to service. Normal hydrostatic testing and disinfection activities
will help remediate leaching. Extending the curing process will also help improve
the stability of epoxy linings
Leaching from plastics

Potential water quality deterioration of drinking water caused by
leakage of organic compounds from materials in contact
with the water
PlasticskeyProceedings,20thNoDigconference,CopenhagenMay28312002.
LarsJ.Hem,AquateamAS,POBox6875Rodelkka,0504Oslo,Norway,Email
lars.hem@aquateam.noandIngunSkjevrak,RegionalFoodControlAuthority,
Stavanger,NorwayEmail:skjevrak@nmtmrog.rl.noABSTRACTOrganic
materialshavebeenusedindrinkingwaterpipesandstoragetanksforseveralyears.
Duringthelastdecadeplasticmaterialsareusedforbottlesandcontainersforwater.
Leachingoforganicmatterfromthematerialstothedrinkingwaterisproven.Waterin
contactwithplasticpipes,surfacecoatingsorothermaterialscanbeaffectedby
migrationofcomponentsthatmakethewaterqualityunacceptablewithrespectto
aestheticeffectsorhealth.Leachingofvolatileorganiccompoundsmaycause
unwantedtasteandodourinwater,andpossiblehealthrisk.Organiccompoundssuch
asxylene,styrene,phenolsandethylbenzenehavebeenidentified.Compoundsleaching
fromepoxyandpolyethyleneappeartogiveunwantedtasteandsmelltothewater.
Microbiologicalgrowthinthedrinkingwaterdistributionsystemmaycausedeterioration
ofthewaterquality,duetoincreasedturbidity,heterotrophicbacteria,andeven
pathogens.Leakageofbiodegradableorganicmatterfrommaterialsusedinthe
distributionsystemmaypromotemicrobiologicalgrowth.Therearevariationsin
microbiologicalgrowthbetweenvariousmaterials.Inparticular,thechangefromcopper
tosyntheticmaterialsforinhouseinstallationsmaybeareasonforincreased
microbiologicalgrowth.
RELEVANTPIPEMATERIALSPlasticmaterialsusedforservicepipesmaybemade
fromPVC(polyvinylchloride),HDPE(highdensitypolyethylene)orGRP(glassfibre
reinforcedpolyester).InhouseplasticplumbingmaterialswillconsistofPVCorPEX
(crossboundPE).Epoxyliningcanbeusedonconcreteandonstainlesssteelinpipes
andbasins.Additionally,lubricantsmaybeusedforfittingpipestogether,aswellasin
theproductionof,forinstance,stainlesssteelpipes.
SeveralcomplaintsondrinkingwaterqualityinNorwayoronoffshoreinstallationsare
relatedtovolatileorganicmatter(VOC)leachingfromepoxyliningorpaint.Typical
VOCsfromepoxyarealkylbenzenesandalkoxycompounds.Inparticularleachingof
hydrocarbonsfrominsituepoxycoatedstoragetanksoffshoreandonshipsseemstobea
problem, with a solvent (xylene/ethylbenzene) content of up to 6070 g/l being
measured.C3andC4cyclohexanes andotheralicyclichydrocarbonshavealsobeen
identified as tasteandodourcompounds leaching fromsurfacecoatings.Inatreated
waterbasinformunicipalwatersupply,organosulphidecompoundswereidentifiedasthe
sourcefortasteandodour,andthemostlikelysourceofthesulphidesproducedwas
microbiological activity due to degradation of organic compounds leaching from the
epoxylining(Skjevrak,1999;Skjevrak,2000).
OrganiccompoundsleachingfromPEbottlesandtankshavebeenthesourceoftasteand
odourinwaterandevenaweekcolourhasbeenexperiencedbecauseofthismigration.
AnalysisofthewaterhasidentifiedlowconcentrationsofseveralVOCs,suchasketones
(Skjevrak,1999).
MigrationofVOCfromwaterpipesmanufacturedofHDPE,PVCandPEXhasbeen
investigatedusingstaticcontactwithwaterforthreesuccessivetestperiodseachof72
hoursdurationaccordingtoEN14201(Skjevrak,2000;Skjevrak,2002aandb).The
leachingoforganiccompoundsfromHDPEpipesshowedaconsiderablevariationboth
intypeandamount.FiveoutofseventestedbrandsofHDPEpipesshowedunacceptable
TON values (TON > 3) of test water. Degradation products from phenolbased
antioxidantsweremajormigrantsfromHDPEpipes.VOCsleachingfromPEXpipes
gaveanintenseodouroftestwater.SeveralofthemigratedVOCswerenotidentified.
Oxygenates predominated within the identified VOC with methyl tertbutyl ether
(MTBE) as a major component Migration tests of PVC pipes revealed few volatile
migrantsinlowconcentrations,andTONassessmentsdidnotshowsignificantodourin
any of the tests. VOCs leaching from lubricants used for joining of pipes included
componentssuchasC6C11aliphaticaldehydes,ketones,siloxanesandphenolbased
antioxidants.MigrationofVOCfromHDPEintonaturalbiofilmestablishedinHDPE
pipesatturbulentflowconditionsisalsolookedinto(Skjevrak,2002c).
ABS
http://www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/pipes_report.html
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is not

chlorinated, but like PVC has highly hazardous
manufacturing intermediates, including carcinogens
and is difficult to recycle. It is considered only
marginally better than PVC environmentally.
Recycling guide
Acrylonitrilebutiadenestyrene
http://www.grassrootsinfo.org/index.html?ce/plastics.html
ThefollowingrecyclingcodeguideisprintedwithpermissionfromTheGreenGuide
#88and#89
#1PETEorPET(polyethyleneterephthalate):usedformostclearbeveragebottles.
#2HDPE(highdensitypolyethylene):usedfor"cloudy"milkandwaterjugs,opaque
foodbottles.
#3PVCorV(polyvinylchloride):usedinsomeclingwraps(especiallycommercial
brands),some"soft"bottles.
#4LDPE(lowdensitypolyethylene):usedinfoodstoragebagsandsome"soft"bottles.
#5PP(polypropylene):usedinrigidcontainers,includingsomebabybottles,andsome
cupsandbowls.
#6PS(polystyrene):usedinfoam"clamshell"typecontainers,meatandbakerytrays,
andinitsrigidform,cleartakeoutcontainers,someplasticcutleryandcups.Polystyrene
mayleachstyreneintofooditcomesintocontactwith.ArecentstudyinEnvironmental
HealthPerspectivesconcludedthatsomestyrenecompoundsleachingfromfood
containersareestrogenic(meaningtheycandisruptnormalhormonalfunctioning.)
StyreneisalsoconsideredapossiblehumancarcinogenbytheWorldHealth
Organization'sInternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer(IARC).
#7Other(usuallypolycarbonate):usedin5gallonwaterbottles,somebabybottles,
somemetalcanlinings.Polycarbonatecanreleaseitsprimarybuildingblock,bisphenol
A,anothersuspectedhormonedisrupter,intoliquidsandfoods.In1998,theJapanese
governmentorderedmanufacturerstheretorecallanddestroypolycarbonatetableware
meantforusebychildrenbecauseitcontainedexcessiveamountsofbisphenolA.Other
sourcesofpotentialbisphenolAexposureincludefoodcanliningsanddentalsealants.
#1 pete
http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art23142.asp
TheEPAclassifiesplastictype#1PETEascontainingaleachableformofDEHA,
classifiedasa"possiblehumancarcinogen"
Consumer reports bottled water

Source:ConsumerReports,Aug2000,Vol.65Issue8,p17,5p,1chart,3c.
http://www.angelfire.com/nm/redcollarcrime/tbw.html
WatersbottledinPETplasticgenerallytastedbetterthanthosebottledinHDPE.That
wastrueevenwithinthesamebrand.ArrowheadMountainSpringWater,forexample,
wasverygoodwhenbottledinPET,whichimpartedahintofsweet,fruityplasticflavor
(imaginethescentwhenyoublowupabeachball).ButArrowheadwasonlyfairwhen
bottledinHDPE,whichmadeittasteabitlikemeltedplastic(imaginethesmellwhen
yougetaplasticcontainertooclosetoaflame).Forwatersthatcomeinbothkindsof
bottle,theRatingslisttwoscores(andtwopriceswaterisapttocostmoreinPET).The
onlywaterbottledinPVCplastic,WinnDixie'sPrestigePremium100%SpringWater,
ratedgoodoverall.
BOTTLEBASICS
Bottlescanactuallyaffectawater'stasteandchemicalcontent.Hereareadvantagesand
disadvantagesofcommonbottlematerials.
PET(ALSOCALLEDPETE)
Shortforpolyethyleneterephthalate,PETisaclear,strongplasticthatleavesnothing
morethanafaintsweetorfruityplasticflavor,ifthat.Labelsforsomebrandspackedin
PETplayupthe"clear"tasteofthewaterinside.

HDPE
Highdensitypolyethyleneistheopaque,flexiblematerialofmilkcontainers.It'sless
expensivethanPETbutoftenimpartsaslightmeltedplastictastetowater.Tastemay
alsobeaffectedbyexcessiveheatorflavorsfromfoodsstorednearby.
GLASS
Chemically,glassisinertandimpartsnotastewhatsoever.Butit'sheavyandbreakable
andisseldomusednowadaysexceptforpriceymineralwatersandwaterbottledforbars,
restaurants,andhotels.
POLYCARBONATE
Strongandrigid,it'susedforcompactdiscsaswellas5gallonwatercoolerjugs.The
threewatercoolerwaterswesampledGreatBear,DeerPark,andPolandSpringshad
nofunnyflavors.Infact,thosewaterstastedbetterthanthesameproductsinPETor
HDPEbottles.Butouranalysesshowedthatpolycarbonatesometimesleavesresiduesof
aworrisomechemical,bisphenolA.
Consumer confidence report

http://www.rules.utah.gov/publicat/code/r309/r309225.htm
(30)Benzo(a)pyrene(PAH)(nanograms/l)Leachingfromliningsofwaterstoragetanks
anddistributionlines.
Building Green on PVC

http://www.buildinggreen.com/features/pvc/pvc.cfm
Greenpeace PVC ban program

http://archive.greenpeace.org/toxics/html/content/pvc5.html
Enfvironmental and health effects of PVC

http://archive.greenpeace.org/toxics/reports/cfap/cfapm3.html4.0
The most neglected area of emergency food storage is water

http://www.bagelhole.org/article.php/Water/104/
Oneofthesimplest,butmostneglectedareaofemergencyfoodstorageiswater.This
problemiscompoundedwhenhomefoodstorageprogramsrelyheavilyondriedfoods
suchasbeans,wheatandpowderedmilk.Youmayhaveenoughcaloriesstoredtolastsix
months,butdoyouhaveenoughwater?
Onegallonperdayperpersonistherecommendedminimum.Morerealisticthoughis
abouttwoquartsfordrinkingplusagallonforwashingpluswhateverwateryoumight
needforcooking.Thisisthebareminimum.
Youdon'tneedtogooutandbuyspecificstoragebottles,butnotallfoodhousehold
containersarefitforwaterstorage.Plasticgallonmilkbottlesaresafe,butnotdurable
andmaystartleakingifstoredforlongperiods.Glassgallonbottleslikethoseusedfor
appleciderarealsosafe,butbecarefulwhereyoustorethem.Probablytheperfectwater
storagebottlesarethetwolitertypesodabottles.Ifplasticcontainersareused,care
shouldbetakentoassurethattheyaremadeofplasticapprovedforfoodcontactbythe
FederalFoodandDrugAdministration.Polyethyleneplasticisapprovedforfoodcontact
andiscommonlyusedforcontainersofvarioussizes,including55gallondrums.Certain
typesofplasticcontainersarenotintendedforfoodcontact(suchasvinylplastic
waterbeds,ortrashcontainers)andmayleachundesirablechemicalsintostoredwater.
Leachingofchemicalsfromapprovedplasticsisnegligible.Waterstoredinplastic
containersshouldnotbestoredneargasoline,kerosene,pesticidesorsimilarsubstances.
Vaporsfromthesesubstancescouldpermeatetheplasticandaffectthewater.Thick
walledpolyethylenecontainersaresignificantlylesspermeabletovaporsthanarethin
walledcontainers,Becertain,whenselectingastoragecontainerforwater,thatithasa
tightfittingcaporlidtoprevententranceofcontaminantsandevaporationofwater.
Becausesunlighthasanadverseaffectonplastic,watershouldbestoredawayfrom
directexposuretosunlight.
Shelf Life of Water

Theshelflifeofwaterdependsontheoriginalqualityofthewater,thetemperatureat
whichitisstored,howmuchlightitisexposedtojusttonameafew.Many
manufacturersofbottledwaterwillincludeashelflifeontheirproduct.
Treatedwateroutofthetapneedsnothingaddedandshouldhaveashelflifeofabout10
years.Untreatedwater,fromawellforinstance,shouldbestoredwithabout16dropsof
chlorinebleachpergallon.Sterilizedordisinfectedwater,storedinclean,foodapproved
containerswithsecurelidsorcaps,shouldbesafeforuseevenaftermanyyearsof
storage.Replacementofstoredwaterwithfreshwatershouldbenecessaryonlyifthe
storedwaterbecomescontaminatedinsomewayorifthecontainershouldbegintoleak.
Becertaintolabeleachcontainersotherewillbenoquestionaboutitscontents.Include
thedateandinformationonthemethodofdisinfectionused.
Storedwatermayeventuallydevelopadisagreeableappearance,taste,orodor.Under
emergencyconditions,waterthattastesflatcanbeaeratedbypouringthewaterfromone
containertoanothertoanotheraboutthreeorfourtimes.BeCarefulAboutRainWater
Rainwaterthathasbeencollectedshouldbetreatedthesameasanyotherunknown
watersource.Rainwatercontainssmallparticulatesandacid.
Leaching from Lexan Polycarbonate nalgenes

http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/200311/lol5.asp
Clear,lightweight,andsturdypolycarbonateplasticbottlesarestandardequipmentfor
millionsofhikersandbabies.(Theyareusuallylabeled#7onthebottom;Nalgeneisthe
bestknownproducer.)Sincepolycarbonatebottlesdontimpartatastetofluids,many
usersassumetheyaresaferthanbottlesmadeoutofotherkindsofplastic.Butnowan
accidentaldiscoveryhascastdoubtontheirsafety.
Normalwearandtearandcleaningofpolycarbonateplasticbottlesinadishwasher,Hunt
says,couldcausethechemicaltoleach,andtheamountofleachingincreasesasthe
plasticagesandisdegradedbyuse.AseparatestudypublishedinJulyinEnvironmental
HealthPerspectivesconfirmedthisfinding,andalsodetectedleachingfromnew
polycarbonateplastic.
TheoColborn,authorofthegroundbreakingbookaboutendocrinedisrupters,OurStolen
Future,callsBPAa"very,verystickyproblem.Thisisaproductthatseverywhere,and
ineverything."(Inadditiontobottles,BPAturnsupindentalsealantsandtheresin
liningsofmanyfoodandbeveragecans.)Sherecommendswashingpolycarbonate
bottleswithmilddetergentonly,andrinsingwell.(Thoroughwashingiscrucialforany
reusedbottle,becauseofthedangerofbacterialcontamination.)
Mostatrisk,saysColborn,arepeoplewithdevelopingendocrinesystems:pregnant
womenandnewborns,followedbyyoungchildren,andwomenwhomightgetpregnant.
Huntsaysthatifshehadaninfant,shewouldswitchtopolypropylene(#5PP),whichis
notknowntoleachharmfulsubstances.(Otherplasticsthatarenotknowntoleachare#2
HDPEand#4LDPE."Singleuse"plasticbottlesmadeofpolyethyleneterephthalate[#1
PETorPETE]arenotrecommendedforrepeatusebecauseoftheriskofbacterial
contaminationfrominfrequentandinsufficientwashing.
Oryoucouldavoidplasticaltogetherandswitchtoglassorlightweightstainlesssteel
containers.
FrancesCerraWhittelsey
November/December2003
In"HazardsofHydration,"wecitedastudyaboutsingleusewaterbottlesthatappearsto
havebeenflawed.Whilereusingthese#1PETbottlesisnotagoodideabecauseofrisk
ofbacterialcontamination,youprobablydon'tneedtoworryaboutthemreleasingthe
chemicalDEHA.Thearticlehasbeencorrected.
Safer Plastics for Storing Foods

GreenGuide|TheGreenGuide
byAndreeaMatei
http://www.thegreenguide.com/doc.mhtml?i=BGG2&s=saferplastics
Webonly|postedFebruary28,2003
Safer Containers: The List

byAndreeaMatei
Whenplasticsaretheonlychoiceforfoodstorage,lookforoptionswithrecyclingcodes
#1PETE,#2HDPE,#4LDPEand#5PP(onthebottomofcontainers).Theseare
frequentlyrecycledplasticswhichhavenotbeenfoundtoleachtoxinsintoyourfood.
On plastic water bottles

ByUmbraFisk
02Aug2004
http://www.grist.org/advice/ask/2004/08/02/umbrabottles/
Let'stalkspecifics,though,becauseyoupointoutanapparentconundruminyour
question.Thecontradictionsyouseeinthepressareamixofconfusionabouttypesof
plastic,misinformation,andbonafidescientificuncertaintyabouttheeffectsofan
entirelynewgroupofsubstances.Snopes.comaddressespurportedlinksbetweenPET
(#1)andDEHA(di2ethylhexyladipate),apotentialcarcinogen,linkswhichare
apparentlybasedonastudylatershowntobebogus.PETevidentlydoesnotcontain
DEHA,andthecarcinogenicpropertiesofDEHAitselfarehotlydebated.
Movingon,IwouldcategoricallyavoidPVC(#3),akavinyl,forfoodcontainersor
anythingelse.Ittrulyisanevilplastic,practicallyafountofdioxin.PVCcontainersand
PVCfilmcancontainoftdebatedickiesDEHPandDEHA,andsomecontainsoftening
phthalateslinkedtoliverandkidneydamageandtesticularproblems.Also,polystyrene
(#6)isyuckyit'smadeofstyrene,andyoudon'twantanystyreneinyourpreciousbod,
trustme.
Thatleavesuswiththewinnersofthisdubiouscontest:HDPE,LDPE,
OC&PA: What about cooking with plastics?

http://www.jhsph.edu/Press_Room/articles/Halden_dioxins.html
RH:Ingeneral,wheneveryouheatsomethingyouincreasethelikelihoodofpulling
chemicalsout.Chemicalscanbereleasedfromplasticpackagingmaterialslikethekinds
usedinsomemicrowavemeals.Somedrinkingstrawssayonthelabelnotforhot
beverages.Mostpeoplethinkthewarningisbecausesomeonemightbeburned.Ifyou
putthatstrawintoaboilingcupofhotcoffee,youbasicallyhaveahotwaterextraction
goingon,wherethechemicalsinthestrawarebeingextractedintoyournicecupof
coffee.Weusethesameprocessinthelabtoextractchemicalsfrommaterialswewantto
analyze.
PR its cool article

http://www.nalgeneoutdoor.com/technical/bpaInfo.html
EPAs Endocrine Disruptors Research

ForfurtherinformationonEPAsEndocrineDisruptorsResearchProgram,please
contacttheNationalProgramDirectorforEPAsEndocrineDisruptorsResearch
Program,ElaineZ.Francis,Ph.D.,bytelephoneat(202)5646789,orbyemailat
francis.elaine@epa.gov.
Sentemail10/18/04
Distilled water and methyl chloride

http://www.naturalms.com/newwater.htm
Wewouldn'trecommendpurchasingdistilledwaterfromasupermarketthatarestoredin
aplasticcontainer.Manyplasticsgiveofftoxinssuchasmethylchloride,acarcinogen
whichcanleachintothewater.Glassbottlesorstainlesssteelcontainersare
recommendedforstoringdistilledwater."
Bisphenol A Is Released from Used Polycarbonate Animal

Cages into Water at Room Temperature
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2003/5993/abstract.html
BisphenolA(BPA)isamonomerwithestrogenicactivitythatisusedintheproduction
offoodpackaging,dentalsealants,polycarbonateplastic,andmanyotherproducts.The
monomerhaspreviouslybeenreportedtohydrolyzeandleachfromtheseproductsunder
highheatandalkalineconditions,andtheamountofleachingincreasesasafunctionof
use.Weexaminedwhethernewandusedpolycarbonateanimalcagespassivelyrelease
bioactivelevelsofBPAintowateratroomtemperatureandneutralpH.Purifiedwater
wasincubatedatroomtemperatureinnewpolycarbonateandpolysulfonecagesandused
(discolored)polycarbonatecages,aswellascontrol(glassandusedpolypropylene)
containers.Theresultingwatersampleswerecharacterizedwithgas
chromatography/massspectrometry(GC/MS)andtestedforestrogenicactivityusingan
MCF7humanbreastcancercellproliferationassay.Significantestrogenicactivity,
identifiableasBPAbyGC/MS(upto310g/L),wasreleasedfromusedpolycarbonate
animalcages.DetectablelevelsofBPAwerereleasedfromnewpolycarbonatecages(up
to0.3g/L)aswellasnewpolysulfonecages(1.5g/L),whereasnoBPAwasdetected
inwaterincubatedinglassandusedpolypropylenecages.Finally,BPAexposureasa
resultofbeinghousedinusedpolycarbonatecagesproduceda16%increaseinuterine
weightinprepubertalfemalemicerelativetofemaleshousedinusedpolypropylene
cages,althoughthedifferencewasnotstatisticallysignificant.Ourfindingssuggestthat
laboratoryanimalsmaintainedinpolycarbonateandpolysulfonecagesareexposedto
BPAvialeaching,withexposurereachingthehighestlevelsinoldcages.Keywords:
animalcaging,bisphenolA,endocrinedisruptor,estrogen,leaching,polycarbonate,
polysulfone.Environ
Leaching of mutagens into mineral water from

polyethyleneterephthalate bottles.
DeFuscoR,MonarcaS,BiscardiD,PasquiniR,FatigoniC.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?
cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2137646&dopt=Abstract
DepartmentofExperimentalPharmacology,UniversityofNaples,Italy.
Polyethyleneterephthalate(PET)wastestedasasourceofmutagencontaminationfrom
bottlesusedforbeveragepackaging.PETbottleswerefilledwithmineralwaterand
storedindaylightandinthedarkfordifferentperiodsoftime.Thewatersampleswere
concentratedandtheconcentrates(nonvolatilecompounds)testedformutagenicitywith
theAmestest(statictests).Totalorganiccarbon(TOC)leachingwasdetermined
concurrently.Leachingofmutagenswasalsostudiedusingdynamictests;shaking
distilledwaterinPETbottles.Newmethodswerealsousedtotesttheleachingpotential
ofbothvolatileandnonvolatilecompounds:directlytestingthemutagenicityin
unconcentratedwaterstoredinPETbottlesandgrowingSalmonellastrainsdirectlyinthe
plasticbottles.Theresultswerepositiveonlyforthestatictest,whichidentifiedleaching
ofmutagensafter1monthofstorageinPETbottles.Thisactivitywashigherafter
storageindaylight.
Studies of migration of potentially genotoxic compounds into

water stored in pet bottles.
MonarcaS,DeFuscoR,BiscardiD,DeFeoV,PasquiniR,FatigoniC,MorettiM,
ZanardiniA.
SchoolofMedicine,UniversityofBrescia,Italy.
cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7927074
Colouredpolyethyleneterephthalate(PET)bottlesforcarbonatedbeverageswerestudied
forpotentialmigrationofgenotoxiccompounds.Acombinedapproach,using
physicochemicalmethodsandabacterialshorttermmutagenicitytest(Amestest)was
followed.StandardEECandUSFDAtestsfortotalmigrationofnonvolatilemigrant
compoundsintodistilledwaterwereperformed,togetherwithmodifiedtests,where
freezedryinginsteadofevaporationofwaterwasused,inordertomeasurebothvolatile
andnonvolatilechemicals.Gaschromatographymassspectrometry(GCMS)analysis
wasperformedontheseresidues.PETbottlesfilledwithnaturallycarbonatedmineral
waterwerealsousedforlongtermtotalorganiccarbon(TOC)andmutagenicity
migrationstudies(upto6months'storage).TotalmigrationresultsforPETbottleswere
withintheEECandUSFDAlimits.Theuseoffreezedryingfortheeliminationofwater
enabledmuchhighertotalmigrationdata(higherthanthelimits)toberevealed.Some
potentiallygenotoxiccompounds(acetaldehyde,dimethylterephthalate,terephthalic
acid)wereidentifiedinthesemigrantcompoundsbyGCMSanalysis.ThetestsforTOC
migrationgaveamaximumvalueafter2wkstorageandthemutagenicitytestsonnon
volatilemigrantcompoundsgavealwaysnegativeresults
Aldehyde contamination of mineral water stored in PET bottles.

DarowskaA,BorczA,NawrockiJ.
DepartmentofWaterTreatmentTechnology,FacultyofChemistry,A.Mickiewicz
University,Poznan,Poland.
cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14726281Aldehyde
contaminationsthatmightaccompanyproductionofmineralwaterstoredinPETbottles
wereinvestigated.OneoftheproductionlinesofcarbonatedmineralwaterinPolandwas
monitoredandPETbottlescommonlyusedformineralwaterstoragewereevaluated.
Formaldehydeandacetaldehydewerethemostimportantcarbonylsidentifiedinseriesof
bottledwatersamples,butalsopropanal,nonanalandglyoxalwerefoundinwater
samplesfromtheproductionline.Aldehydesarepresenteverywhereintheenvironment
andcanbedeterminedeveninpurewateratlowmicrogl(1)levels.Itwasobservedthat
theconcentrationofacetaldehydeinwaterstoredinPETbottlesdependedmainlyonthe
concentrationofacetaldehydeinPETmaterialandcouldreachmorethan200microgl(
1).Thetemperature,timeofstorageandconcentrationofcarbondioxidegascontribute
tothemigrationofaldehydesfrombottlewallstomineralwater.Higherpressureofthe
carbonatedwatersandnotCO(2)itselforlowerpHofwatersseemsresponsiblefor
higherconcentrationofacetaldehyde.
Evaluation of the migration of mutagens/carcinogens from PET

bottles into mineral water by Tradescantia/micronuclei test,
Comet assay on leukocytes and GC/MS.
BiscardiD,MonarcaS,DeFuscoR,SenatoreF,PoliP,BuschiniA,RossiC,ZaniC.
DepartmentofLifeScience,IIUniversityofNaples,Naples,Italy.
Thisstudymonitoredthereleaseofmutagenic/carcinogeniccompoundsintomineral
water(naturalandcarbonated)frompolyethyleneterephthalate(PET)bottles,usinga
plantmutagenicitytestwhichrevealsmicronucleiformationinTradescantiapollencells
(Trad/MCNtest),aDNAdamageassay(Cometassay)onhumanleukocytesandgas
chromatography/massspectrometry(GC/MS)forthecharacterisationofmigrants.The
watersampleswerecollectedatabottlingplantandstoredinPETbottlesforaperiod
rangingfrom1to12months.Everymonthsomesampleswererandomlycollectedand
lyophilised,theresidualpowderswereextractedwithorganicsolventsandthenanalysed
byGC/MSandtestedforDNAdamageinhumanleukocytes,orreconstitutedwith
distilledwatertoobtainconcentratesfortheexposureofTradescantiainflorescences.
Micronucleiincreaseinpollenwasfoundonlyinnaturalmineralwaterstoredfor2
months.DNAdamagingactivitywasfoundinmanyofthenaturalandcarbonatedwater
samples.SpringwaterwasnegativeintheplantmicronucleitestandtheCometassay,
whereasdistributedspringwatershowedDNAdamagingeffects,suggestingapossible
introductionofgenotoxinsthroughthedistributionpipelines.GC/MSanalysisshowed
thepresenceinmineralwaterofdi(2ethylhexyl)phthalate,anongenotoxic
hepatocarcinogenicplasticizer,after9monthsofstorageinPETbottles.Copyright2002
ElsevierScienceB.V.
[Studies on the bottles of mineral water and the foreign plastic

like substances]
[ArticleinJapanese]
KawamuraY,SugitaT,WatanabeY,TakanoT,ItakuraT,IkegawaT,YamadaT.
Thecontainersofmineralwaterandtheforeignplasticsubstanceswhichwerefoundin
themineralwaterwereinvestigated.Mostofplasticbottlesweremadeofpolyethylene
terephthalate(PET)andthecapsweremadeofpolypropylene(PP),polyethylene(PE)or
aluminum.PElinerswereattachedtosomecaps.Mostoftheforeignplasticsubstances
werePETwhileotherswerePE,PP,Teflonandrubber.Somebottleshadascratchonthe
topinside.TheoriginofmostPETfragmentswaspresumedtobescrapedoffthebottles
bytheloweringoftheinjectionnozzleduringthewaterfillingprocess.Thesourcesof
theothersubstanceswerealsodetermined.
Chemical and in vitro toxicological evaluations of water

packaged in polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene
terephthalate bottles.
SauvantMP,PepinD,BohatierJ.
FacultedePharmacie,Laboratoired'HydrologieetHygiene,ClermontFerrand,France.
Thisstudyproposedanewstrategyassessingthehealthrisksofmineralwaterpackaging
andcomparedthechemicalanalyticaltechniquesandsomeinvitrocytotoxicological
assaysforthestudyofPVCandPETmaterialsatthemainstagesofthemanufacturing
processofbottles.Theseevaluationswerecarriedoutwithfoodsimulant(deionized
endotoxintestedwater)andwithnaturalmineralwaterinrealconditionsofpackaging
andstorage(from0to24months).Thecomplementarityofthesetwoapproachesis
discussed.Someanalyticalandcytotoxicabnormalitiesweredetectedinthefood
simulantaftercontactwiththebatchesofpowderedPVCcompound,PETresinandtheir
intermediatestepsoftransformation(PVC'paraison',PET'perform').Buttheseresults
didnotreflecttheactualbehaviourofthefinishedPVCandPETbottles,forwhichno
majorabnormalitywasdetectedinthenaturalmineralwater.
The bacterial flora of non-carbonated, natural mineral water

from the springs to reservoir and glass and plastic bottles.
BischofbergerT,ChaSK,SchmittR,KonigB,SchmidtLorenzW.
InstituteofFoodScience,SwissFederalInstituteofTechnology,Zurich.
Quantitativeandqualitativedeterminationsofthebacterialfloraofnoncarbonated
naturalmineralwateratthemostimportantstepsduringbottlingatalargewatersource
yieldedthefollowingresults:(i)Colonycounts(on1:10dilutedplatecountagar,
incubatedat20degreesCfor14days)forwaterofthefivespringsandthemixedwater
werelessthan1to4cfuml1.TheGramnegativebacterialflora(n=50isolates)
showedaverydifferentbutconstantspringspecificspeciesdistributionswith
predominanceofeithereutrophicfluorescentpseudomonads,oligotrophicnon
fluorescentpseudomonadsoroligotrophicyellowbacteria.(ii)Inthereservoirand
immediatelyafterbottlingthecountswereintherangeof10cfuml1.Butnearly30%of
thespeciesofthespringwaterwerenolongerdetectableandtherewasasignificant
increaseofGrampositivebacteria.(iii)After1weekofstorageat20degreesCcolony
countsofmorethan10(5)cfuml1werefoundinplasticbottles,butonlyabout10(4)cfu
ml1inglassbottles.Besides,averydistinctchangeofthecompositionofthemicroflora
occurred.Inglassbottlesslowgrowingoligotrophicnonfluorescentpseudomonads,
yellowbacteriaandAcinetobacterpredominated.Inplasticbottlesfastgrowingeutrophic
andmesotrophicfluorescentpseudomonads,FlexibacterandAcinetobacterwere
dominating.Inmineralwater,bottledintothoroughlycleanedglassbottles,colonycounts
ofmorethan10(5)cfuml1werefoundwithin4days.Inbottles,cleanedmechanically
asusual,theincreasewassignificantlyslowerwithamaximumofonly5x10(3)cfuml
1after8days.Theresultsofinoculationexperimentsinsterilefilteredmineraland
distilledwaterledtothesuggestionthatthedifferencebetweenthetwotypesofbottlesis
causedfirstlybyaninhibitionofgrowthduetoresiduesofcleaningdetergentsinthe
glassbottles.Growthpromotionbydissolvedorganicsubstancesintheplasticbottles
onlyplayedaminorrole.Afterrepairingofthepumpatadepthof300minawarm
mineralwaterspring,thecolonycountsat20,37and42degreesCon1:10dilutedand
normalplatecountagarincreasedbeyondthelimitsrequiredbytheECdirectivefor
mineralwaterstoredamonth.Thencolonycountsdecreasedslowlyandreachedthe
initiallevelafter1year,exceptforthecolonycounts1:10dilutedagarat20degreesC
whichstabilizedatarelativelyhighnumberandasignificantalterationofthemicroflora.
(ABSTRACTTRUNCATEDAT400WORDS)
Dont worry about it-Plastics Council

http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem00/chem00959.htm
Alltheplasticscoded1through7canbemadeingradesthatareapproved
foruseasfoodcontainers.Youdonotreallyneedtoworryaboutthe
leachingofchemicalsfromtheplastics.Eventheplasticsthatcanexude
somecomponentsuponprolongedcontentdosoinsuchlowamountsthatitis
notahealthissue.Thechanceofbeinginjuredbyacarasyouareonyour
waytothestoretobuybottledwaterismuch,muchgreaterthanthechance
thatyourhealthwillbeimpairedbydrinkingwaterfromaplastic
container.
RichardE.BarransJr.,Ph.D.
PGResearchFoundation,Darien,Illinoi
Leaching from fiberglass

Leaching of organic contaminants from GRP
pipe
http://www.fwr.org/waterq/dwi0032.htm
A wide range of contaminants were found to leach
into drinking water from GRP pipe including a range
of phthalates and styrene. The leaching rates were
appreciable although depletion with time would be
expected.
Leaching off substances from products used in
contact with water intended for human
consumption
www.dwi.gov.uk/cpp/pdf/protocol1.pdf
20T20h20e20r20m20o20p20l20a20s20t20i20c20
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21L21e21a21c21h21i21n21g21 21o21f21
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21o21t21h21e21r21
21c21o21n21t21a21m21i21n21a21n21t21s21 21
21f21r21o21m21 21t21h21e21s21e21
21m21a21t21e21r21i21a21l21s21 21i21s21
21n21o21t21 21u21s21u21a21l21l21y21
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21c21o21n21c21e21n21t21r21a21t21i21o21n21s21
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21i21n21 21l21e21a21c21h21a21t21e21
21a21f21t21e21r21 21t21h21e21 21f21i21r21s21t21
21l21e21a21c21h21i21n21g21
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21a21n21 21S21/21V21 21r21a21t21i21o21
21o21f21 21~21121c21m21 21221 21m21l21-21121
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21121021021g21 21l21 21-21121.21 21 21
T21h21e21r21m21o21s21e21t21t21i21n21g21
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21p21o21l21y21e21s21t21e21r21s21
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polyurethane
Leaching from rubber
EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer)
EPDMisasyntheticrubberwithgoodresistancetoheat,ozone,andUVlight.Alsoable
tostretchwithouttearing.Itiscommonlyusedforpondliners,andasaroofingmaterial.
EPDMiscommonlyusedforpondlinersandasaroofingmaterial.Pondlinerresellers
claimthatthereproductis"fishsafe",andthatEPDMforroofingisnot.Thereismuch
controversysurroundingthispoint.ManypondownerssaythatroofingEPDMisjustas
good,ifyouwashitthoroughly.
ThereislittledataonEPDMleaching.Itisgenerallyconsideredtobeprettyinertstuff.
EPDMisconsideredamoreenvironmentallyfriendlybuildingmaterialthanPVC.
(http://archive.greenpeace.org/toxics/reports/gopherreports/altern.txt)
ThereareEPDMproductsthatmeetNSFStandard61forstoringpotablewater(for
example,FirestonePondGuard).
Generallysummary:theredoesn'tseemtobemuchconcernoverEPDMbeing
inappropriateforstoringpotablewaterorforfishponds.Whateverlineryouuse,wash
andrinseitbeforeinstalling(even"fishsafe"rubbercomescoatedwithtalcumpowderto
keepitfromstickingtoitself).Ifstoringpotablewater,makesurethattheproductmeets
NSFStandard61.
Recycling
IntheoryEPDMcanberecycled,butit'snotaseasyasdroppingitoffattherecycling
center.Itisathermosetmaterialandcannotberemelted.Itcanbegroundupandused
forsomethingelse.Forexample,severalcompaniesrecycleEPDMroofingmaterialinto
rubberroofingshingles.However,suchcompaniesarefewandfarbetween,soyoumay
behardpressedtofindsomeonetotakeanoldpondlineroffyourhands.
Leaching from cement

NSF Certification Suggested
Checkhere:http://www.nsf.org/Certified/PwsComponents/
AccordingtotheNSF,noncertifiedportlandcementwhichhasbeencookedwith
burningtoxicgooisfrequently,improperlyusedinwatersystemsbydesignerswho
blithelyassumethatcementisusedincontactwithwatersoitmustbeOK:
http://www.nsf.org/business/newsroom/waterworks991/portland.html
"NSFCertifiedtankcoatingsarealmostalwaysrequiredinbidspecifications,butitis
muchlesscommonforPortlandcementstobespecifiedinbidsasNSFCertified.Yet
concreteiscommonlyusedindistributionpipingandwaterstoragetanks."
"Thedisclosurespecifieswhetherhazardouswastefuelsareburnedincementkilns
duringthemanufacturingprocess.
NSFtoxicologystaffreviewstheformulationofthecementanddevelopsananalytical
testplantodetectpotentialcontaminantsofconcern.Thisincludesregulatedmetals
analysisbyICP/MS,organicchemicalanalysisbyGC/MS,radionuclide,dioxin,furan,
andformulationspecificanalysesforcompoundssuchasglycolsandethanoloamines."
Heavy metals from cement

www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/permleach.pdf
Cementmaterialscontainavarietyofregulatedinorganicchemicals,manyofwhichare
proneto
leaching.Guoetal.(1998)conductedlaboratoryteststodeterminetheextentofleaching
from
ductileironpipeslinedinsituwithportlandcement(typeI)mortar.Thepipeswerelined
and
curedinaccordancewithANSI/AWWAStandardC60289,andsubsequentlydisinfected
accordingtoANSI/AWWAC65192.Thetestwaterwasstandardfaucetwaterfroma
New
Jerseyutility.Understaticconditions,arsenic,barium,cadmium,andchromiumleached
from
theliningtomaximumvaluesroughly1020%oftheirrespectivedrinkingwaterMCLs.
Further,theacidsolublecontentsofarsenic,barium,cadmium,andchromiuminthe
cement
coatingappliedwereonly3,1.9,13,and6.6percentofthecementindustrymaximum,
respectively.Therefore,theextentofleachingcouldhavebeenhigherifanalternate
cement
lininghadbeenapplied.Additionalresearchisnecessarytounderstandthefateofheavy
metals
associatedwithcementleaching,andthedegreeofaccumulationwithindistribution
systems.
AccordingtoBerendandTrouwborst(1999),theapplicationofcementmortarliningcan
also
leadtoaluminumleaching.Thealuminumcontentincementmortarliningsvaries,as
shownin
Table9.Oneofthepredominantcrystallinephasesincementistricalciumaluminate,
whichis
believedtodissolveaccordingtothefollowingreaction:
(3)Ca3Al2O6+6H2O3Ca2++2Al3++12OH
Optimisation of industrial wastes reuse as construction

materials.
Thisstudyconcernsthereuseoftwoinorganicwastes,foundryresiduesandflyashes
frommunicipalsolidwasteincineration,as"recycledaggregate"inconcreteproduction.
Leaching and primary biodegradation of sulfonated

naphthalenes and their formaldehyde condensates from
concrete superplasticizers in groundwater affected by
tunnel construction.
Sulfonatednaphthalenesandtheirformaldehydecondensates(SNFC)areusedas
concretesuperplasticizersfortunnelconstructionthroughaquifers.Thispaperdiscusses
theirprimarybiodegradationingroundwateraffectedbyconstructionactivities.The
analysesofgroundwatersamplescollected5mawayfromaconstructionsiteclearly
indicatedthatcomponentsoftheappliedSNFCproductleachedintothegroundwater.A
maximumtotalconcentrationofthesecompoundsof233microg/Lwasfound,anditwas
shownthatonlythemonomericsulfonatednaphthalenesandthecondensates
uptothetetramerleachedinsubstantialamounts.Thedecreaseinconcentrationofseveral
monomericcomponentscouldnotbeexplainedbymeredispersionbutratherindicatesa
biologicaltransformationintheaquifer.Thiswasconfirmedatasecondfieldsiteandby
laboratorydegradationexperimentswithpiezometermaterialasinoculum.Lagphasesfor
theindividuallydegradablesulfonatednaphthalenesrangedfrom0to96d.Naphthalene
1,5disulfonateandtheoligomericcomponentswereneitherdegradedintheaquifernor
inthelaboratoryexperimentswithinanobservationtimeofupto195d.Thisclearly
indicatestheirpersistenceinsubsurfacewaters.
Characterization of the leaching behaviour of concrete mortars

and of cement-stabilized wastes with different waste loading
for long term environmental assessment.
vanderSlootHA.
ECNSoilandWasteResearch,Petten,TheNetherlands.vandersloot@ecn.nl
Theleachingbehaviourofcementbasedproductsbothconstructionproductsand
cementstabilizedwasteshavebeenshowntobesimilarafterassessingtheleaching
characteristicsbymeansofapHdependenceleachingtest.Thisprocedureisparticularly
suitedtoidentifyingthechemicalspeciationofmaterials.Geochemicalmodellinghas
shownanumberofsolubilitycontrollingphasesinthislargelyinorganicmatrix,thatcan
verywellexplaintheobservedleachingpatternsasafunctionofpH.Understandingthese
relationshipsallowsthepredictionofleachingbehaviourunderotherexposureconditions
andtoimprovetheultimatequalityofproducts,ifsodesired.Theroleofettringitetype
phasesforthebindingofoxyanionsinthepHrangeabovepH12hasbeenidentified
beforeandconfirmedinthiswork.Theorderofincorporationfollowsfromtheratio
betweenthemaximumleachabilityatmildlyalkalinepHandathighpH.Increasedlevels
ofsulfatenegativelyinfluencethebindingofoxyanionsincementstabilizedwaste
throughsitecompetition.
Bacteria
Safe water supply without disinfection in a large city case
study: Berlin.
[ArticleinEnglish,German,Russian]
GrohmannA,PetersohnD.
Umweltbundesamt,AbteilungTrinkwaserhygiene,Correnspiatz1,14195Berlin,
Dahlem.
Berlin'swatersuppliesoriginateexclusivelyfromgroundwater.Forsustainablewater
management,riverwateristreatedbyflocculationandfiltrationandusedeitherfor
artificialgroundwaterrecharge(riversSpreeandHavel)orforbankfiltration
(NordgrabenandLakeTegel).DrinkingwaterchlorinationwasabandonedinBerlin
(West)in1978,andinBerlin(East)in1992,followingGermanunification.Chlorine
consumptionforthepurposeofweeklyperformancechecksinthechlorinationplantsof
Berlin's11waterworksandoccasionalchlorinationwithinthepipesystemfollowingpipe
bursteventsamountsto2500kgperyear.Basedontheannualwaterdemandof250
millioncubicmetres,thisisequivalentto0.01mgofchlorineperlitre.Microbiological
monitoringatthe11waterworksandat383samplingpointswithinthepipesystem
showsCFUatlessthan10/1ml1andcoliformsandE.coliinvariablyat0/100ml1.In
viewofthelowAOXcontent,amultiplicationofbacteriawithinthepipesystemcanbe
expectedtooccurnotatalloronlytoasmallextent.Resourceprotectionmeasures,filter
backwashingandpipesystemmaintenanceinobservanceoftherelevanttechnicalrules
willcontinuetoensurethatthequalityofBerlin'sdrinkingwatermeetsstringenthygiene
requirementswithoutchlorination.
Water quality problems associated with intermittent water

supply.
TokajianS,HashwaF.
LebaneseAmericanUniversity,Byblos,Lebanon.
AcontrolledstudywasconductedinLebanonoveraperiodof12monthstodetermine
bacterialregrowthinasmallnetworksupplyingtheBeirutsuburbofNaccachethathada
populationofabout3,000.Theresidentialarea,whichisfedbygravity,issuppliedtwice
aweekwithchlorinatedwaterfromtwoartesianwellsofaconfinedaquifer.A
significantcorrelationwasdetectedbetweentheturbidityandthelevelsofheterotrophic
platecountbacteria(HPC)inthesamplesfromthedistributionnetworkaswellasfrom
theartesianwells.However,anegativesignificantcorrelationwasfoundbetweenthe
temperatureandtheHPCcountinthesamplescollectedfromthesource.Astatistically
significantincreaseincounts,possiblyduetoregrowth,wasrepeatedlyestablished
betweentwosamplingpointslyingonastraightdistributionlinebut1kmapart.Faecal
coliformsweredetectedinthesourcewaterbutnoneinthenetworkexceptduringapipe
breakageincidentwithconfirmedEscherichiacolireaching40CFU/100mL.However,
coliformssuchasCitrobacterfreundii,Enterobacteragglomerans,E.cloacaeandE.
skazakiiwererepeatedlyisolatedfromthenetwork,mainlyduetoinadequate
chlorination.Asecondcontrolledstudywasconductedtodeterminetheeffectofstorage
onthemicrobialqualityofhouseholdstoragetanks(500L),whichwereoftwomain
typesgalvanizedcastironandblackpolyethylene.Themeanbacterialcountincreased
significantlyafter7dstorageinbothtanktypes.Asignificantdifferencewasfoundinthe
meanHPC/mLbetweenthewinterandthesummer.HighestcountswerefoundApril
Junealthoughthemaximumtemperaturewasreportedlaterinthesummer.Apositive
correlationwasestablishedbetweentheHPC/mLandpH,temperatureandstoragetime.
Septic System Density and Infectious Diarrhea in a Defined

Population of Children
Septicsystemdensitieswereassociatedwithendemicdiarrhealillnessincentral
Wisconsin.Theassociationshouldbeinvestigatedinotherregions,andstandardsfor
septicsystemsshouldbeevaluatedtoensurethatthepublichealthisprotected
Safe water treatment and storage in the home. A practical new

strategy to prevent waterborne disease.
MintzED,ReiffFM,TauxeRV.
FoodborneandDiarrhealDiseasesBranch,CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,
Atlanta,GA30333.
cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7884954Inmanypartsofthe
developingworld,drinkingwateriscollectedfromunsafesurfacesourcesoutsidethe
homeandisthenheldinhouseholdstoragevessels.Drinkingwatermaybecontaminated
atthesourceorduringstorage;strategiestoreducewaterbornediseasetransmissionmust
safeguardagainstbothevents.Wedescribeatwocomponentpreventionstrategy,which
allowsanindividualtodisinfectdrinkingwaterimmediatelyaftercollection(pointofuse
disinfection)andthentostorethewaterinnarrowmouthed,closedvesselsdesignedto
preventrecontamination(safestorage).Newdisinfectantgeneratorsandbetterstorage
vesseldesignsmakethisstrategypracticalandinexpensive.Thisapproachempowers
householdsandcommunitiesthatlackpotablewatertoprotectthemselvesagainsta
varietyofwaterbornepathogensandhasthepotentialtodecreasetheincidenceof
waterbornediarrhealdisease.
Do U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Water Quality

Guidelines for Recreational Waters Prevent Gastrointestinal
Illness? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2003/6241/6241.html
TimothyJ.Wade,1NitikaPai,2JosephN.S.Eisenberg,2andJohnM.Colford,Jr.2
1EpidemiologyandBiomarkersBranch,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,
ResearchTrianglePark,NorthCarolina,USA;2SchoolofPublicHealth,Divisionof
Epidemiology,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,California,USA
Conclusions
Ourreviewsuggeststhatenterococciand,toalesserextent,E.coliareadequate
indicatorsofGIillnessinmarinewater,butfecalcoliformsarenot.Therewasevidence
thatriskofGIillnesswasconsiderablylowerinstudieswithindicatordensitiesbelowthe
guidelinesproposedbyU.S.EPAforbothenterococciandE.coli,providingsupportfor
useofthesevaluesforregulatorypurposes.Infreshwater,E.coliwasamorereliable
andconsistentpredictorofGIillnessthanisenterococci.
Microbiological contamination of drinking water in a commercial

household water filter system.
DaschnerFD,RudenH,SimonR,ClottenJ.
InstituteofEnvironmentalMedicine,Freiburg,Germany.
Themicrobiologicalqualityoffilteredwaterinacommercialwaterfiltersystem(Brita)
wastestedinhouseholdsandintwolaboratories.In24of34filtersusedinhouseholds,
bacterialcountsincreasedinthefilteredwaterupto6,000cfu/ml.In4of6filterstested
inthelaboratory,bacterialcountsinthefreshfiltratewerehigherthanintapwaterafter
approximatelyoneweekofusebothatroomtemperatureandat4degreesC,suggesting
growthorbiofilmformationinthefiltermaterial.Insomecasescolonycountsinthe
filteredwaterwere10,000timesthoseintapwater.Thefiltermaterialof5of13new
commercialfilterswascontaminatedwithbacteriaormoulds.Nationalorinternational
regulatoryagenciesshouldensurethatwaterfiltersmarketedfordomesticusedonot
allowdeteriorationinthemicrobiologicalqualityofdrinkingwater.
Household drinking water in developing countries: a systematic

review of microbiological contamination between source
and point-of-use.
WrightJ,GundryS,ConroyR.
WaterandEnvironmentalManagementResearchCentre,UniversityofBristol,Bristol,
UK.james.wright@bristol.ac.uk
OBJECTIVE:Toassesstheextentandcausesofmicrobiologicalcontaminationof
householddrinkingwaterbetweensourceandpointofuseindevelopingcountries.
METHODS:Asystematicmetaanalysisof57studiesmeasuringbacteriacountsfor
sourcewaterandstoredwaterinthehometoassesshowcontaminationvariedbetween
settings.RESULTS:Thebacteriologicalqualityofdrinkingwatersignificantlydeclines
aftercollectioninmanysettings.Theextentofcontaminationafterwatercollection
variesconsiderablybetweensettings,butisproportionatelygreaterwherefaecalandtotal
coliformcountsinsourcewaterarelow.CONCLUSIONS:Policiesthataimtoimprove
waterqualitythroughsourceimprovementsmaybecompromisedbypostcollection
contamination.Saferhouseholdwaterstorageandtreatmentisrecommendedtoprevent
this,togetherwithpointofusewaterqualitymonitoring.
Can water go bad?

http://science.howstuffworks.com/question201.htm
Manypeoplestorewaterforemergencieslikehurricanesandpowerfailures.Thisis
especiallytrueinruralareaswheredrinkingwatercomesfromprivatewells.Thesewells
areuselessunlessthereispowertorunthepump.Ifyouaretryingtostorewatersafely,
today'squestionisagreatone!
Itturnsoutthattherearetwowaysforwatertogobad.Youcaneasilydemonstratethe
firstwaybyfillingabucketwithtapwaterandleavingitonthebackporchforseveral
days.Afteraboutaweek,youwillfindthatthewaterinthebucketcontainsmosquito
larvae,algaeandvariousotherlifeforms,noneofwhichyouwouldwanttobedrinking.
Fromthisexperiment,youcaneasilydecidethatstoringwaterinanopencontainerisa
badideaunlessyouhaveaplantopurifyitwhenyouneedtodrinkit.Storingwaterina
closedcontainerworksnobetterifthewaterthatyouplaceinthecontaineris
contaminatedinsomewaywithbacteriaoralgae.Youneedtoputpurewaterinaclean
containerandthenprocessitinsomewaytoeliminatebacterialcontamination.Youcan
processthewaterwithheatjustlikeyoudowhencanning,oruseachemicallikechlorine
oriodine.
Thesecondwayforwatertobecomeunfitfordrinkingisforsomethingtoleachoutof
thecontainerintothewater.Asanextremeexample,imaginewhatwouldhappenifyou
weretostorewaterinaleadcontainer.Leadwouldleachintothewaterandmakeit
poisonous.Thecontaineryouuseneedstobemadefromafoodgradematerialinorderto
avoidleachingproblems.Glass,stainlesssteelandsomeplasticsarefoodgrade.
Oneeasywaytostorewateristobuydistilledwateringallonplasticjugsatthegrocery
store.Thiswaterisinexpensive,freeofbacterialcontaminationandissealedinafood
gradecontainer.Youcanstorethiswaterindefinitely.
Inthelongrun...
Severalalertreaderspointedoutthatplasticmilkjugsmightnotbetheverybest
containerforlongtermstoragebecausetheydegradeandtendtoleakafterayearortwo.
Mostofthesereadersrecommendplasticsodabottlesorlarge5galloncontainers
specificallyintendedforwaterstorage.
Expiration dates on bottled water

http://www.loper.org/~george/trends/2004/Feb/977.html
"It'sroughenoughthatthemillionsofAmericanswhobuybottledwaterarepayingfor
somethingthatusedtobasicallybefree.Butevenhardertostomachisthemessagethat
comesonthebottle:Likemilkandeggs,waternow"expires."
Mostcommerciallyproducedwatercomesstampedwithexpirationdatestypically
withintwoyearsofwhenitwasbottled.OnmostPolandSpringbottlestherearetiny,
whitelettersadvisingconsumerstodrinkupwithintwoyears.MostAquafinabottles
sporttwoyearexpirationwarningsontheircaps.Ingeneral,thedatesonbottledwater
includetheprefix"EXP,"meaning"expires."Fijibrandwaterhasaslightlydifferent
approach:Itsbottlessay"Bestby"followedbythedate.CocaColaInc.putsaoneyear
expirationdateonitsDasanibrandwater.
ThemessagethatwaterhasashelflifehasbeenfurtheramplifiedinthewakeofSept.11.
TheU.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurityurgespeopletostockpilebottledwaterin
theirdisasterpreparednesskits.OnitsWebsite(www.ready.gov),itinstructspeopleto
changetheirbottledwatereverysixmonths.
TheAmericanRedCrossalsoadvisespeopleviaitsWebsitetoreplacetheirstored
bottledwatereverysixmonths.Butwhencontacted,theorganization'smanagerof
disastereducation,RockyLopes,sayspeopleshouldreplacetheirbottledwaterbeforeits
expirationdate."Thewatershouldbereplacedifthemanufacturerdeterminesthereisa
reasonforit,"hesays.
Butdoeswaterreallyspoil?Despitethelabelsremindingconsumerstodrinkup,thereis
virtuallynoevidencethatdrinkingwaterbeyondtheexpirationdatehasanyhealth
impactatall.TheFoodandDrugAdministrationconsidersbottledwatertohavean
"indefiniteshelflife."Eventhebottledwaterindustryishardpressedtojustifythelabels.
"There'snorealrationale,"saysJaneLazgin,aspokeswomanforNestleWatersNorth
AmericaInc.,whichbottlesbrandsincludingPolandSpringandIceMountain,and
importsEuropeanwaterssuchasPerrierandVittel.Thepractice"isnothealthbased,"
sheadds.
[Bacterial regrowth in drinking water. I. The upgrading of

drinking water]
[ArticleinGerman]
JaeggiNE,SchmidtLorenzW.
LaboratoriumfurLebensmittelMikrobiologie,Eidg.TechnischeHochschule(ETH)
Zurich.
Sevendeadendwaterpipeswereinstalledaftereachtreatmentstepinadrinkingwater
plant.Duringaperiodof7weeksthebacterialloadoffreshwaterandstagnatingwater
wasinvestigatedwithdifferentmethods.Amodifiedsurfacespreadplatecount(Plate
CountAgar,10folddiluted,14daysincubationat20degreesC)provedtobemore
effectivethanthetraditionalpourplatemethod,becauseitgaveconsistentlyhigher
colonycountsandhadalowerlevelofdetection(0.001CFUml1).Theenumeratingof
electrontransportsystempositivebacteriayieldedhighernumbersthanthecolonycount
methods,butisnotrecommendedwhenrecentlyoxidizedwatersamplesaretobe
investigated.Highestcellcountswereattainedwhenusingepifluorescencemicroscopic
counting,yetbacterialregrowthcouldnotbemonitoredthus.Thetendencyofbacterial
regrowthwashighestinfreshlyozonizedwater.Instagnatinglakewaternoregrowth
occurredafter1and3weeksbecauseofthebalanceofbacteriaandtheirpredators.
Microbiological quality of drinking water and using water of a

Chao Phya River community, Bangkok.
cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7667704LuksamijarulkulP,
PumsuwanV,PungchittonS.
DepartmentofMicrobiology,FacultyofPublicHealth,MahidolUniversity,Bangkok,
Thailand.
Safewaterisessentialforgoodhealthofhumans.Thecontaminationofwaterwith
infectedfecalmaterialiscommoninareaswithpoorstandardsofhygieneandsanitation.
Thedeterminationofmicrobiologicalqualityofwaterisessential.Simpleroutinetesting
ofthebacteriologicalqualityofdrinkingwaterisdesignedtodetectthepresenceof
coliformbacteriaandvirologicalassessmentistodetectthepresenceofentericviruses,
especiallyhepatitisAvirus(HAV).Therefore,thisstudyattemptedtodeterminethe
HAVandcoliformbacteriacontaminationindrinkingwaterandusingwaterofaChao
PhyaRivercommunity,Bangkokwherecrowdedlivingconditionsincreasetheriskof
waterrelateddiseases.95samplesofdrinkingwaterand75samplesofusedwaterin
containerswerecollectedwithsteriletechniquefordeterminingHAVantigenbyELISA
andcoliformcontaminationbytheMostProbableNumberTechnique(MPN).Theresults
revealedthatHAVandcoliformcontaminationratesofdrinkingwaterwere25.26%and
64.21%,respectively.Therainwaterhadthehighestcontamination(60.00%and
80.00%).Tapwaterwas23.73%forHAV(14/59samples)and64.41%forcoliforms
(38/59samples)whereasrunningwaterhadtheleastcontamination(2.94%forHAVand
5.88%forcoliforms).Thecontaminationratesofusedwaterwere10.69%forHAVand
68.67%forcoliforms.
The effect of container-biofilm on the microbiological quality of

water used from plastic household containers.
JagalsP,JagalsC,BokakoTC.
WaterandHealthResearch,TechnikonWitwatersrand,POBox17011,Doornfontein,
2025,SouthAfrica.jagals@twr.ac.za
StudiesinSouthernAfricahaveshownthatevenwhenmicrobiologicallysafewateris
suppliedtodevelopingcommunitiesatcommunalstandpipes,contaminationbyhigh
numbersofpathogenicmicroorganismsmayoccurduringtheprocessesoffetchingwater
fromthesupplysourceandstorageduringuseathome,renderingsuchwatersunsafefor
humanconsumption.ThisstudyinvestigatedtheoccurrenceofbiofilminPVCstorage
containersasonepossiblereasonforthisdeterioration,usingheterotrophicbacteriaand
totalcoliformcountsaswellasturbidityasindicators.Asecondobjectivewasto
determinewhetherbiofilminwaterstoragecontainerscouldcontributetohazardous
microbiologicalcontaminationindicatedbyEscherichiacoliandClostridiumperfringens.
Resultsindicatedthatincreasedmicrobiologicalcontaminationisassociatedwithbiofilm.
Thebiofilmharboursheterotrophicbacteria,totalcoliformsandC.perfringens.E.coli
couldnotbeassociateddirectlywiththelevelsofbiofilmincontainersbutratherappears
tobeintroducedintermittentlyfromtheambientdomesticenvironment.Whendislodged
withthebiofilm,thesebacteriacontributedsubstantiallytothedeteriorationofthe
microbiologicalqualityofsuppliedwaterstoredinplasticcontainers.
[Bacterial regrowth in drinking water. II. Drinking water

distribution systems]
[ArticleinGerman]
JaeggiNE,SchmidtLorenzW.
InstitutfurLebensmittelwissenschaftEidg.TechnischeHochschule(ETH)Zurich.
Fivechromiumsteeldeadendwaterpipeswereinstalledoveradistanceof12kmalong
theZurichcitydrinkingwaterdistributionsystem.Cellcountsweredeterminedintwo
seriesoffoursamplingsinfreshwaterandstagnatingwaterusingthreedifferent
methods.Thecolonycountsofoligocarbontolerantbacteria(1:10dilutedplatecount
agar,20degreesC,14d)inthefreshwaterwasincreasingalongthedistributionline.
Initiallytherewerecountsaround1CFUml1andafter12kmbetween120and1100
CFUml1.Watertakenfromhousetabsshowedhighercolonycountsthanwatertaken
afterreservoirs.Afterastagnatingtimeof14dall40watersamplesshowedaftergrowth
from10(3)upto10(4)CFUml1.Waterfromthetwosamplinglocationswiththe
longestdistancefromthetreatmentplantshowedlessregrowthtendency.
EpifluorescencemicroscopyandtheINTmethodfordeterminingtheelectrontransport
systempositivebacteria(ETS+)werelessusefulformonitoringbacterialregrowth.
However,inthestagnatingwaterthereoccurredasignificantlyhigherpercentageof
ETS+unitsascomparedtothecolonyformingunits(CFU)withgrowingdistancefrom
thetreatmentplant.
BOTTLEDWATERCONTAMINATION:ANOVERVIEWOFNRDC'SAND
OTHERS'SURVEYS
http://www.nrdc.org/water/drinking/bw/chap3.asp
Bacterial Growth in Two Bottled Waters
QuickTime and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Behavior of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli in bottled spring

and mineral water.
VasudevanP,AnnamalaiT,SartoriL,HoaglandT,VenkitanarayananK.
DepartmentofAnimalScience,Unit40,UniversityofConnecticut,3636HorsebarnHill
RoadExtension,Storrs,Connecticut06269,USA.
TheabilityofenteroaggregativeEscherichiacoli(EAEC)tosurviveinbottledmineral
andspringwateratcommonstoragetemperatureswasinvestigated.Filteredmineraland
springwaterswereinoculatedwithEAEC(ca.10(4)CFU/ml)andstoredat4,10,and23
degreesC.Watersampleswereanalyzedevery3daysforviableEAECbyplatingon
trypticsoyagarplatesover60daysofstorage.EAECsurvivedforthedurationofthe
studyinbothmineralandspringwaters.EAECsurvivallevelsweresignificantlyhigher
(P<0.01)at23and10degreesCthanat4degreesC.Furthermore,EAECsurvivallevels
weresignificantlyhigher(P<0.01)inmineralwaterthaninspringwaterat4and10
degreesC.TheresultsofthisstudyindicatethatEAECcansurviveinbottledmineraland
springwatersforlongperiodsofstorageat4,10,and23degreesC.TheabilityofEAEC
tosurviveinbottledwaterindicatesthatthesourcewaterforbottlingindustriesmustbe
keptfreeofcontamination.Furthermore,therefrigerationofbottledwateris
recommendedtominimizethegrowthofEAECinwater.
A Randomized, Blinded, Controlled Trial Investigating the

Gastrointestinal Health Effects of Drinking Water Quality
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2001/109p773778hellard/abstract.html
MargaretE.Hellard,MarthaI.Sinclair,AndrewB.Forbes,andChristopherK.Fairley
DepartmentofEpidemiologyandPreventiveMedicine,FacultyofMedicine,Monash
University,Melbourne,Victoria,Australia
Abstract
Adoubleblinded,randomized,controlledtrialwascarriedoutininMelbourne,
Australia,todeterminethecontributionofdrinkingwatertogastroenteritis.Melbourneis
oneofthefewmajorcitiesintheworldthatdrawsdrinkingwaterfromaprotectedforest
catchmentwithminimalwatertreatment(chlorinationonly).Sixhundredfamilieswere
randomlyallocatedtoreceiveeitherrealorshamwatertreatmentunits(WTUs)installed
intheirkitchen.Realunitsweredesignedtoremoveviruses,bacteria,andprotozoa.
Studyparticipantscompletedaweeklyhealthdiaryreportinggastrointestinalsymptoms
duringthe68weekobservationperiod.Therewere2,669casesofhighlycredible
gastroenteritis(HCG)duringthestudy(0.80cases/person/year).TheratioofHCG
episoderatesfortherealWTUgroupcomparedtotheshamWTUgroupwas0.99(95%
confidenceinterval,0.851.15,p=0.85).Wecollected795fecalspecimensfrom
participantswithgastroenteritis,andpathogenswerenotmoresignificantlycommonin
theshamWTUgroup.WefoundnoevidenceofwaterbornediseaseinMelbourne.The
applicationofthismethodologytootherwatersupplieswillprovideabetter
understandingoftherelationshipbetweenhumanhealthandwaterquality.Keywords:
doubleblindrandomizedtrails,drinkingwaterquality,gastroenteritis,waterborne
disease.EnvironHealthPerspect109:773778(2001).[Online1August2001]
Disinfection byproducts
Trihalomethanes
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2003/1117/ss.html#shor
Theresearchersexaminednumerouspotentialconfounders,includingsmoking,alcohol
andcaffeineconsumption,pregnancyhistory,bodymassindex,age,race,education,
income,andemployment.TheyfoundverylittleevidenceforconfoundingofTTHM
effectsonmeancyclelength.Only3%oftheparticipantshadaverageTTHM
concentrationsabovetheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency'sannualmaximum
contaminantlevelof80microgramsperliter(g/L).Forthisstudy,highexposurewas
definedas60g/Lorhigherperday.
Chemistry of mutagenic by-products of water chlorination.

Mutagenic activity and presence of the strong mutagen 3-chloro4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2-(5H)-furanone (MX) in

chlorinated raw and drinking waters in The Netherlands.
BacklundP,WondergemE,VoogdK,deJongA.
DepartmentofOrganicChemistry,AboAkademi,Turku,Finland.
ChlorinatedsurfaceanddrinkingwatersinTheNetherlandswereanalysedformutagenic
activity(Amestest)andthestrongmutagen3chloro4(dichloromethyl)5hydroxy
2(5H)furanone(MX).MutagenicactivityandMXwereformedduringchlorine
treatmentofrawsurfacewatersandpurifiedsurfacewater.Mutagenicitywasalsopresent
infinisheddrinkingwaterswhichhadbeensubjectedtopostchlorination,butnoMX
couldbedetected.Itisproposedthatthemutagensresponsibleformostoftheactivityare
acidiccompoundsastheyweremainlyextractableunderacidicconditions.The
precursorstothemutageniccompoundsformedduringpostchlorinationofdrinking
waterwereefficientlyremovedbyuseofozonation/activatedcarbonfiltration.Onthe
otherhand,coagulation(Fe(III]inthepresenceofactivatedcarbonpowderseemedto
havehardlyanyeffectonthemutagenprecursors.Thecalculatedmutagenicity
contributionfromMXtotheobservedTA100activityinthewatersstudiedwaslessthan
20%.
Drugs in drinking water

http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/10810/forum.html#water
Water age
750,000*
800,000
Milesof
WaterMains
1,100
2,750
87,900*
358
>16
24,000
86
1224
PopulationServed
RangeofWaterAges
withinSystem(Days)
<13
37+
Methodof
Determination
FluorideTracer
HydraulicModel
Chloramine
Conversion
HydraulicModel
Runoff Quality
The influence of urban density and drainage infrastructure on
the concentrations and loads of pollutants in small streams.
HattBE,FletcherTD,WalshCJ,TaylorSL.
CooperativeResearchCentreforFreshwaterEcology,WaterStudiesCentre,Monash
University,Victoria3800,Australia.Belinda.Hatt@eng.monash.edu.au
cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15383877Effectivewaterquality
managementofstreamsinurbanizedbasinsrequiresidentificationoftheelementsof
urbanizationthatcontributemosttopollutantconcentrationsandloads.Drainage
connection(theproportionofimperviousareadirectlyconnectedtostreamsbypipesor
lineddrains)isproposedasavariableexplainingvarianceinthegenerallyweak
relationshipsbetweenpollutantconcentrationsandimperviousness.Fifteensmallstreams
drainingindependentsubbasinseastofMelbourne,Australia,weresampledforasuiteof
waterqualityvariables.Geometricmeanconcentrationsofallvariableswerecalculated
separatelyforbaseflowandstormevents,andthese,togetherwithestimatesofrunoff
derivedfromarainfallrunoffmodel,wereusedtoestimatemeanannualloads.Patterns
ofconcentrationsamongthestreamswereassessedagainstpatternsofimperviousness,
drainageconnection,unsealed(unpaved)roaddensity,elevation,longitude(allofwhich
wereintercorrelated),septictankdensity,andbasinarea.Baseflowandstormevent
concentrationsofdissolvedorganiccarbon(DOC),filterablereactivephosphorus(FRP),
totalphosphorus(TP)andammonium,alongwithelectricalconductivity(EC),all
increasedwithimperviousnessanditscorrelates.Hierarchicalpartitioningshowedthat
DOC,EC,FRP,andstormeventTPwereindependentlycorrelatedwithdrainage
connectionmorestronglythancouldbeexplainedbychance.NeitherpHnortotal
suspendedsolidsconcentrationswerestronglycorrelatedwithanybasinvariable.
Oxidizedandtotalnitrogenconcentrationsweremoststronglyexplainedbyseptictank
density.Loadsofallvariableswerestronglycorrelatedwithimperviousnessand
connection.Priorityshouldbegiventolowimpacturbandesign,whichprimarily
involvesreducingdrainageconnection,tominimizeurbanizationrelatedpollutant
impactsonstreams.
Tank materials for aquaculture

http://www.teamaged.org/aquaculture/ctanks.htm
glassoracrylicplasticUsedtoconstructaquaria.Whileaquariaareunderrated,these
areanexcellentoptionforteacherswithorwithoutabudget(everyonehasoneintheir
attic,garage,orcellar)oralotofclassspace(canprovidestudentswithindividualized
learningandentrepreneurialopportunities).
fiberglassTanksareeasytobuild,modifyandrepair;prefabricatedtankscanbe
purchasedinalargerangeofsizesandshapes;canbeexpensive.
treatedplywood,cementblocksorgalvanizedsteelTanksareeasytoconstructandcan
beacheapalternative;coverwithanontoxiclinermaterial(donotuselinerstreated
withfungicidee.g.,poolliners)orpaintwithwaterproofepoxypaint.
epoxycoatedsteelExpensive.
pouredcement(e.g.casketliners,oldseptictanks)Potentialtofindsomegoodbargains,
buttoughtomove.
polytanksConsideredshorttermtanks;good(fairlycheap)forclassroomaquaculture.
stainlesssteel(e.g.unusedmilkbulktankorcheesevat)Expensive.
porcelainbondedcarbonsteel(e.g.discardedsilorings)Niceifavailableforfree.
Q:Howdoesleadgetintodrinkingwater?
A:Leadisn'tinwaterthatleavesourtreatmentplants.However,itmightoccurinyour
home'splumbing.Leadlevelsinyourdrinkingwaterarelikelytobehigherif:
Yourhomehasfaucetsorfittingsmadeofbrassthatcontainsomelead;
Yourhomeorwatersystemhasleadpipes;
Yourhomehascopperpipesandthehousewasbuiltfrom198287.
Ifyourinteriorplumbingfitsoneofthesecategories,youhaveanincreasedriskifyou
haveawatersoftenerorwateroftensitsinpipesforseveralhours.
Q:Whatarelead'shealtheffects?
A:Leadisatoxicmetalthatisharmfultohumanhealthifinhaledorswallowed.Itisa
healthconcernindrinkingwateratlevelsabove15partsinabillion.(Onepartperbillion
isequivalenttoasingledropofwaterin55,000gallons.)Althoughitmustbuildupinthe
bodybeforeitaffectsone'shealth,elevatedlevelsattackthebrain,kidneys,nervous
systemandredbloodcells.Thedegreeofharmdependsuponthelevelofexposurefrom
allsources,includingsoil,windandwater.Effectsrangefromsubtlephysicalchangesat
lowlevelstosevereneurologicalandtoxiceffectsorevendeathatextremelyhighlevels.
Water Purification Methods

*
Boiling
Mostwatercanbepurifiedfordrinkingpurposesbyboilingitfor10minutes.Thiswill
destroythebacteria.Inordertoimprovethetasteitwillbenecessarytoaerateitafter
boiling.Thisisaccomplishedbypouringitfromonecontainertoanotherseveraltimes.
Thisshouldbedoneafterthewaterhasbeenallowedtocool.
*
Chlorination
Forlongtermstorage,watershouldbesterilizedordisinfected.Waterstoredin
thoroughlycleanedplasticorglasscontainerscanbechemicallydisinfectedforlongterm
storagebytreatingeachgallonwithsixteendropsofliquidchlorinebleach(Cloroxor
Purextypebleaches,containing4%to6%sodiumhypochlorite).Oneteaspoonofbleach
disinfectsfivegallonsofwater.Thisleveloftreatmentwillpreventgrowthof
microorganismsduringstorage.Afteraddingtheproperdosageandstirring,allowthe
watertostandfor30minutes.Itshouldthenhaveadistinctodorofchlorine.Ifthisodor
isnotpresent,addanotherdoseofthesolutionandletstandforanother15minutes.The
tasteorsmellorchlorineinwaterastreatedinthismannerisasignofsafety.Itisnot
harmful.Onthecontrary,ifyoucannotdetectchlorineinwateryouaretryingtopurify
bythismethod,donotdrinkit.
*
PurificationTablets
Tabletsthatreleaseiodinemaybeusedsafelytopurifydrinkingwater.Thesetabletscan
befoundatmostdrugstoresandsportinggoodsstores.Thenamesvarybutitis
genericallyknownashalazonetablets.Followthedirectionsonthepackage.Usuallyone
tabletissufficientforonequartofwater.Thedosageisdoubledforcloudywater.
*
Iodine
OrdinaryHouseholdIodinemaybeusedtopurifysmallquantitiesofwater.Add23
dropsofTinctureOfIodinetoeachquartofclearwater(810forcloudywater).Mix&
allowtostandfor30minutes.
Thispagecreatedby:
peter@coolpages.net
http://coolpages.net/2000/
Emergency Water storage

http://www.storablefoods.com/water_storage.html
NOTE:Theeasiestwaytostorethebulkofyourwaterisin55gallonpolyethylene
(plastic)waterdrums(FDAapprovedforstoringdrinkingwater).Yousimplyfillthe
drumsupwithyourowntapwater.Thedrumsofferedby21stCenturyFoodStorageare
thebestindustryhastooffer,andaredesignedtohaveweightstackedonthemwhen
filledwithwater,thisallowsyoutostackyourfoodontopofthemandsavespacewhile
keepingyourfoodandwatertogether.Werecommendtwo55gallondrumsofwaterper
person,thisalongwithcollecting"rain"watershouldbesuitable.Beforefillingadrum
withwater,makesuretheNPTplug(finethread;nonwhitecap)isnotpositionednextto
awalletc.Itshouldbeonthetopfrontsideofthedrumforeasyaccess,becausethisis
thebungholethatthedrumpumpsthreadinto.
Rememberalsothatyouhaveseveralsourcesofwateralreadyinyourhomethatcanbe
tappedinanemergencysuchasyourhotwaterheater,toilettanks(don'tusewaterfrom
atankthatcontainscoloreddisinfectant,itispoisonous),waterpipes,iceinthefreezer,
etc.Waterisrelativelyinexpensivetostoreandcertainlynotdifficulttodobutcertainly
thetimetostoreisnow.
Itisalsoagoodideatohaveawaterfilterinadditiontoyourwaterstoragedrums.This
wouldallowyoutopurifydirtywaterfromlakes,rivers,creeks,etc.21stCenturyFood
StorageoffersTheBritishBerkefeldEmergencyWater&CampingFiltertheoriginal
gravityfiltrationsystemusedbythousandsofmissionariesworldwide.Nowaterpressure
orpumpingrequired.Hightechceramicfiltersystem.Timetestedforover140years.
The"SuperSterasyl"filtersreduceupto99.99%ofparticulates,cysts,parasitesand
pathogenicbacteria.See"WaterFiltration"inouronlinestorefordetails.
DISINFECTION:
Forlongtermstorage,tapwatershouldbesterilizedordisinfectedinthoroughlycleaned
plasticorglasscontainers.Watercanbechemicallydisinfectedforlongtermstorageby
treatingeachgallonwith16dropsofliquidchlorinebleach(CloroxorPurextype
bleaches,containing4%to6%sodiumhypochlorite;donotusescentedbleach).One
teaspoonofbleachdisinfectsfivegallonsofwater.Threetablespoonswilldisinfect55
gallonsofwater.Thisleveloftreatmentwillkillbacteriaandvirusesandpreventthe
growthofmicroorganismsduringstorage.Alsocheckwithyourlocalwaterplantforany
additionalinformationtheymayhaveforyou.
Waterstoredinplasticcontainersshouldnotbestoredneargasoline,kerosene,pesticides
orsimilarsubstances.Vaporsfromthesesubstancescouldpermeatetheplasticandaffect
thewater.Thickwalledpolyethylenecontainersaresignificantlylesspermeableto
vaporsthanarethinwalledcontainers.Becertain,whenselectingastoragecontainerfor
water,thatithasatightfittingcaporlidtoprevententranceofcontaminantsand
evaporationofwater.Becausesunlighthasanadverseeffectonplastic,watershouldbe
storedawayfromdirectexposuretosunlight.Storeinacool,dryareawithnosunlight,
likethebasement.
Studiesshowsterilizedordisinfectedwater,storedinclean,foodapprovedcontainers
withsecurelidsorcapsshouldbesafeforuseevenaftermanyyearsofstorage.
Replacementofstoredwaterwithfreshwatershouldbenecessaryonlyifthestoredwater
becomescontaminatedinsomewayorifthecontainershouldbegintoleak.Becertainto
labeleachcontainersotherewillbenoquestionaboutitscontents.Includethedateand
informationonthemethodofdisinfectionused.Werecommendchangingproperlystored
watereverythreetofiveyears.
Good places to seach for this type of information

http://search.epa.gov
http://www.nih.gov/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed
http://stanley.niehs.nih.gov/ehp
http://www.ehso.com/ehshome/
BIOSIS (www.biosis.org)
OLDMEDLINE (http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd)
EMBASE (http://openaccess.dialog.com/med/)
UMI/ProQuest Digital Dissertation Database
(http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/gateway)

Water Contamination Research

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Water Contamination Research

Water Quality Standards

National Sanitation Foundation. 2001. NSF Standard 61 Drinking

Leaching from metals

Report of the New South Wales Chief Health Officer, 1997

A Comparison of Metal Leachate Rate and Zebra Mussel Control

Fish tank zinc

Leaching from plastics

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is not

Consumer reports bottled water

Consumer confidence report

Building Green on PVC

Greenpeace PVC ban program

Enfvironmental and health effects of PVC

The most neglected area of emergency food storage is water

Shelf Life of Water

Leaching from Lexan Polycarbonate nalgenes

Safer Plastics for Storing Foods

Safer Containers: The List

On plastic water bottles

OC&PA: What about cooking with plastics?

PR its cool article

EPAs Endocrine Disruptors Research

Distilled water and methyl chloride

Bisphenol A Is Released from Used Polycarbonate Animal

Leaching of mutagens into mineral water from

Studies of migration of potentially genotoxic compounds into

Aldehyde contamination of mineral water stored in PET bottles.

Evaluation of the migration of mutagens/carcinogens from PET

[Studies on the bottles of mineral water and the foreign plastic

Chemical and in vitro toxicological evaluations of water

The bacterial flora of non-carbonated, natural mineral water

Dont worry about it-Plastics Council

Leaching from fiberglass

Leaching from cement

Heavy metals from cement

Optimisation of industrial wastes reuse as construction

Leaching and primary biodegradation of sulfonated

Characterization of the leaching behaviour of concrete mortars

Water quality problems associated with intermittent water

Septic System Density and Infectious Diarrhea in a Defined

Safe water treatment and storage in the home. A practical new

Do U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Water Quality

Microbiological contamination of drinking water in a commercial

Household drinking water in developing countries: a systematic

Can water go bad?

Expiration dates on bottled water

[Bacterial regrowth in drinking water. I. The upgrading of

Microbiological quality of drinking water and using water of a

The effect of container-biofilm on the microbiological quality of

[Bacterial regrowth in drinking water. II. Drinking water

Bacterial Growth in Two Bottled Waters

Behavior of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli in bottled spring

A Randomized, Blinded, Controlled Trial Investigating the

Chemistry of mutagenic by-products of water chlorination.

Mutagenic activity and presence of the strong mutagen 3-chloro4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2-(5H)-furanone (MX) in

Drugs in drinking water

Tank materials for aquaculture

Water Purification Methods

Emergency Water storage

Good places to seach for this type of information

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