PART-B

1.

Explain the importance of stability analysis in power system planning and

operation.
Power system stability:
Power system stability may be broadly defined as that property of a power system
that enables it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium, under normal operating
conditions and to regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after being subjected to a
disturbance.
Design and operating criteria for stability
For reliable service a bulk electricity system must remain intact and be capable of
withstanding a wide variety of disturbances. Therefore, it is essential that the system be
designed and operated so that the more probable contingencies can be sustained with no
loss of load (except that connected to the faulted element) and so that the most adverse
possible contingencies do not result in uncontrolled, widespread and cascading power
interruptions.
Design and operating criteria play an essential role in preventing major system
disturbances following severe contingencies. The use of criteria ensures that, for all
frequently occurring contingencies, the system will, at worst, transit from the normal
state to the alert state, rather than to a more severe state such as the emergency state or
the in extremis state. When the alert state is entered following a contingency, operators
can take actions to return the system to the normal state.
Normal design contingencies
The criteria require that the stability of the bulk power system be maintained
during and after the most severe of the contingencies specified below, with due regard to
reclosing facilities. These contingencies are selected on the basis that they have a
significant probability of occurrence given the large number of elements comprising the
power system.
The normal design contingencies include the following:
(a) A permanent three-phase fault on any generator, transmission circuit, transformer or
bus section, with normal fault clearing with due regard to reclosing facilities.
(b) Simultaneous permanent phase-to-ground faults on different phases of each of two
adjacent transmission circuits on a multiple-circuit tower, cleared in normal time.
(c) A permanent phase-to-ground fault on any transmission circuit, transformer, or bus
section with delayed clearing because of malfunction of circuit breakers, relay, or
signal channel.
(d) Loss of any element without a fault.
(e) A permanent phase-to-ground fault on a circuit breaker, cleared in normal time.
(f) Simultaneous permanent loss of both poles of a dc bipolar facility.

The criteria require that, following any of the above contingencies, the stability of the
system be maintained, and voltages and line and equipment loading be within applicable limits.
These requirements apply to the following two basic conditions:
(i)
(ii)

All facilities in service.

A critical generator, transmission circuit, or transformer out of service, assuming that
the area generation and power flows are adjusted between outages by use of ten
minute reserve.

Extreme contingency assessment

The extreme contingency assessment recognizes that the interconnected bulk power
system can be subjected to events that exceed in severity the normal design contingencies. The
objective is to determine the effects of extreme contingencies on system performance in order to
obtain an indication of system strength and to determine the extent of a widespread system
disturbance even though extreme contingencies do have very low probabilities of occurrence.
After an analysis and assessment of extreme contingencies, measures are to be utilized,
where appropriate, to reduce the frequency of occurrence of such contingencies or to mitigate the
consequences that are indicated as a result of simulating for such contingencies.
The extreme contingencies include the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Loss of the entire capability of a generating station.

Loss of all lines emanating from a generating station, switch station or substation.
Loss of all transmission circuits on a common right-of-way.
A permanent three-phase fault on any generator, transmission circuit, transformer, or bus
section, with delayed fault clearing and with due regard to reclosing facilities.
(e) The sudden dropping of a large-load or major-load centre.
(f) The effect of severe power swings arising from disturbances outside the NPCC
interconnected systems.
(g) Failure or misoperation of a special protection system, such as a generation rejection, or
load rejection, or transmission cross-tripping scheme.
System design for stability
The design of a large interconnected system to ensure stable operation at minimum cost is
a very complex problem. The economic gain to be realized through the solution to this problem
are enormous. From a control theory point of view,the power system is a very high-order
multivariable process, operating in a constantly changing environment.
Because of the high dimensionality and complexity of the system, it is essential to make
simplifying assumptions and to analyze specific problems using the right degree of detail of

system representation. This requires a good grasp of the characteristics of the overall system as
well as of those of its individual elements.
The power system is a highly nonlinear system whose dynamic performance is influenced
by a wide array of devices with different response rates and characteristics. System stability
must be viewed not as a single problem, but rather in terms of its different aspects.
Instability in a power system may be manifested in many different ways depending on
the system configuration and operating mode. Traditionally, the stability problem has been one
of maintaining synchronous operation. Since power systems rely on synchronous machines for
generation of electrical power, a necessary condition for satisfactory system operation is that all
synchronous machines remain in synchronism or, colloquially, in step this aspect of stability is
influenced by the dynamics of generator rotor angles and power angles relationships.
Instability may also be encountered without loss of synchronism. For example a system
consisting of a synchronous generator feeding an inductor motor load through a transmission line
can become unstable because of the collapse of load voltage. Maintenance of synchronism is not
an issue in this instance; instead, the concern is stability and control of voltage. This form of
instability can also occur in loads covering an extensive area supplied by a large system.
In the evaluation of stability of concern is the behavior of the power system when
subjected to a transient disturbance. The disturbance may be small or large. Small disturbances
in the form of load changes take place continually, and the system adjusts itself to the changing
conditions.
The system must be able to operate satisfactorily under these conditions and successfully
supply the maximum amount of load. It must also be capable of surviving numerous
disturbances of a severe nature, such as a short-circuit on a transmission line, loss of a large
generator or load, or loss of the equipment.
For example, a short circuit on a critical element followed by its isolation by protective
relays will cause variations will actuate generation controls; the changes in voltage and
frequency will affect loads on the system in varying degrees depending on their individual
characteristics.
In addition, devices used to protect individual equipment may respond to variations in
system variables and thus affect the system performance. In any given situation, however, the
responses of only a limited amount of equipment may be significant. Therefore, many
assumptions are usually made to simplify the problem and to focus on factors influencing the
specific type of stability problem.

2.

Explain the classification of power system stability.

Power system stability is a single problem; however, it is impractical to study it as
such. Instability of a power system can take different forms and can be influenced by a
wide range of factors. Analysis of stability problems, identifications of essential factors
that contribute to instability, and formulation of methods of improving stable operation
are greatly facilitated by classification of stability into appropriate categories. These are
based on the following considerations:

The physical nature of the resulting instability;

The size of the disturbance considered;
The devices, processes, and time span that must be taken into consideration in
order to determine stability; and
The most appropriate method of calculation and prediction of stability.

Fig.1 gives an overall picture of the power system stability problem, identifying
its classes and subclasses in terms of the categories described in the previous section. As
a practical necessity, the classification has been based on a number of diverse
considerations, making it difficult to select clearly distinct categories and to provide
definitions that are rigorous and yet convenient for practical use.
For example, there is some overlap between mid-term/long-term stability and
voltage stability. With appropriate models for loads, on-load transformer tap changers
and generator reactive power limits, mid-term/long-term stability simulations are between
transient, mid-term and long-term stability. Similarly, there is overlap between transient,
mid-term and long-term stability: all three use similar analytical techniques for
simulation of the non-linear time domain response of the system to large disturbances.
Although the three categories are concerned with different aspects of the stability
problem, in terms of analysis and simulation they are really extensions of one another
without clearly defined boundaries.
While classifications of power system stability is an effective and convenient
means to deal with the complexitites of the problem, the overall stability of the system
should always be kept in mind. Solutions to stability problems of one category should
not be at the expense of another. It is essential to look at all aspects of the stability
phenomena and at each aspect from more than one viewpoint. This requires the
development and wise use of different kinds of analytical tools. In this regard, some
degree of overlap in the phenomena being analyzed is in fact desirable.

Fig.1 Classification of power system stability

3.

Explain angle and voltage stability

Angle stability
Rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines of a
power system to remain in the synchronism. The stability problem involves the study of
the electromechanical oscillations inherent in power systems.
A fundamental factor in this problem is the manner in which the power outputs of
synchronous machines vary as their rotors oscillate.
Voltage stability
Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain steady acceptable
voltages at all buses in the system under normal operating conditions and after being
subjected to a disturbance. A system enters a state of voltage instability when a
disturbance increase in load demand, or change in system condition causes a progressive
and uncontrollable drop in voltage.
4. Discuss the methods by which transient stability can be improved. (MAY/JUNE16)
(10)(06).
The transient stability depends on the type and location of a fault. Let us consider
the most severe type of fault, i.e., 3-phase fault and the following discussions are
applicable for transient conditions due to three phase fault.
An increase in the inertia constant M of a single machine connected to infinite
bus, reduces the angle through which the rotor swings in a given time interval. Hence
stability can be improved by increasing M.
However this cannot be employed in practice because of economic reasons. Also,
increasing M will have an undesirable effect of slowing down the response of the speed
governor loop.
It can be proved that for a given clearing angle, the acceleration area decreases
but the deceleration area increases as the maximum power limit of a power angle curve is
raises which improves the transient stability limit of the system. The above conclusion
suggest the following methods of improving the transient stability limit of a power
system.
1. Increase of system voltages, use of AVR (Automatic voltage Regulators)
2. Use of high speed excitation systems.
3. Reduction in system transfer reactance
4. Use of high speed reclosing breakers.
During fault, the voltage reduction of all buses at the generator terminals are
sensed by the automatic voltage regulators which help to restore the generator voltage.
Modern exciter systems having solid state controls which respond to bus voltage
reduction.
The transfer reactance can be reduced to improve the stability limit. Incidentally
this also raises system voltage profile. The reactance of a transmission line can be
decreased (i) by reducing the conductor spacing and (ii) by increasing conductor
diameter.

Compensation for line reactance by series capacitors is an effective and

economical method of increasing stability limit specially for transmission distances of
more than 350km. Switched series capacitors simultaneously decrease fluctuation of
load voltages and raises the transient stability limit to a value almost equal to the steady
state limit.
The transfer reactance can also to reduced by increasing the number of parallel
lines between transmission points. Rapid switching and isolation of unhealthy lines
followed by reclosing also improves stability margins.
Some recent methods of improving stability are,
1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

HVDC links: Increased use of HVDC links employing thyristors would deviate
stability problem. A dc link is asynchronous. There is no risk of a fault in one system
causing loss of stability in the other system.
Breaking resistors: For improving stability where clearing is delayed or large load is
suddenly lost, a resistive load called a breaking resistor is connected at or near the
generator bus. This load compensates for some of the reduction of load on the
generators.
Bypass valving: In this method, the stability of a unit is improved by decreasing the
mechanical input power to the turbine.
Full load rejection technique: Fast valving combined with high-speed clearing time
will sufficient to maintain stability in most cases. However, there are still situations
where stability is difficult to maintain. To remedy these situations, a full load
rejection scheme could be utilized after the unit is separated from the system. To do
this, the unit has to be equipped with a large steam bypass system. After system has
recovered from the shock caused by the fault, the unit could be resynchronized and
reloaded. The main disadvantage is the extra cost of the large bypass system.
Derive the swing equation of synchronous generator connected to infinite bus
form the rotor dynamics, and extend the derivation for two parallel connected
coherent and incoherent machines. (MAY/JUNE16)
(16)
THE concepts of stability can be better understood by considering a single
synchronous machine connected to infinite bus. It is equivalent to two machine
system. A practical power system have a number of machines running in
synchronism.
FOR theoretical analysis the multimachine system can be converted to an
equivalent single machine system connected to infinite bus. Altenatively, the stability
study of a multimachine system can be carried on a computer.
Assumptions:
1. The dc-offset currents and harmonics components are neglected. The currents
and voltages are assumed to have fundamental component alone.
2. The symmetrical components are used for the representation of unbalanced faults.

3. It is assumed that the machine speed variations will not affect the generated
voltage.
DYNAMICS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE ROTOR
List of terms used for the analysis of the dynamics of a synchronous machine.
Eke
Kinetic energy energy of the rotor in MJ(mega joules)
J
Moment of inertia of the rotor in kg-m2
sm
Synchronous angular speed of the rotor in mech.rad/sec.
s
Synchronous angular speed of rotor in elect.rad/sec
P
Number of poles in synchronous machine
M
Moment of inertia of rotor in MJ-s/elec.rad or MJ-s/mech rad.
S
Power rating of machine in MVA
H
Inertia constant in MJ/MVA or MW-s?MVA
f
Frequency of cycles/sec or Hz
Angular displacement of rotor with respect to synchronously rotating reference frame in mech.rad
m
Angular displacement of rotor with respect to synchronously rotating reference frame in elect.rad

m
Angular displacement of rotor with respect to stationary axis in mech.rad

Angular displacement of rotor with respect to stationary axis in elect.rad

Tm
Mechanical torque at the shaft of rotor (supplied by prime mover) in N-m
Te
Net electromagnetic torque in N-m
Ta
Net accelerating torque in N-m
Pm
Mechanical power input in p.u
Pe
Electrical power output in p.u
Note : here the mechanical losses in the rotating system and electrical losses in the stator of
synchronous machine are neglected.
The kinetic energy ( in MJ) of the rotor of a synchronous machine is given by equation
(1).
1
Eke= J sm2 106 (1)
2
The mechanical and electrical angular speeds are related to the number of poles in synchronous
machine as shown in equation (2)
s=

P
2
sm ( ) sm= s (2)
2
P

On substituting for sm from equation (2) in equation (1) we get,

1 2 2 2
Eke= J
s 106
2 P

( )

Let
1
Eke= M s (3)
2

where , M =J

2 2
s 106 ( 4)
P

( )

Here M is the moment of inertia of MJ-s/elec.rad. This moment of inertia is used popularly in
stability studies.
Another useful constant which is popularly used in stability studies is the inertia constant H.
It is defined as the ration of stored kinetic energy in megajoules at synchronous speed to the
machine rating in megavoltampere.
H=

stored kinetic energy MJ at synchronous speed

Machine rationgMVA

H=

E ke
(5)
S

On substituting for Eke from equation (1) in equation (5) we get,

1
J 2sm
2
H=
(6)
S
On substituting for Eke from equation (3) in equation (5) we get,
1
M s
2
H=
(7)
S
M=

2 HS
( 8)
s

We know that,

s=2 f

s
(9)
elect .rad
2 HS HS
M =
=

2 f
f

MJ

In equation (9) the moment of inertia, M is obtained in the unit of MJ-s/elect.rad. Sometimes it
is required in MJ-s/elect.degree. In this case the radians in equation (9) should be replaced
by 180 as shown in equation (10).
s
(10)
elect .rad
HS
M=

180 f

MJ

The value of M can be expressed in per unit by selecting a base for MVA.
Let, Sb = Base MVA
Now p . u value of M =M p .u=

SH /f SH /180 f
=
(11)
Sb
Sb

If the machine rating S is chosen as base value, then S = Sb, in this case the equation (11) can be
written as shown in equation (12)
p .u valueof M withmachine rating as base MVA , M p . u=

H
H

(12)
f 180 f

SWING EQUATION

Fig.2 Torque acting on rotor of synchronous machine

The rotor of a synchronous machine is subjected to two torques, Te and Tm, which are
acting in opposite directions as shown in figure 2.
Where, Te = Net electrical or electromechanical torque in N-m.
Tm = Mechanical or shaft torque supplied by the prime mover in N-m.
Under steady state operating condition the Te and Tm are equal and the machine runs at
constant speed, which is called synchronous speed. If there is a difference between the two
torques then the rotor will have an accelerating or deaccelerating torque, denoted as Ta.
T a=T m T e (13)
Here Tm and Te are positive for generators and Tm and Te are negative for motors.
Let m = Angular displacement of rotor with respect to stationary reference axis.
m = Angular displacement of rotor with respect to synchronously rotating reference axis
By newtons second law of motion, we can say that the accelerating torque, T a is directly
proportional to angular acceleration and the constant of proportionality is the moment of inertia,
J.
d2m
d 2 m
(
)
T a
T a =J
(14)
dt 2
dt 2
On substituting for Ta from equation (14) in (13) we get,
d 2 m
J
=T mT e ( 15)
dt 2
The angular displacement m and m are related to synchronous speed by the following equation
(16)
m = sm t + m (16)
On differentiating the equation (16) with respect to time, t we get,
d m
d
=sm + m (17)
dt
dt
On differentiating the equation (17) with respect to time, t we get,

d m d m
= 2 (18)
2
dt
dt
From equation (17) we can say that the rotor angular velocity d m/dt is constant and equal
to sm (synchronous speed) only if dm/dt is zero. Hence dm/dt represents the deviation of the
rotor speed from synchronism.
From equation (15) and (18) we can write,
2

d m
dt

=T m T e (19)

Let,
Pm,act = Shaft power input to the machine neglecting losses (in MW)
Pe,act = Electrical power developed in rotor (in MW)
we know that , power , P=

Pm ,act = sm T m ( ) T m =

Pe ,act = sm T e ( ) T e =

2 NT
=T
60

Pm , act
(20)
sm

Pe , act
(21)
s m

On substituting for Tm and Te from equation (20) and (21) in equation (19) we get,
2

d m Pm , act Pe ,act
J
=

2
sm
sm
dt
2

d m
J sm
=Pm , actPm ,act ( 22)
2
dt
The inertia constant, H is defined as the ratio of stored kinetic energy in MJ to the machine rating
in MVA
Let,
H = Inertia constant in MJ/MVA

S = Power rating of machine in MVA

Now,
1
J 2sm
2
H=
(23)
S
J sm=

2 HS
(24)
sm

1
2
J sm
(Note: the Kinetic energy = 2
From equations (22) and (24) we can write
2
2 HS d m
=Pm ,act Pe ,act ( 25)
sm dt 2

we know that , s=

P
2
sm ( ) sm= s (26)
2
P

Where P = Number of poles in synchronous machine.

On substituting for sm and m from equation (26) in equation (25) we get,
2 HS
2 s / P

d2

( 2P ) =P
dt

m , act

P e, act

2 HS d 2
=Pm , act P e, act (27)
s dt 2
On substituting,

s=2 f

2 HS d 2
=Pm, act P e, act
2 f dt 2

in equation (27) we get,

HS d 2
=P m ,act Pe ,act (28)
f dt 2
In equation (28) the powers Pm,act and Pe,act are in MW. If the machine MVA rating S is chosen as
base value then p.u value of power is given by,
p.u value of mechanical power,

p.u value of electrical power,

P m=

Pe =

Pm , act
S

P e, act
S

From equation (28) we get

HS d 2 Pm , act Pe ,act
=

f dt 2
S
S
2

HS d
=P mPe (29)
f dt 2
The equation (29) is called swing equation. It is the fundamental equation which governs the
dynamics of the synchronous machine rotor. The swing equation is a second order differential
equation.
Using equal area criterion, derive an expression for critical clearing angle for a system
having a generator feeding a large system through a double circuit line. (MAY/JUNE 12)
Or

(10)

State and explain equal area criterion and discuss how you will
apply it to find the
maximum additional load that can be suddenly added. (MAY/JUNE 13)
(16)
The transient stability analysis of simple system can be performed by using a simple
criterion called equal area criterion.
During the transient state of a power system we may come across the following two
situations for changes in (torque angle) with respect to time.
i.
ii.

The may increase to a maximum value and then decrease to a stable value. The
system is considered as stable.
The may keep on increasing indefinitely. In this case the system is unstable.

The above facts can be stated as a stability criterion as given below.

i.
ii.

The system is stable if d/dt=0 at some time instant.

The system is unstable if, d/dt>0 for a sufficiently long time (typically 1 second or
more)

For a single machine-infinite bus bar system, the stability criterion stated above can be converted
to a simple condition as shown below.
Consider the swing equation of a generator connected to infinite bus (which is derived in
equation (29))

HS d 2
=P mPe (1)
f dt 2
Let there be a change in Pe due to a large disturbance, with Pm remaining constant.
Now,
PmP e=P a (2)
Where Pa is the accelerating power.
Also we know that p.u value of

M =H / f . Hence the equation (1) can be written as,

2
2
d
d Pa
M 2 =Pa 2 = (3)
M
dt
dt

On multiplying the equation (3) by 2(d/dt) we get,

2

2
d d
d P a
=2
2
dt dt
dt M

d d d 2
d
= P
dt dt dt M a dt

d d 2 2
d
= Pa
dt dt
M
dt

( )

2 d

d
2
= P a d ( 4)
dt
M

( )

On integrating the equation (4) we get

d
2
= Pa d (5)
dt
M

( )

Where o is the initial value of torque angle or rotor angle

On taking square root of equation (5) we get,

d
2
=
P d (6)
dt
M a
o

For a stable system d/dt =0, at a particular time instance. Therefore for a stable system the
equation (6) can be written as

2
P d =0(7)
M a
o

The equation (7) is zero if the integral of Pa is zero. Hence we can say that,

d
for =0, theterm Pa d =0(8)
dt

The physical meaning of integration is the estimation of the area under the curve. Hence
the integral of Pa equal to zero refers to zero area. Hence the condition of stability can be stated
as: the system is stable if the area under Pa- curve reduces to zero at some value of . This is
possible only if the positive (accelerating) area under P a curve is equal to the negative
(decelerating) area under Pa- curve for a finite change in . Hence this stability criterion is
called equal area criterion of stability.
The equal area criterion of stability can be applied to any type of disturbances that may
occur in a single machine-infinite bus bar system. The transient stability study for a sudden
change in mechanical input using equal area criterion in presented in this section.
Transient stability analysis for a sudden change in mechanical input

Consider a single generator feeding energy to infinite but as shown in fig 3. The
electrical power transmitted by the generator is given by
Pe =

|E '||V |
X

sin =P max sin ( 9)

where , P max=

|E '||V|
X

sin

Fig.3
Let the generator be operating in steady state with a torque angle o. At this condition the
mechanical power input is Pmo and electrical power output is Peo. Under ideal condition Pmo=Peo.
Hence from equation (9) for this operating condition we can write,
Pmo=Peo =Pmax sin o (10)
The power angle curve of the generator is shown in fig.4. In this the steady state operating point
is described by equation (10) is the point-a.

Fig.4 Power angle curve for sudden increase in mechanical input to generator

Let the mechanical input to the generator rotor be suddenly increased to Pm1 (by some
adjustment in prime mover). Since the mechanical power is more than electrical power, the
generator will have an accelerating power, Pa given by
Pa=Pm 1 P e (11)
Where Pe = Pmax sin
Due to accelerating power the rotor speed increases and so the rotor angle also increases.
This results in increased electrical power generation. Therefore the operating point will move
upwards along the power angle curve. At point-b again the mechanical power Pm1 equals the
electrical power Pe1, where Pe1 is the electrical power output corresponding to torque angle 1.
Now the rotor angle cannot stay at this point, because the inertia of the rotor will make
the rotor to oscillate with respect to point-b. Hence the torque angle will continue to increase till
point-c, when the operating point moves from b to c, the electrical power is more than
mechanical power. Therefore the power, Pa given by equation (11) is negative and it is called
decelerating power.
In this region (i.e from point b to c) the rotor angle increases but the rotor speed
decreases due to decelerating power. The point-c is decided by the damping of the system
(because the oscillations in the rotor are reduced by damping). At point-c the speed of rotor will
be equal to synchronous speed.
Note: at point-a the speed is synchronous speed (s). From point a to b the speed increases and
then from point b to c the speed decreases. Once again at point-c the speed is equal to
synchronous speed (s). Thus the rotor oscillates between point-a and point-c before settling to
point-b.
In fig.4, the area A1 is the acceleration and area A2 is the deceleration area. The equal
area criterion says that, the system is stable if,

Pa d =0(12)
o

To satisfy equation (12) the acceleration area A1, should be equal to deceleration area A2. When
the oscillations die out the system will settle to a new state. In this new steady state, Pm1=Pe1.
Pm 1 =P e1=P max sin 1 (13)
The areas A1 and A2 can be evaluated as shown below.

A 1= ( Pm 1 Pe ) d (14)
o

A 2= ( P eP m1) d (15)
1

Where, Pe = Pmaxsin
From the above discussions we can say that there is a upper limit for increase in
mechanical power input Pm. As the mechanical power is increased, a limiting conditional is
finally reached at a point where the area A1 equals the area above the P m1,max line as shown in
fig.5. The corresponding can be 1,max.
Under this condition 2 takes a maximum value of 2,max.

Fig.5 Transient stability limit for sudden change in mechanical input

here , 2, max= 1, max (16)
from equation (9) we can write,
Pe1, m ax =Pm1,max =Pmax sin 1,max

sin 1,max =

P m 1,max
1 Pm 1,max
( )
(17)
1,max =sin
Pmax
Pmax

From equations (16) and (17) we can write,

 2,max = sin

Pm 1,max
Pmax

From the fig.4 we can say that, any further increase in Pm1,max will make the area A2 less than the
area A1. This means that the acceleration power is more than the deceleration power. Hence the
system will have an excess kinetic energy which causes