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CollectedNotesonToxicsLeachingfromPlastic,MetalandCementationsContainers,
BacterialRegrowth,andDisinfectionByproducts
May2005
ThisdocumentisdesignedtobeviewedinOUTLINEmodeinMicrosoftWord.
ThesearetherawresearchnotesforWaterStoragebyOasisDesign.
Thereisnoanalysisorsynthesishere.Thehealtheffectsdependonthe:
Material
Additives,moldreleaseagents,coatings,etc.
Contacttime
Contactarea
Temperature
Ageofthematerial(somebecomelessnoxiouswithtime,somemore)
Exposuretosunlight
Susceptibilityoftheindividual
Totheextentwewereabletomakeanysenseoftheinformationbelow,ouranalysiscan
befoundinourwaterstoragebook:
http://www.oasisdesign.net/water/storage/
Muchofthismaterialiscopyrightedbyothersandisreproducedhereunderthefairuse
doctrine.Thesourceforthematerialisgivenatthestartofeachsection.
copiesofNationalPrimaryDrinkingWaterRegulationsandNationalSecondary
DrinkingWaterRegulations.
Aluminum
Aluminum Toxicity: Issues and Insights
http://www.bayeralbumin.com/web_docs/WP_AluminumToxicity.pdf
PeoplearecontinuouslyexposedtoAlbyingestingwater,food,anddustparticles.2
Estimatessuggestthatadultsconsumeapproximately3to5mgofAlintheirdailydiet.
HealthyindividualscaneasilyhandlenormalAlintake,sinceabsorptioninthe
gastrointestinal(GI)tractislow.4TheGItractprovidesefficientprotectionagainstAl
absorption,anditisestimatedthatlessthan1%ofingestedAlisabsorbedbythebody.5
Infact,healthyindividualshaveverylowlevelsofAlbecausetheGItract,skin,and
lungsareeffectivebarrierstoAlabsorption,andthekidneysefficientlyeliminate
absorbedAlbyexcretion.
Peoplewhoareatriskfromaluminumpoisoning:
Dialysispatientsandotherswithimpairedrenalfunction
Newbornsandprematureinfants
Theelderly
PatientsreceivingTPN
Burnpatients
Effectsofaluminumtoxicity:
Associated:
Dementia
Encephalopathy
Learningdeficits
Possiblyassociated:
ALS
Parkinsonsdisease
Alzheimersdisease
Copper
acidicwatercandeterioratecopperpipes.
http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/health/how_and_why/041596.htm
materialsefficacy.Thecopperleachrateforthesematerialsprogressivelydecreaseswith
time.Adirecttimedependentrelationshipbetweenfieldandlaboratoryexposed
materialsmaynotexist.Inotherwords,theleachratesafter15monthsoffieldand
laboratoryexposureareprobablynotthesame.However,thetrendsandrelativeleach
ratesareprobablyreliable.Theleachingdatawouldseemtosuggestthataluminum
bronzeandcoppersheetmaterialswilleventuallyhavecopperleachratestoolowtobe
effective.Thedecreaseinleachratesareprobablycausedbytheaccumulationof
insolublecorrosionproductsonthesurfaceofthetestmaterials.Ifthisisthecase,then
periodicrejuvenationofthesesurfacesbymeansoflightabrasionwouldbepossible.
ZincContainingCoatings.Thethermalsprayedzinccoating,thewaferborneinorganic
zinccoating,andgalvanizingallexhibitedrelativelylowlevelsofmusselattachmentat
15months.Zincleachrateswereapproximately6,3,and5ug/cm2/day,respectively,at
600daysoflaboratoryexposure.Thezincmaterialsserveasecondaryfunctionas
corrosionprotectiononsteelsubstrates.Evenatmodestlevelsofcolonization,zinc
coatingswouldofferasignificantadvantageintermsofcostandsimplicityovertheother
antifoulants.Zinccoatingsmarketedforcorrosionprotectiondonotrequireregistration
undertheFederalInsecticide,Fungicide,andRodenticideAct.
Coatings
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/storage.pdf
tankTurnovernostagnantwater
2.1.4ChemicalContaminants
Coatingmaterialsareusedtopreventcorrosionofsteelstoragetanksandtoprevent
moisturemigrationinconcretetanks.Throughthe1970's,coatingsusedinfinishedwater
storagefacilitieswereprimarilyselectedbecauseoftheircorrosionresistanceandeaseof
application.Thisledtotheuseofindustrialproductslikecoaltars,greases,waxesand
leadpaintsasinteriortankcoatings.Theseproductsofferedexceptionalcorrosion
performancebutunknowinglycontributedsignificanttoxicchemicalstothedrinking
water.Greasecoatingscandiffergreatlyintheircompositionfromvegetableto
petroleumbasedsubstancesandcanprovideagoodfoodsourceforbacteria,resultingin
reducedchlorineresidualsandobjectionabletastesandodorsinthefinishedwater
(Kirmeyeretal.1999).
AnoldgreasecoatingonastoragetankinteriorinthestateofFloridawassuspectedof
causingwaterqualityproblemsinthedistributionsystemsuchastasteandodor,high
chlorinerequirementsandablackslimeatthecustomerstap.TheWisconsinAvenue
500,000gallonelevatedtankwasoriginallycoatedwithapetroleumgreasecoatingwhen
itwasbuiltin1925.
In1988,thestoragefacilitywascleanedandthegreasecoatingwasreapplied.In1993,a
tankinspectionrevealedthatthegreasehadsaggedoffthetankwallsanddepositeda
thickaccumulationofblacklooseoozeinthebottombowlofthetank(68inchesdeep).
Athinfilmofgreasecontinuedtocoattheuppershellsurfaces.Althoughthismaterial
hadperformedwellasacorrosioninhibitor,itwasintroducingdebrisintothedistribution
systemaswellascreatingapossiblefoodsourceandenvironmentforbacteria.TheCity
decidedtocompletelyremovethegreaseandreapplyapolyamideepoxysystem.This
workwascompletedin1996(Kirmeyeretal.1999).Sincethetankwasreturnedto
service,waterqualityhasmarkedlyimproved.Therequiredchlorinedosageratehas
decreasedfrom4.05.0mg/Lto3.5mg/L.Thechlorineresidualatthetankoutlethas
improvedfrom<1.0mg/Lto1.4mg/L.Nomoreblackslimecomplaintshavebeen
received.
Epoxy
There is evidence that epoxy coatings leach various organic additives into water.
Permeationandleaching
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/permleach.pdf
The rate of leaching of organic additives was found to decrease exponentially
with time. Therefore, it is recommended that newly lined pipes be pre-soaked
prior to release to service. Normal hydrostatic testing and disinfection activities
will help remediate leaching. Extending the curing process will also help improve
the stability of epoxy linings
migrationofcomponentsthatmakethewaterqualityunacceptablewithrespectto
aestheticeffectsorhealth.Leachingofvolatileorganiccompoundsmaycause
unwantedtasteandodourinwater,andpossiblehealthrisk.Organiccompoundssuch
asxylene,styrene,phenolsandethylbenzenehavebeenidentified.Compoundsleaching
fromepoxyandpolyethyleneappeartogiveunwantedtasteandsmelltothewater.
Microbiologicalgrowthinthedrinkingwaterdistributionsystemmaycausedeterioration
ofthewaterquality,duetoincreasedturbidity,heterotrophicbacteria,andeven
pathogens.Leakageofbiodegradableorganicmatterfrommaterialsusedinthe
distributionsystemmaypromotemicrobiologicalgrowth.Therearevariationsin
microbiologicalgrowthbetweenvariousmaterials.Inparticular,thechangefromcopper
tosyntheticmaterialsforinhouseinstallationsmaybeareasonforincreased
microbiologicalgrowth.
RELEVANTPIPEMATERIALSPlasticmaterialsusedforservicepipesmaybemade
fromPVC(polyvinylchloride),HDPE(highdensitypolyethylene)orGRP(glassfibre
reinforcedpolyester).InhouseplasticplumbingmaterialswillconsistofPVCorPEX
(crossboundPE).Epoxyliningcanbeusedonconcreteandonstainlesssteelinpipes
andbasins.Additionally,lubricantsmaybeusedforfittingpipestogether,aswellasin
theproductionof,forinstance,stainlesssteelpipes.
SeveralcomplaintsondrinkingwaterqualityinNorwayoronoffshoreinstallationsare
relatedtovolatileorganicmatter(VOC)leachingfromepoxyliningorpaint.Typical
VOCsfromepoxyarealkylbenzenesandalkoxycompounds.Inparticularleachingof
hydrocarbonsfrominsituepoxycoatedstoragetanksoffshoreandonshipsseemstobea
problem, with a solvent (xylene/ethylbenzene) content of up to 6070 g/l being
measured.C3andC4cyclohexanes andotheralicyclichydrocarbonshavealsobeen
identified as tasteandodourcompounds leaching fromsurfacecoatings.Inatreated
waterbasinformunicipalwatersupply,organosulphidecompoundswereidentifiedasthe
sourcefortasteandodour,andthemostlikelysourceofthesulphidesproducedwas
microbiological activity due to degradation of organic compounds leaching from the
epoxylining(Skjevrak,1999;Skjevrak,2000).
OrganiccompoundsleachingfromPEbottlesandtankshavebeenthesourceoftasteand
odourinwaterandevenaweekcolourhasbeenexperiencedbecauseofthismigration.
AnalysisofthewaterhasidentifiedlowconcentrationsofseveralVOCs,suchasketones
(Skjevrak,1999).
MigrationofVOCfromwaterpipesmanufacturedofHDPE,PVCandPEXhasbeen
investigatedusingstaticcontactwithwaterforthreesuccessivetestperiodseachof72
hoursdurationaccordingtoEN14201(Skjevrak,2000;Skjevrak,2002aandb).The
leachingoforganiccompoundsfromHDPEpipesshowedaconsiderablevariationboth
intypeandamount.FiveoutofseventestedbrandsofHDPEpipesshowedunacceptable
TON values (TON > 3) of test water. Degradation products from phenolbased
antioxidantsweremajormigrantsfromHDPEpipes.VOCsleachingfromPEXpipes
gaveanintenseodouroftestwater.SeveralofthemigratedVOCswerenotidentified.
Oxygenates predominated within the identified VOC with methyl tertbutyl ether
(MTBE) as a major component Migration tests of PVC pipes revealed few volatile
migrantsinlowconcentrations,andTONassessmentsdidnotshowsignificantodourin
any of the tests. VOCs leaching from lubricants used for joining of pipes included
componentssuchasC6C11aliphaticaldehydes,ketones,siloxanesandphenolbased
antioxidants.MigrationofVOCfromHDPEintonaturalbiofilmestablishedinHDPE
pipesatturbulentflowconditionsisalsolookedinto(Skjevrak,2002c).
ABS
http://www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/pipes_report.html
#1PETEorPET(polyethyleneterephthalate):usedformostclearbeveragebottles.
#2HDPE(highdensitypolyethylene):usedfor"cloudy"milkandwaterjugs,opaque
foodbottles.
#3PVCorV(polyvinylchloride):usedinsomeclingwraps(especiallycommercial
brands),some"soft"bottles.
#4LDPE(lowdensitypolyethylene):usedinfoodstoragebagsandsome"soft"bottles.
#5PP(polypropylene):usedinrigidcontainers,includingsomebabybottles,andsome
cupsandbowls.
#6PS(polystyrene):usedinfoam"clamshell"typecontainers,meatandbakerytrays,
andinitsrigidform,cleartakeoutcontainers,someplasticcutleryandcups.Polystyrene
mayleachstyreneintofooditcomesintocontactwith.ArecentstudyinEnvironmental
HealthPerspectivesconcludedthatsomestyrenecompoundsleachingfromfood
containersareestrogenic(meaningtheycandisruptnormalhormonalfunctioning.)
StyreneisalsoconsideredapossiblehumancarcinogenbytheWorldHealth
Organization'sInternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer(IARC).
#7Other(usuallypolycarbonate):usedin5gallonwaterbottles,somebabybottles,
somemetalcanlinings.Polycarbonatecanreleaseitsprimarybuildingblock,bisphenol
A,anothersuspectedhormonedisrupter,intoliquidsandfoods.In1998,theJapanese
governmentorderedmanufacturerstheretorecallanddestroypolycarbonatetableware
meantforusebychildrenbecauseitcontainedexcessiveamountsofbisphenolA.Other
sourcesofpotentialbisphenolAexposureincludefoodcanliningsanddentalsealants.
#1 pete
http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art23142.asp
TheEPAclassifiesplastictype#1PETEascontainingaleachableformofDEHA,
classifiedasa"possiblehumancarcinogen"
Bottlescanactuallyaffectawater'stasteandchemicalcontent.Hereareadvantagesand
disadvantagesofcommonbottlematerials.
PET(ALSOCALLEDPETE)
Shortforpolyethyleneterephthalate,PETisaclear,strongplasticthatleavesnothing
morethanafaintsweetorfruityplasticflavor,ifthat.Labelsforsomebrandspackedin
PETplayupthe"clear"tasteofthewaterinside.
HDPE
Highdensitypolyethyleneistheopaque,flexiblematerialofmilkcontainers.It'sless
expensivethanPETbutoftenimpartsaslightmeltedplastictastetowater.Tastemay
alsobeaffectedbyexcessiveheatorflavorsfromfoodsstorednearby.
GLASS
Chemically,glassisinertandimpartsnotastewhatsoever.Butit'sheavyandbreakable
andisseldomusednowadaysexceptforpriceymineralwatersandwaterbottledforbars,
restaurants,andhotels.
POLYCARBONATE
Strongandrigid,it'susedforcompactdiscsaswellas5gallonwatercoolerjugs.The
threewatercoolerwaterswesampledGreatBear,DeerPark,andPolandSpringshad
nofunnyflavors.Infact,thosewaterstastedbetterthanthesameproductsinPETor
HDPEbottles.Butouranalysesshowedthatpolycarbonatesometimesleavesresiduesof
aworrisomechemical,bisphenolA.
Becausesunlighthasanadverseaffectonplastic,watershouldbestoredawayfrom
directexposuretosunlight.
Normalwearandtearandcleaningofpolycarbonateplasticbottlesinadishwasher,Hunt
says,couldcausethechemicaltoleach,andtheamountofleachingincreasesasthe
plasticagesandisdegradedbyuse.AseparatestudypublishedinJulyinEnvironmental
HealthPerspectivesconfirmedthisfinding,andalsodetectedleachingfromnew
polycarbonateplastic.
TheoColborn,authorofthegroundbreakingbookaboutendocrinedisrupters,OurStolen
Future,callsBPAa"very,verystickyproblem.Thisisaproductthatseverywhere,and
ineverything."(Inadditiontobottles,BPAturnsupindentalsealantsandtheresin
liningsofmanyfoodandbeveragecans.)Sherecommendswashingpolycarbonate
bottleswithmilddetergentonly,andrinsingwell.(Thoroughwashingiscrucialforany
reusedbottle,becauseofthedangerofbacterialcontamination.)
Mostatrisk,saysColborn,arepeoplewithdevelopingendocrinesystems:pregnant
womenandnewborns,followedbyyoungchildren,andwomenwhomightgetpregnant.
Huntsaysthatifshehadaninfant,shewouldswitchtopolypropylene(#5PP),whichis
notknowntoleachharmfulsubstances.(Otherplasticsthatarenotknowntoleachare#2
HDPEand#4LDPE."Singleuse"plasticbottlesmadeofpolyethyleneterephthalate[#1
PETorPETE]arenotrecommendedforrepeatusebecauseoftheriskofbacterial
contaminationfrominfrequentandinsufficientwashing.
Oryoucouldavoidplasticaltogetherandswitchtoglassorlightweightstainlesssteel
containers.
FrancesCerraWhittelsey
November/December2003
In"HazardsofHydration,"wecitedastudyaboutsingleusewaterbottlesthatappearsto
havebeenflawed.Whilereusingthese#1PETbottlesisnotagoodideabecauseofrisk
ofbacterialcontamination,youprobablydon'tneedtoworryaboutthemreleasingthe
chemicalDEHA.Thearticlehasbeencorrected.
identifiableasBPAbyGC/MS(upto310g/L),wasreleasedfromusedpolycarbonate
animalcages.DetectablelevelsofBPAwerereleasedfromnewpolycarbonatecages(up
to0.3g/L)aswellasnewpolysulfonecages(1.5g/L),whereasnoBPAwasdetected
inwaterincubatedinglassandusedpolypropylenecages.Finally,BPAexposureasa
resultofbeinghousedinusedpolycarbonatecagesproduceda16%increaseinuterine
weightinprepubertalfemalemicerelativetofemaleshousedinusedpolypropylene
cages,althoughthedifferencewasnotstatisticallysignificant.Ourfindingssuggestthat
laboratoryanimalsmaintainedinpolycarbonateandpolysulfonecagesareexposedto
BPAvialeaching,withexposurereachingthehighestlevelsinoldcages.Keywords:
animalcaging,bisphenolA,endocrinedisruptor,estrogen,leaching,polycarbonate,
polysulfone.Environ
freezedryinginsteadofevaporationofwaterwasused,inordertomeasurebothvolatile
andnonvolatilechemicals.Gaschromatographymassspectrometry(GCMS)analysis
wasperformedontheseresidues.PETbottlesfilledwithnaturallycarbonatedmineral
waterwerealsousedforlongtermtotalorganiccarbon(TOC)andmutagenicity
migrationstudies(upto6months'storage).TotalmigrationresultsforPETbottleswere
withintheEECandUSFDAlimits.Theuseoffreezedryingfortheeliminationofwater
enabledmuchhighertotalmigrationdata(higherthanthelimits)toberevealed.Some
potentiallygenotoxiccompounds(acetaldehyde,dimethylterephthalate,terephthalic
acid)wereidentifiedinthesemigrantcompoundsbyGCMSanalysis.ThetestsforTOC
migrationgaveamaximumvalueafter2wkstorageandthemutagenicitytestsonnon
volatilemigrantcompoundsgavealwaysnegativeresults
chromatography/massspectrometry(GC/MS)forthecharacterisationofmigrants.The
watersampleswerecollectedatabottlingplantandstoredinPETbottlesforaperiod
rangingfrom1to12months.Everymonthsomesampleswererandomlycollectedand
lyophilised,theresidualpowderswereextractedwithorganicsolventsandthenanalysed
byGC/MSandtestedforDNAdamageinhumanleukocytes,orreconstitutedwith
distilledwatertoobtainconcentratesfortheexposureofTradescantiainflorescences.
Micronucleiincreaseinpollenwasfoundonlyinnaturalmineralwaterstoredfor2
months.DNAdamagingactivitywasfoundinmanyofthenaturalandcarbonatedwater
samples.SpringwaterwasnegativeintheplantmicronucleitestandtheCometassay,
whereasdistributedspringwatershowedDNAdamagingeffects,suggestingapossible
introductionofgenotoxinsthroughthedistributionpipelines.GC/MSanalysisshowed
thepresenceinmineralwaterofdi(2ethylhexyl)phthalate,anongenotoxic
hepatocarcinogenicplasticizer,after9monthsofstorageinPETbottles.Copyright2002
ElsevierScienceB.V.
andstorage(from0to24months).Thecomplementarityofthesetwoapproachesis
discussed.Someanalyticalandcytotoxicabnormalitiesweredetectedinthefood
simulantaftercontactwiththebatchesofpowderedPVCcompound,PETresinandtheir
intermediatestepsoftransformation(PVC'paraison',PET'perform').Buttheseresults
didnotreflecttheactualbehaviourofthefinishedPVCandPETbottles,forwhichno
majorabnormalitywasdetectedinthenaturalmineralwater.
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21o21f21
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21a21f21t21e21r21 21t21h21e21 21f21i21r21s21t21
21l21e21a21c21h21i21n21g21
21p21e21r21i21o21d21 21u21s21i21n21g21
21a21n21 21S21/21V21 21r21a21t21i21o21
21o21f21 21~21121c21m21 21221 21m21l21-21121
21s21e21l21d21o21m21 21e21x21c21e21e21d21 21
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T21h21e21r21m21o21s21e21t21t21i21n21g21
21m21a21t21e21r21i21a21l21s21 21
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22m22o22d22i22f22i22e22d22
22c22e22m22e22n22t22i22t22i22o22u22s22
22c22o22a22t22i22n22g22s22.22 22
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22a22r22e22 22d22e22p22e22n22d22e22n22t22,22
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22e22x22t22e22n22t22,22 22o22n22 22t22h22e22
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22o22f22 22
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22i22n22 22t22h22e22 22f22i22r22s22t22
22l22e22a22c22h22a22t22e22 22a22f22t22e22r22
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22a22n22 22S22/22V22 22o22f22 22l22c22m22 2222122 22m22a22y22 22b22e22 22u22p22 22t22o22
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22c22a22s22e22 22o22f22 22a22b22o22u22t22
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23w23o23u23l23d23
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23s23m23a23l23l23 23a23c23t23u23a23l23
23S23/23V23 23r23a23t23i23o23 23o23r23
23s23h23o23r23t23 23c23o23n23t23a23c23t23
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23s23u23b23s23t23a23n23c23e23s23 23f23o23r23
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23t23o23x23i23c23o23l23o23g23i23c23a23l23
23d23a23t23a23 23i23n23d23i23c23a23t23e23
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23r23i23s23k23 23 23s23e23e23
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polyurethane
Leaching from rubber
EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer)
EPDMisasyntheticrubberwithgoodresistancetoheat,ozone,andUVlight.Alsoable
tostretchwithouttearing.Itiscommonlyusedforpondliners,andasaroofingmaterial.
EPDMiscommonlyusedforpondlinersandasaroofingmaterial.Pondlinerresellers
claimthatthereproductis"fishsafe",andthatEPDMforroofingisnot.Thereismuch
controversysurroundingthispoint.ManypondownerssaythatroofingEPDMisjustas
good,ifyouwashitthoroughly.
ThereislittledataonEPDMleaching.Itisgenerallyconsideredtobeprettyinertstuff.
EPDMisconsideredamoreenvironmentallyfriendlybuildingmaterialthanPVC.
(http://archive.greenpeace.org/toxics/reports/gopherreports/altern.txt)
ThereareEPDMproductsthatmeetNSFStandard61forstoringpotablewater(for
example,FirestonePondGuard).
Generallysummary:theredoesn'tseemtobemuchconcernoverEPDMbeing
inappropriateforstoringpotablewaterorforfishponds.Whateverlineryouuse,wash
andrinseitbeforeinstalling(even"fishsafe"rubbercomescoatedwithtalcumpowderto
keepitfromstickingtoitself).Ifstoringpotablewater,makesurethattheproductmeets
NSFStandard61.
Recycling
IntheoryEPDMcanberecycled,butit'snotaseasyasdroppingitoffattherecycling
center.Itisathermosetmaterialandcannotberemelted.Itcanbegroundupandused
forsomethingelse.Forexample,severalcompaniesrecycleEPDMroofingmaterialinto
rubberroofingshingles.However,suchcompaniesarefewandfarbetween,soyoumay
behardpressedtofindsomeonetotakeanoldpondlineroffyourhands.
leaching.Guoetal.(1998)conductedlaboratoryteststodeterminetheextentofleaching
from
ductileironpipeslinedinsituwithportlandcement(typeI)mortar.Thepipeswerelined
and
curedinaccordancewithANSI/AWWAStandardC60289,andsubsequentlydisinfected
accordingtoANSI/AWWAC65192.Thetestwaterwasstandardfaucetwaterfroma
New
Jerseyutility.Understaticconditions,arsenic,barium,cadmium,andchromiumleached
from
theliningtomaximumvaluesroughly1020%oftheirrespectivedrinkingwaterMCLs.
Further,theacidsolublecontentsofarsenic,barium,cadmium,andchromiuminthe
cement
coatingappliedwereonly3,1.9,13,and6.6percentofthecementindustrymaximum,
respectively.Therefore,theextentofleachingcouldhavebeenhigherifanalternate
cement
lininghadbeenapplied.Additionalresearchisnecessarytounderstandthefateofheavy
metals
associatedwithcementleaching,andthedegreeofaccumulationwithindistribution
systems.
AccordingtoBerendandTrouwborst(1999),theapplicationofcementmortarliningcan
also
leadtoaluminumleaching.Thealuminumcontentincementmortarliningsvaries,as
shownin
Table9.Oneofthepredominantcrystallinephasesincementistricalciumaluminate,
whichis
believedtodissolveaccordingtothefollowingreaction:
(3)Ca3Al2O6+6H2O3Ca2++2Al3++12OH
Sulfonatednaphthalenesandtheirformaldehydecondensates(SNFC)areusedas
concretesuperplasticizersfortunnelconstructionthroughaquifers.Thispaperdiscusses
theirprimarybiodegradationingroundwateraffectedbyconstructionactivities.The
analysesofgroundwatersamplescollected5mawayfromaconstructionsiteclearly
indicatedthatcomponentsoftheappliedSNFCproductleachedintothegroundwater.A
maximumtotalconcentrationofthesecompoundsof233microg/Lwasfound,anditwas
shownthatonlythemonomericsulfonatednaphthalenesandthecondensates
uptothetetramerleachedinsubstantialamounts.Thedecreaseinconcentrationofseveral
monomericcomponentscouldnotbeexplainedbymeredispersionbutratherindicatesa
biologicaltransformationintheaquifer.Thiswasconfirmedatasecondfieldsiteandby
laboratorydegradationexperimentswithpiezometermaterialasinoculum.Lagphasesfor
theindividuallydegradablesulfonatednaphthalenesrangedfrom0to96d.Naphthalene
1,5disulfonateandtheoligomericcomponentswereneitherdegradedintheaquifernor
inthelaboratoryexperimentswithinanobservationtimeofupto195d.Thisclearly
indicatestheirpersistenceinsubsurfacewaters.
Bacteria
Safe water supply without disinfection in a large city case
study: Berlin.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?
cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11225280
[ArticleinEnglish,German,Russian]
GrohmannA,PetersohnD.
Umweltbundesamt,AbteilungTrinkwaserhygiene,Correnspiatz1,14195Berlin,
Dahlem.
Berlin'swatersuppliesoriginateexclusivelyfromgroundwater.Forsustainablewater
management,riverwateristreatedbyflocculationandfiltrationandusedeitherfor
artificialgroundwaterrecharge(riversSpreeandHavel)orforbankfiltration
(NordgrabenandLakeTegel).DrinkingwaterchlorinationwasabandonedinBerlin
(West)in1978,andinBerlin(East)in1992,followingGermanunification.Chlorine
consumptionforthepurposeofweeklyperformancechecksinthechlorinationplantsof
Berlin's11waterworksandoccasionalchlorinationwithinthepipesystemfollowingpipe
bursteventsamountsto2500kgperyear.Basedontheannualwaterdemandof250
millioncubicmetres,thisisequivalentto0.01mgofchlorineperlitre.Microbiological
monitoringatthe11waterworksandat383samplingpointswithinthepipesystem
showsCFUatlessthan10/1ml1andcoliformsandE.coliinvariablyat0/100ml1.In
viewofthelowAOXcontent,amultiplicationofbacteriawithinthepipesystemcanbe
expectedtooccurnotatalloronlytoasmallextent.Resourceprotectionmeasures,filter
backwashingandpipesystemmaintenanceinobservanceoftherelevanttechnicalrules
willcontinuetoensurethatthequalityofBerlin'sdrinkingwatermeetsstringenthygiene
requirementswithoutchlorination.
theartesianwells.However,anegativesignificantcorrelationwasfoundbetweenthe
temperatureandtheHPCcountinthesamplescollectedfromthesource.Astatistically
significantincreaseincounts,possiblyduetoregrowth,wasrepeatedlyestablished
betweentwosamplingpointslyingonastraightdistributionlinebut1kmapart.Faecal
coliformsweredetectedinthesourcewaterbutnoneinthenetworkexceptduringapipe
breakageincidentwithconfirmedEscherichiacolireaching40CFU/100mL.However,
coliformssuchasCitrobacterfreundii,Enterobacteragglomerans,E.cloacaeandE.
skazakiiwererepeatedlyisolatedfromthenetwork,mainlyduetoinadequate
chlorination.Asecondcontrolledstudywasconductedtodeterminetheeffectofstorage
onthemicrobialqualityofhouseholdstoragetanks(500L),whichwereoftwomain
typesgalvanizedcastironandblackpolyethylene.Themeanbacterialcountincreased
significantlyafter7dstorageinbothtanktypes.Asignificantdifferencewasfoundinthe
meanHPC/mLbetweenthewinterandthesummer.HighestcountswerefoundApril
Junealthoughthemaximumtemperaturewasreportedlaterinthesummer.Apositive
correlationwasestablishedbetweentheHPC/mLandpH,temperatureandstoragetime.
OBJECTIVE:Toassesstheextentandcausesofmicrobiologicalcontaminationof
householddrinkingwaterbetweensourceandpointofuseindevelopingcountries.
METHODS:Asystematicmetaanalysisof57studiesmeasuringbacteriacountsfor
sourcewaterandstoredwaterinthehometoassesshowcontaminationvariedbetween
settings.RESULTS:Thebacteriologicalqualityofdrinkingwatersignificantlydeclines
aftercollectioninmanysettings.Theextentofcontaminationafterwatercollection
variesconsiderablybetweensettings,butisproportionatelygreaterwherefaecalandtotal
coliformcountsinsourcewaterarelow.CONCLUSIONS:Policiesthataimtoimprove
waterqualitythroughsourceimprovementsmaybecompromisedbypostcollection
contamination.Saferhouseholdwaterstorageandtreatmentisrecommendedtoprevent
this,togetherwithpointofusewaterqualitymonitoring.
colonycountsandhadalowerlevelofdetection(0.001CFUml1).Theenumeratingof
electrontransportsystempositivebacteriayieldedhighernumbersthanthecolonycount
methods,butisnotrecommendedwhenrecentlyoxidizedwatersamplesaretobe
investigated.Highestcellcountswereattainedwhenusingepifluorescencemicroscopic
counting,yetbacterialregrowthcouldnotbemonitoredthus.Thetendencyofbacterial
regrowthwashighestinfreshlyozonizedwater.Instagnatinglakewaternoregrowth
occurredafter1and3weeksbecauseofthebalanceofbacteriaandtheirpredators.
fromthesupplysourceandstorageduringuseathome,renderingsuchwatersunsafefor
humanconsumption.ThisstudyinvestigatedtheoccurrenceofbiofilminPVCstorage
containersasonepossiblereasonforthisdeterioration,usingheterotrophicbacteriaand
totalcoliformcountsaswellasturbidityasindicators.Asecondobjectivewasto
determinewhetherbiofilminwaterstoragecontainerscouldcontributetohazardous
microbiologicalcontaminationindicatedbyEscherichiacoliandClostridiumperfringens.
Resultsindicatedthatincreasedmicrobiologicalcontaminationisassociatedwithbiofilm.
Thebiofilmharboursheterotrophicbacteria,totalcoliformsandC.perfringens.E.coli
couldnotbeassociateddirectlywiththelevelsofbiofilmincontainersbutratherappears
tobeintroducedintermittentlyfromtheambientdomesticenvironment.Whendislodged
withthebiofilm,thesebacteriacontributedsubstantiallytothedeteriorationofthe
microbiologicalqualityofsuppliedwaterstoredinplasticcontainers.
QuickTime and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
DepartmentofEpidemiologyandPreventiveMedicine,FacultyofMedicine,Monash
University,Melbourne,Victoria,Australia
Abstract
Adoubleblinded,randomized,controlledtrialwascarriedoutininMelbourne,
Australia,todeterminethecontributionofdrinkingwatertogastroenteritis.Melbourneis
oneofthefewmajorcitiesintheworldthatdrawsdrinkingwaterfromaprotectedforest
catchmentwithminimalwatertreatment(chlorinationonly).Sixhundredfamilieswere
randomlyallocatedtoreceiveeitherrealorshamwatertreatmentunits(WTUs)installed
intheirkitchen.Realunitsweredesignedtoremoveviruses,bacteria,andprotozoa.
Studyparticipantscompletedaweeklyhealthdiaryreportinggastrointestinalsymptoms
duringthe68weekobservationperiod.Therewere2,669casesofhighlycredible
gastroenteritis(HCG)duringthestudy(0.80cases/person/year).TheratioofHCG
episoderatesfortherealWTUgroupcomparedtotheshamWTUgroupwas0.99(95%
confidenceinterval,0.851.15,p=0.85).Wecollected795fecalspecimensfrom
participantswithgastroenteritis,andpathogenswerenotmoresignificantlycommonin
theshamWTUgroup.WefoundnoevidenceofwaterbornediseaseinMelbourne.The
applicationofthismethodologytootherwatersupplieswillprovideabetter
understandingoftherelationshipbetweenhumanhealthandwaterquality.Keywords:
doubleblindrandomizedtrails,drinkingwaterquality,gastroenteritis,waterborne
disease.EnvironHealthPerspect109:773778(2001).[Online1August2001]
Disinfection byproducts
Trihalomethanes
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2003/1117/ss.html#shor
Theresearchersexaminednumerouspotentialconfounders,includingsmoking,alcohol
andcaffeineconsumption,pregnancyhistory,bodymassindex,age,race,education,
income,andemployment.TheyfoundverylittleevidenceforconfoundingofTTHM
effectsonmeancyclelength.Only3%oftheparticipantshadaverageTTHM
concentrationsabovetheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency'sannualmaximum
contaminantlevelof80microgramsperliter(g/L).Forthisstudy,highexposurewas
definedas60g/Lorhigherperday.
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2004/6779/abstract.html
DepartmentofOrganicChemistry,AboAkademi,Turku,Finland.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?
cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2672329
ChlorinatedsurfaceanddrinkingwatersinTheNetherlandswereanalysedformutagenic
activity(Amestest)andthestrongmutagen3chloro4(dichloromethyl)5hydroxy
2(5H)furanone(MX).MutagenicactivityandMXwereformedduringchlorine
treatmentofrawsurfacewatersandpurifiedsurfacewater.Mutagenicitywasalsopresent
infinisheddrinkingwaterswhichhadbeensubjectedtopostchlorination,butnoMX
couldbedetected.Itisproposedthatthemutagensresponsibleformostoftheactivityare
acidiccompoundsastheyweremainlyextractableunderacidicconditions.The
precursorstothemutageniccompoundsformedduringpostchlorinationofdrinking
waterwereefficientlyremovedbyuseofozonation/activatedcarbonfiltration.Onthe
otherhand,coagulation(Fe(III]inthepresenceofactivatedcarbonpowderseemedto
havehardlyanyeffectonthemutagenprecursors.Thecalculatedmutagenicity
contributionfromMXtotheobservedTA100activityinthewatersstudiedwaslessthan
20%.
Water age
750,000*
800,000
Milesof
WaterMains
1,100
2,750
87,900*
358
>16
24,000
86
1224
PopulationServed
RangeofWaterAges
withinSystem(Days)
<13
37+
Methodof
Determination
FluorideTracer
HydraulicModel
Chloramine
Conversion
HydraulicModel
Runoff Quality
The influence of urban density and drainage infrastructure on
the concentrations and loads of pollutants in small streams.
HattBE,FletcherTD,WalshCJ,TaylorSL.
CooperativeResearchCentreforFreshwaterEcology,WaterStudiesCentre,Monash
University,Victoria3800,Australia.Belinda.Hatt@eng.monash.edu.au
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?
cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15383877Effectivewaterquality
managementofstreamsinurbanizedbasinsrequiresidentificationoftheelementsof
urbanizationthatcontributemosttopollutantconcentrationsandloads.Drainage
connection(theproportionofimperviousareadirectlyconnectedtostreamsbypipesor
lineddrains)isproposedasavariableexplainingvarianceinthegenerallyweak
relationshipsbetweenpollutantconcentrationsandimperviousness.Fifteensmallstreams
drainingindependentsubbasinseastofMelbourne,Australia,weresampledforasuiteof
waterqualityvariables.Geometricmeanconcentrationsofallvariableswerecalculated
separatelyforbaseflowandstormevents,andthese,togetherwithestimatesofrunoff
derivedfromarainfallrunoffmodel,wereusedtoestimatemeanannualloads.Patterns
ofconcentrationsamongthestreamswereassessedagainstpatternsofimperviousness,
drainageconnection,unsealed(unpaved)roaddensity,elevation,longitude(allofwhich
wereintercorrelated),septictankdensity,andbasinarea.Baseflowandstormevent
concentrationsofdissolvedorganiccarbon(DOC),filterablereactivephosphorus(FRP),
totalphosphorus(TP)andammonium,alongwithelectricalconductivity(EC),all
increasedwithimperviousnessanditscorrelates.Hierarchicalpartitioningshowedthat
DOC,EC,FRP,andstormeventTPwereindependentlycorrelatedwithdrainage
connectionmorestronglythancouldbeexplainedbychance.NeitherpHnortotal
suspendedsolidsconcentrationswerestronglycorrelatedwithanybasinvariable.
Oxidizedandtotalnitrogenconcentrationsweremoststronglyexplainedbyseptictank
density.Loadsofallvariableswerestronglycorrelatedwithimperviousnessand
connection.Priorityshouldbegiventolowimpacturbandesign,whichprimarily
involvesreducingdrainageconnection,tominimizeurbanizationrelatedpollutant
impactsonstreams.
Yourhomehasfaucetsorfittingsmadeofbrassthatcontainsomelead;
Yourhomeorwatersystemhasleadpipes;
Yourhomehascopperpipesandthehousewasbuiltfrom198287.
Ifyourinteriorplumbingfitsoneofthesecategories,youhaveanincreasedriskifyou
haveawatersoftenerorwateroftensitsinpipesforseveralhours.
Q:Whatarelead'shealtheffects?
A:Leadisatoxicmetalthatisharmfultohumanhealthifinhaledorswallowed.Itisa
healthconcernindrinkingwateratlevelsabove15partsinabillion.(Onepartperbillion
isequivalenttoasingledropofwaterin55,000gallons.)Althoughitmustbuildupinthe
bodybeforeitaffectsone'shealth,elevatedlevelsattackthebrain,kidneys,nervous
systemandredbloodcells.Thedegreeofharmdependsuponthelevelofexposurefrom
allsources,includingsoil,windandwater.Effectsrangefromsubtlephysicalchangesat
lowlevelstosevereneurologicalandtoxiceffectsorevendeathatextremelyhighlevels.
becomescontaminatedinsomewayorifthecontainershouldbegintoleak.Becertainto
labeleachcontainersotherewillbenoquestionaboutitscontents.Includethedateand
informationonthemethodofdisinfectionused.Werecommendchangingproperlystored
watereverythreetofiveyears.