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UNIT 3: TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

INTRODUCTION
This unit provides basic knowledge on Temperature and Heat to help students
understanding one of the principal branches of physics and engineering, which is
the thermodynamics. The thermodynamics is the study and application of the
thermal energy (often called the internal energy) of systems. One of the central
concepts of thermodynamics is temperature. Student will also learn the transfer
of energy (heat) between objects is due to temperature difference between them.
The concept of heat capacity and specific heat will also be discussed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are to impart students
i.
ii.

With the basic knowledge in science especially heat and thermal properties of
matters
To apply the concept of heat and thermal properties in Civil Engineering
Technology course.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, the students should be able:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.

To explain the definition of temperature and heat

To describe the thermal equilibrium and the zeroth law of thermodynamics
To convert the temperature unit scales
To explain the specific heat (sensible heat) and latent heat
To calculate a problem of heat by using the calorimetric principle
To differentiate latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization
To solve a problem of heat when a matter change from one phase to another
phase
To list three types of mechanism of heat transfer.

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3.1 TEMPERATURE
The temperature is one of the basic quantities in physical units. It can be defined
as the measure of the degree of hotness and coldness of matters whether in
solids, liquids or gases. When two or more objects are in contact with each other,
their temperatures (the degree of hotness or coldness) are equal, they are said to
be in thermal equilibrium. The concept of thermal equilibrium is the basic
foundation of temperature definition.
3.1.1 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Temperature is the quantity that may be determine when matters (or objects) are
in thermal equilibrium. Figure 3.1(a) shows two matters with different
temperatures that are not in contact thermally. When two matters in thermal
contact to each other, the energy (heat) from matter with higher temperature will
flow to the matter with lower temperature (Figure 3.1(b)). As the energy
continuously flow, temperatures of two matters will approach each other. At equal
temperatures, there are no longer net flows of energy between them and it is in
its thermal equilibrium.

(a) Matters in different temperature

are not in contact thermally.

(b) Matters are not in

thermal equilibrium.

(c) Matters are in thermal equilibrium with equal temperature.

Figure 3.1 Thermal equilibrium

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3.1.2 THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The thermometry property is the physical properties of materials that changed
linearly proportional with temperature when the materials becomes hotter or
colder. Table 3.1 shows some types of thermometer with their common
thermometry properties.
Table 3.1
Thermometer
Mercury thermometer
Ideal gas thermometer

Thermometry Properties
The change in expansion of mercury in glass
column with temperature
The change in gas pressure with temperature at
constant volume OR the change in gas volume
with temperature at constant gas pressure.

Thermocouple

The change in electric motion force (emf) through

thin wires of different metals (welded together at
the ends to form two junction) with temperature.

Electrical resistance
thermometer
(thermistor)

Electrical resistance changes with temperature.

Thermogram

The intensity of the radiation emitted by an object

(infrared radiation) increases substantially, as the
temperature is raised

To measure the temperature of an object, we put a thermometer into thermal

contact with the object. Temperature measurement relies on the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics.
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that If two objects are in thermal
equilibrium with a third object (a thermometer), then the two are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
Figure 3.2(a) shows body A and body T are in thermal equilibrium. Figure 3.2(b)
shows body B and body T are also in thermal equilibrium. Figure 3.2(c) is the
conclusion for those former figures where the body A and B are said to be in
thermal equilibrium each other where the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics is
applied.

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T
A
(a)

B
(b)

A
(c)

Figure 3.2 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

3.1.3 TEMPERATURE SCALES
Temperature scales were build to determine the temperature of an object
quantitatively. To built a temperature scales, several standard fixed points were
used as a calibration points. The calibration points are in condition where the
materials (especially water) show some reproducible phenomenon as follows:
(i)
(ii)

Ice point: the point where an ice (solid) and water (liquid) are in equilibrium
phase (atmospheric pressure, p = 1 atm)
Steam point: the point where the water (liquid) and steam (gases) are in
equilibrium phase (atmospheric pressure, p = 1 atm)

On Celsius scale, the ice point is numbered as zero (0) and at steam point is
numbered as one hundred (100). The unit being used for Celsius scale is the
degree Celsius (oC).
Another temperature scale commonly used is the Fahrenheit scale. At 1 atm, the
ice point is assigned at the number of 32, while at steam point; the number of
212 is used. The unit for this scale is the degree Fahrenheit ( oF). The difference
between the steam and ice point in Celcius scale is 100 oC while on the
Fahrenheit scale is 180oF.

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Although the Celcius and Fahrenheit scales are widely used, the Kelvin
temperature scale had been chosen as the international standard temperature
scale. The SI unit is the Kelvin (symbol K, without a degree sign). The ice point is
273.15 K and the steam point is at 373.15 K. Zero Kelvin (0 K) represents
absolute zero. There are no temperatures below 0 K. So there are no negative
temperature numbers in Kelvin scale.
Figure 3.3 shows 3 scales that we describe previously. The figure clearly
indicates that the Kelvin scale, TK has the same degree size as the Celsius scale,
TC and are related by
TC = TK 273.15

Steam
Point

100 OC

212 OF

TC=100 OC

Ice
Point

0 OC

373.15 K

Fahrenheit scale

Figure 3.3 Type of temperature scale

33

TK=100 K

TF=180 OF

32 OF

Celcius scale

(3.1)

273.15 K
Kelvin scale

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While the comparison between the Celsius scale, TC and Fahrenheit scale, TF: a
temperature difference of 1oC is equivalent to a difference of 1.8 oF and are
related by these equations,
O

F
TF 1.8 O TC 32 O F
C

(3.2)

TC 32 O F
TC
O

F
1.8 O
C

(3.3)

And

Example 3.1
A friend suffering from flu has a slight fever. His body temperature is 37.20 oC.
What is his temperature in
(a)
(b)

Kelvin, K
Degree Fahrenheit, oF

Solution
From Equation 3.1, the body temperature in K:
TK = TC + 273.15
= 37.20 oC + 273.15
= 310.35 K
From Equation 3.2, the body temperature in oF:
O

F
TF 1.8 O TC 32 O F
C

F
1.8 O (37.20 O C) 32 O F
C
=
= 98.96 oF

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3.1.4 DETERMINING TEMPERATURE BY USING THERMOMETRY
PROPERTIES
Since thermometers measure temperatures by exploiting property of matters that
are temperature-dependent, we can determine unknown temperature of matters
from its corresponding thermometry properties. The thermometry properties can
be of any parameters of materials that change linearly with the changing of
temperature, as described earlier in Table 3.1.
Firstly the thermometer scale must be calibrated with the melting point of 0 oC
and boiling point of 100 oC of water at pressure of 1 atm. The values of
parameter (X0 and X100) are assigned at their corresponding melting and boiling
points showed in Figure 3.4. Therefore, any unknown temperatures, T with their
corresponding parameters, XT that lies along the straight line of the graph can be
determined by using equation,

XT X0
T
X100 X 0

100 O C

Figure 3.4

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(3.4)

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Example 3.2
A resistance of a thermometer gives a reading of 30.00 at melting point, 41.58
at boiling point and 34.59 when immersed into a beaker filled with oil.
Calculate the oils temperature
Solution
Resistance at 0 oC
Resistance at 100 oC
Resistance at unknown temperature

:
:
:

R0 = 30.00
R100 = 41.58
RT = 34.59

From Equation 3.4, the oils temperature:

RT R0
T
R100 R 0

100 O C

(34.59 30.00)
100 O C
(41.58 30.00)
= 39.64 oC

3.2 HEAT AND INTERNAL ENERGY

As discussed in sub unit 3.1.1, we had learned that the heat will flows from a
hotter object to a colder object when the two are placed in contact. The heat will
continuously flow until the temperatures of the two objects are at equal
temperature, where there are no longer net flows of energy between them.
From the facts above we are being introduced a new quantity in physics. The
quantity is heat, Q.
Heat can be defined as an energy that flow from a higher-temperature object to a
lower-temperature object because of the difference in temperatures.
The SI unit of heat is joule (J). Other unit used is calorie (cal), where 1 cal is
equivalent to 4.1868 J. In the British system, the corresponding unit of heat was
the British thermal unit (Btu), where 1 cal is equal to 3.968 10-3 Btu.
The heat that flow from hot to cold body as in Figure 3.1 is produced from the
internal energy of the hot substance. The internal energy of a substance is the

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sum of the molecular kinetic energy, molecular potential energy and other kinds
of molecular energy. The internal energy is also known as a thermal energy.
Molecular kinetic energy originates from the random motion (or vibration) of the
molecules, while molecular potential energy is due to forces that act between the
atoms of a molecule and between molecules.
From Figure 3.1(a), (b) and (c), when heat flows from hot to cold substance, the
internal energy of the hot substance eventually decreases and in contrary, the
internal energy of the cold substance will increases.
3.3 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE CHANGE
3.3.1 HEAT CAPACITY
When a substance is being heated, their temperature increases. Different
substances need different quantity of heat to reach equal elevated temperature.
Physical quantity being used to explain how many heat needed to change
substance temperature by an amount 1 unit is known as the Heat Capacity, C.
For a large number of substances, the temperature change, T is approximately
proportional to the heat, Q.
Q T

(3.5)

The constant of proportionality which relate Q and T is called the Heat Capacity
where,
Q
C
T
(3.6)
The heat capacity of an object is the proportionality constant between the heat Q
being absorbs or loses and the resulting temperature change of that object. The
SI unit for heat capacity is joule per Kelvin (JK-1). Another common unit is cal/oC.
3.3.2 SPECIFIC HEAT
Since the heat capacity of a substance is proportional to its mass, it is therefore
convenient to define another useful quantity. The quantity is the heat capacity per
unit mass or specific heat, c.

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c

Q
m T

(3.7)

The SI unit is joule per kilogram per kelvin (Jkg-1K-1) or joule per kilogram per
degree celcius (Jkg-1oC-1). Another common unit is calorie per gram per degree
celcius(calg-1oC-1). Table 3.2 shows the specific heat of some substances at
room temperature.
Table 3.2
Substance

Aluminium
Brass
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Iron
Steel
Silver
Glass
Ice
Water
Steam
Glycerine
Alcohol

Specific Heat, c
(Jkg-1 oC-1)
910
380
390
130
140
470
450
270
700
2,100
4,200
2,000
2,500
2,430

Example 3.3
How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 200 g of mercury from
20oC to 100oC ?
Solution

Q = mcT = mc(Tfinal Tinitial)

= (0.2 kg)(140 J/kg oC)(100-20)oC = 2,240 J

When two objects with initially different temperatures are mixed together, they will
eventually reach the same temperature. This is the result of a transfer of thermal
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energy from the hotter object to the cooler object. From the Principle of
Conservation of Energy, the heat lost by the warm bodies must equal the heat
gained by the cool bodies. That is
Heat lost = Heat gained

(3.8)

From Equation 3.8, the heat flowing out from the hotter object numerically equals
the heat flowing into the cooler object, assuming no thermal energy lost from the
system and no external energy comes into the system.
Example 3.4
An aluminum cylinder is heated to 98 oC and then dropped into a styrofoam
container filled with 120 g of water with initial temperature 20 oC. The equilibrium
temperature of the mixture is 31 oC. What was the mass of the aluminum
cylinder? Neglect the containers heat capacity.
Solution
From Equation 3.7 and 3.8, the heat released by aluminium and then absorbed
by water is,
Heat lost by aluminum = Heat gained by water
- mAlcAlTAl = mWacWaTWa
-1 o -1
mAl(910 Jkg C )(31 - 98)oC = (0.12 kg)(4,200 Jkg-1 oC-1)(31 - 20)oC
60970 mAl Jkg-1 = 5,544 J
mAl = 0.091 kg = 91 gram

3.4 HEAT AND PHASE CHANGE

Generally under proper condition of temperature and pressure, materials may
exist naturally whether in a form of solid, liquid or gases. In solid, atoms or
molecules are strongly binding each other in a rigid crystalline structure by their
mutual attraction. In the liquid state, the molecules have more energy and more
free to move. In the gases, the molecules have even more energy, are free of
one another.
When material being heated continuously, its temperature will gradually
increased, until it reach at a certain stage where the phase of the material will
changed, whether from solid phase to liquid phase at its melting point or from
liquid phase to gases phase at the boiling point. The same process occur when
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substance released heat continuously, where its temperature gradually
decreased, until at a certain stage the substance phase will changed from the
gases phase to liquid phase at its condensing point or from liquid phase to solid
phase at the freezing point.
At the melting point (or freezing point) and boiling points (or condensing point),
the temperature of the phase does not change during such a change of phase,
even the heat is supplied (or released) continuously. This is because the energy
absorbed by the material is used in separating the molecules more than its
previous phase.
Figure 3.5 (a) and (b) depict when a material is in solid form, bond between the
atoms or molecules hold them tightly. Energy must be supplied to break the
bonds and change the solid into liquid. When the substance is changed from
liquid to gas, energy is used to separate the molecules from the loose bonds
holding them together and to move the molecules apart.
The quantity of heat, Q required to melt a unit mass of a substance, m at its
melting point is called the latent heat of fusion for that substance. The heat per
unit mass for the solid-liquid phase transition (in either direction) is called the
latent heat of fusion, Lf.
Lf

(a)

Q
m

(3.9)

(b)

Figure 3.5 Energy transfer to a different phase of material.

The quantity of heat, Q required to vaporize a unit mass of a substance, m at its
boiling point is called the latent heat of vaporization. The heat per unit mass for
the liquid-liquid phase transition (in either direction) is called the latent heat of
vaporization, Lv.
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Q
Lv
m
(3.10)
SI unit for both latent heat are joules per kilogram (Jkg-1). Calories per gram
(calg-1) and Btu per pound (Btulb-1) is another older unit.
Table 3.3
Substance

Aluminium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Silver
Water
Oxygen
Nitrogen

Melting
Point
(oC)
660
1,083
327
-39
961
0
-219
-210

Latent Heat
of Fusion
(kJkg-1)
377
134
25
11.7
88
333
13.8
25.5

Boiling
Point
(oC)

Latent Heat
of
Vaporization
(kJkg-1)

2,467
2,595
1,620
357
2,193
100
-183
-196

11,390
5,075
871
293
2,340
2264
214
200

Values for the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization for many
substances are given in Table 3.3.
Graph in Figure 3.6 depicts the changes of phase of a water, showing how the
temperature of the substance varies as thermal energy is applied to the water at
a steady rate.

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Steam only
Water and steam

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Water only

Ice and water

Ice
only

Figure 3.6 Changes in phase of a water when temperature of the substance

varies
If a quantity of ice with a temperature of -20 oC is heated, its temperature will
increase gradually until the ice begins to melt at 0 oC. During the melting process,
the temperature remains constant.
Once all the ice has melted, the temperature begins to rise again at uniform rate
until the water begins to boil at 100 oC. During the vaporization process, the
temperature remains constant.
When all water has vaporized into steam, and the heating is continued, the
temperature will again start to rise.
Example 3.5
Calculate the quantity of heat is required to change 100 g of ice at -15 oC to
steam at 110oC?
Solution

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From Equation 3.7, calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 100 g
of ice from -15oC to its melting point (0oC) :
Q1 = miceciceT
= (0.1 kg)(2100 Jkg-1 oC-1)[0-(-15)] oC-1
= 3,150 J
From Equation 3.9, calculate the heat required to melt all of this ice into water at
its melting point (0oC) :
Q2 = (micewater)Lf
= (0.1 kg)(333 103 Jkg-1)
= 33,300 J
From Equation 3.7, calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 100 g
of water from 0oC to its boiling point (100oC) :
Q3 = mwatercwaterT
= (0.1 kg)(4200 Jkg-1 oC-1)(100-0) oC-1
= 42,000 J
From Equation 3.10, calculate the heat required to vapour all of this water into
steam at its boiling point (100oC) :
Q4 = (mwatersteam)Lv
= (0.1 kg)(2264 103 Jkg-1)
= 226,400 J
From Equation 3.7, calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 100 g
of steam from 100oC to 110oC :
Q5 = msteamcsteamT
= (0.1 kg)(2000 Jkg-1 oC-1)(110-100) oC-1
= 2,000 J
The total heat required is the sum of these five processes:
Qtotal =
=
=
=

43

Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 + Q5
3,150 J + 33,300 J + 42,000 J + 226,400 J + 2,000 J
306,850 J
306.9 kJ

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3.5 HEAT TRANSFER

Heat is the energy transferred from a system at a higher temperature to a system
at a lower temperature which is in contact. The energy transfer takes place
whenever there is a temperature difference between two bodies or between two
parts of the same body, via the collisions of their constituent particles. There are
three principal method by which heat transfer can occurs, namely by conduction,
convection and radiation.
3.5.1 CONDUCTION
Conduction is the process of heat flow that occurs in all forms of material
wheather in solids, liquids or gases. From the three forms of substance, the
process of conduction dominantly occurs into solids.
When a cylindrical bar (metal or non-metal) is being heated at one end, the heat
will flow from the hot end to another cold end by means of the atomic or
molecular collision (Figure 3.7). The atoms or molecules that are vibrating in the
rod with higher temperature collide with atoms or molecules in the rod at lower
temperature, resulting in a net transfer of heat. In metal, the process of
conduction is also aided by the motion of free electrons within the substance.
Most metals are good conductors of heat because they have a number of free
electrons that can distribute heat in addition to that propagated by molecular
agitation.
Liquid conduct heat less than solids, because the forces between atoms are
weaker. Gases are even less efficient as conductors of heat than solids or liquids
since the atoms of gas are farther apart.

Direction of heat flow

Thot

Tcold

A
d

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Figure 3.7 Heat flow through a cylindrical bar

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

In Figure 3.7, the cylindrical bar with length d, uniform cross section A is
maintained at temperatures Thot and Tcold at its both ends. Evidences from
Q
experiments shows that the quantity of heat transferred, per unit of time, t is,
Directly proportional to the temperature difference (T = Thot Tcold) between the
two ends
Directly proportional to the cross sectional area, A of the cylindrical bar
Inversely proportional to the length, d of the cylindrical bar.
By neglecting the heat released at the sides of the cylindrical rod, the above
results can be expressed in equation form as

Q
T Tcold
k A hot

t
d

(3.10)

Where k is the proportionality constant or the coefficient of thermal conductivity of

Thot Tcold

d
is known as
a material. The SI unit of k is Wm-1K-1. The portion of
o
the temperature gradient. It tells how many K or C the temperature changes per
unit length moved along the path of heat flow. Table 3.4 lists the coefficient of
thermal conductivities for several common substances.
Example 3.6
A block of concrete has a cross section of 5 m 2 and a thickness of 10 cm. One
side is at 40oC, and the other is at 20oC. What is the rate of heat transfer?

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Table 3.4
Substance

Silver
Copper
Aluminum
Brass
Iron
Steel
Lead
Mercury
Concrete
Glass (pyrex)
Brick
Water
Asbestos
Dry soil
Wood
Air

Thermal
Conductivities, k
(Wm-1 K-1)
418
385
238
122
80
46
38
8
1.7
1.1
1
0.6
0.17
0.14
0.13
0.023

Solution
Solving for rate of heat transfer in Equation 3.10 yields,

Q
T Tcold
k A hot

t
d

40 o C 20 o C

0.10 m

(1.7 Wm 1K 1 ) (5m 2 )

=
= 1,700 W

3.5.2 CONVECTION

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Convection of thermal energy occurs in a fluid (liquids or gases) when warm
fluids flows, carrying energy with it, as to displace cooler fluids. Convection
cannot happen in solids since its atoms or molecules keep their tight position.
Therefore, bulk movement or flow is prohibited which forbidden convection to
occur.
Figure 3.8 shows a beaker of water being heated over a flame. Heated water at
the bottom of the beaker will expand and becomes more buoyant, due to the
increased of volume per unit mass; the density of the water will eventually
decrease. The cooler and denser water near the surface will go down replacing
the position of hotter water. So the pattern of circulation is formed within the
beaker of water.

Cooler water
descends

Convection currents
Hotter water
rises

Figure 3.8 Heat circulation of water

Convection occurs in two forms namely natural convection and forced
convection. Figure 3.8 is one type of typical natural convection. Another type of
natural convection is the atmospheric convection in determining global climate
patterns and daily weather variations. Forced convection, in contrast occurs
when pumps, fans or other means are used to propel the fluid and create an
artificially induced convection current, i.e: an air conditioner and refrigerator.
3.5.3 RADIATION
Radiation is the heat transfer by the emission of electromagnetic waves which
carry energy away from the emitting object. It is in contrary of the to conduction

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and convection, which no medium is required for heat transfer via radiation. The
radiation can travel through vacuum for instance from the sun to the earth.
The rate, P at which an object emits energy via electromagnetic radiation is given
by
P A T 4
(3.11)
Where A is the surface area of an emitting object, T is an absolute temperature in
Kelvin, and is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant with value 5.67 10-8 Wm-2K-4.
The symbol, represent the emissivity of the objects surface, which has a value
between 0 and 1. A surface with the maximum emissivity of 1.0 is said to be a
blackbody radiator, but such surface is ideal and does not occur in nature.
From Equation 3.11, it is clear that every object whose absolute temperature is
above 0 Kelvin (including human) emits thermal radiation. And at the same time
the object also absorb thermal energy from surroundings. When an object at
absolute temperature T is in environment where the temperature is TE, the net
energy radiated per second by the object is
P A (T 4 TE4 )

(3.12)

Example 3.7
A spherical body with diameter of 6.0 cm is maintained at 200 oC. Assuming that
the spherical body is an ideal blackbody, at what rate (in watt) is energy radiated
from the sphere?
Solution
The temperature of the spherical body, T = 200oC = 473 K
The surface area, A = 4r2 = 4(0.03 m)2 = 1.13 10-2 m2
For ideal blackbody, = 1
Solving for rate of energy radiated in Equation 3.11 yields,
P A T

48

(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )(1)(1.13 10 -2 m 2 )(473K) 4 = 32 W

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SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied that:
1.

The temperature is one of the basic quantities of physical units. It is the

measure of the degree of hotness and coldness of matters.

2.

When two matters are in thermal contact to each other, the energy (heat)
from matter with higher temperature will flow to the matter with lower
temperature. As the energy continuously flow, temperatures of two matters
are approaching to each other. When the temperatures are equal, there
are no longer net flows of energy between them. The matters are now said
to be in thermal equilibrium.

3.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that If two objects are in

thermal equilibrium with a third object (a thermometer), then the two are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

4.

The thermometry property is the physical properties of materials that

changed linearly proportional with temperature when the materials
becomes hotter or colder.

5.

In the SI system, temperature is measured on the kelvin scale.

6.

The Celsius temperature scale is defined by TC = TK 273.15.

O

TF 1.8 O TC 32 O F
C

The Fahrenheit temperature scale is defined by

.

7.
8.

Heat is energy that flow from a higher-temperature object to a lowertemperature object because of the difference in temperatures.

9.

Heat Capacity of an object is the proportionality constant between the

heat, Q that is being absorbed or loosed and the resulting temperature
Q
C
T .
change of that object is defined by

10.

The heat capacity per unit mass or specific heat, c is defined by

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Q
c
m T . The SI unit is joule per kilogram per kelvin (Jkg-1K-1) or joule
per kilogram per degree Celsius (Jkg-1oC-1). Another common unit is
calorie per gram per degree Celsius (calg-1oC-1).
11.

The quantity of heat, Q required to melt a unit mass of a substance, m at

Q
Lf
m.
Its melting point is called the latent heat of fusion. It is defined as

12.

The quantity of heat, Q required to vaporize a unit mass of a substance, m

at its boiling point is called the latent heat of vaporization. It can be defined
Q
Lv
m.
by
There are three principal method by which heat transfer can occurs,
namely by conduction, convection and radiation.

13.

EXERCISES
The melting point of lead is 327.3 oC. What is the corresponding
temperature on the Fahrenheit scale?
(Ans : 621.14 oF)

1.

2.

The boiling point of ammonia is -28.12 oF. Express this temperature in

Kelvin and in degrees Celsius.
(Ans : -33.4 oC ; 239.75 K)

3.

A sample of gas cools from -120 oC to -180oC. Express the change of

temperature in Kelvin and in Fahrenheit degrees.
(Ans : -60 K ; -108 oF)

4.

The length of mercury column on a mercury thermometer at melting and

boiling points are 0.5 cm and 13.0 cm respectively. What is a liquids temperature
if the length of the mercury column is 6.0 cm ?
(Ans : 44.0 oC)
5. (a)
How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 500 g
of water from 21oC to 55oC?
(b)

50

How much heat is loss by the water as its cools back down to 21 oC
(Ans : 71.4 kJ ; -71.4 kJ)

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6.

150 g of metal at 110 oC is dropped into 740 g of water at 21 oC and heat it

to 45oC. What is the specific heat of the metal?
(Ans : 7,650 Jkg-1 oC-1)

7.

50 g of water at 0oC is added to m gram of water at 90oC. If the final

equilibrium temperature is 75oC, determine the value of m.
(Ans : 250 g)

8.

Determine the temperature when 175 g of ice at 0oC is mixed with 500 g of
water at 65oC.
(Ans : 27.4 oC)

9.

How much heat is required to change 10 g of ice at exactly 0 C to steam

at 100 C?
(Ans : 3 104 J)

10.

An aluminium plate 3.5 cm thick has a cross-sectional area of 7000 cm 2.

Temperature at one face is 150oC and the other is at 140oC. How much heat
passes through the plate each second?
(Ans : 47.6 kJ/s)

11.

What temperature gradient must exist in a copper rod for it to transmit

33.5 W/m2 of cross section 1010-5 m down the rod?
(Ans : 870 oC/m)

12.

A sphere of radius 0.500 m, temperature 27.0 oC and emissivity 0.850 is

located in an environment of temperature 77.0 oC.
At what rate does the sphere emit thermal radiation?
At what rate does the sphere absorb thermal radiation?
What is the spheres net rate of energy exchange?
(Ans : (a) 1.23 kW ; (b) 2.28 kW ; (c) 1.05 kW)

(a)
(b)
(c)
13.

14.

A sphere of 1.5 cm radius acts like a blackbody. It is in equilibrium with its

surroundings and absorb 70 kW of power radiated to it from the surroundings.
What is the temperature of the sphere?
A heavy copper pot of mass 2.0 kg (INCLUDING THE COPPER LID) is
at temperature 0f 150oC. 0.10 kg of water at 25 C is poured into the pot, then
quickly close the lid of the pot so that no steam can escape. Find the final
temperature of the pot and its contents, and determine the phase of the
water. Assume that no heat is lost to the surrounding.
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(0.034 fraction of water changes to the gaseous phase)
15.

16.

17.

An insulated beaker with negligible mass contains o.25 kg of water at

temperature of 75 C. how many kilogram of ice at temperature of -20 C
must be dropped in the water so that the final temperature of the system
will be 30.0 C.
(94 g)
A copper calorimeter can with a mass 0.100 kg contains 0.160 kg of
water and 0.018 kg of ice in thermal equilibrium. If 0.750 kg of lead at a
temperature of 255 C is dropped into calorimeter can, what is the epassam
at 100 C is final temperature? Assume that no heat is lost to the
surroundings.
Determine the result when 10 g of steam at 100 oC is passed into 400
g of water and 100 g of ice at 0 oC in a calorimeter which behave thermally
as if it were equivalent to 50 g of water.
(80 g of ice melted, final temperature is 0oC).

REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.

52

College Physics. International Edition, Alan Giambattista, Betty McCarthy

Richardson and Robert C. Richardson, McGraw-Hill, 2004.
University Physics: With Modern Physics. 12 th Ed., Young H. D and R. A.
Freedman, Pearson Addison-Wesley, 2008.
Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics. 3rd Ed., Douglas
C. Giancoli, Prentice Hall, 2000.
Pre-U Text STPM: Physics Volume 1, Cheong Foon Choong, PearsonLongman, 2006.