ABSTRACT

The density of a fluid, defined as the ratio of the fluids total mass to its total volume, can be
determined through several ways. This experiment explores how to determine the densities of
liquids using a pycnometer. The researchers start by weighing a pycnometer filled with water,
then proceed to compute for the volume of the water while referring to temperature dependent
values of density. A working equation is then formulated for the researchers to be able to use
water as the reference liquid in determining the densities of the remaining substances. +
findings + conclusion

INTRODUCTION

An apocryphal tale tells of how Archimedes determined whether a certain King Hieros
crown was made of pure gold. The king had given his goldsmith solid gold to fashion into a
crown; however, he suspected that the goldsmith only used a small amount of gold, keeping the
rest for himself and using silver to bring the crown to the correct weight. Archimedes was said to
have been immersed in a bathtub when, upon seeing that the water overflowed when he
lowered himself into it, he realized that he could determine the volume of the crown by the
amount of water it would displace. From there on he would only need to weigh the crown for him
to be able to calculate its density and therefore determine its purity.
The density (Greek letter rho) of any substance is defined as its mass per unit volume:

m
v

(1.1)
In the International System (SI) of units, the unit of density is kg m -3, but its submultiples, g
cm-3 and g ml-1, are also commonly used, ml and cm3 being taken as synonymous. Density may also
be given in lbm ft-3 units. Other commonly used forms of density include molar density (density
divided by molecular weight) in kmol m -3, relative density (density relative to water at 15C), and the
older term specific gravity (density relative to water at 60F). Often the inverse of density,
specific volume, and the inverse of molar density, molar volume, are correlated and used to
convey equivalent information.

The importance of density is that it determines whether an object will float or sink. If the
object's density is less than the density of water, it will float; if its density is less than that of
water, it will sink. This is an extremely important property to consider when dealing with things
such as building ships and plumbing systems. Ships can float because they have ballast tanks
that hold air or water to make it rise and fall as it needs to. As these tanks provide large volumes
of little mass, the density of the ship is effectively decreased. Together with the buoyant force
that the water exerts on the ship, this reduced density enables the ship to float. Fluid flow
through a pipe is an important real-world application of density governed by a relation known as
Bernoulli's equation. Boley (n.d.) explains, Bernoulli's equation is a special use of the concept of
conservation of energy, and the result is that the density of the fluid affects the fluid's velocity,
pressure, and even its height. All else being equal, a fluid of greater density will flow through a
pipe with a lower pressure, velocity, or height, respectively. Engineers rely on Bernoulli's
equation when they design dams and large-scale plumbing projects.
Gupta defined density as the mass per unit volume of a substance at a specified temperature
and pressure (2).
Density measurements are required in practically all areas of measurement science. The
most sophisticated measurements, according to him, are required for the density of silicon
crystals and hence Avogadros constant; whereas only a mediocre accuracy is required for

checking the net contents of commercial items like ice cream and edible oils. In industry, density
measurements are required in many areas; for example to make the correct alloy or mixtures
with desired properties, density determination is vital. In industry, many other properties of a
material are, in fact, inferred from its density. Measurement of the density of liquids has become
all the more important because water and mercury are used as reference liquids. Precise
knowledge of the density of water is not only vital for the calibration of volumetric glassware and
capacity measures but is also equally important in oceanography. Mercury is used as a
confining liquid in investigations of pressure-volume and pressure-temperature relations of other
fluids. The accuracy of a primary standard barometer depends upon the accuracy with which
the density of mercury, with which it is filled, is known. So the density of mercury, its
measurement technique and its values at various temperatures on the lates 1990 international
temperature scale are of greatest interest to the scientific community engaged in the pressure
and force measurements (S. V. Gupta, 2002).

All density measurements would essentially require the measurement of two

parameters, namely mass and volume. The mass of a body can be adequately found with the
help of a balance by the usual established procedures. The volume may be measured by
dimensional measurement, which is more problematic. Therefore, this method is employed only
in special circumstances: either when the accuracy requirement is very high, say for the
purpose of maintaining a solid-based density standard, or where accuracy requirements are
small. However, the hydrostatic weighing method is most often used to measure the volume of a
solid body. The volume so measured will be with the reference to the density of the water or that
of the liquid used in the hydrostatic weighing. Similarly capacity measures and other volumetric
glassware should be calibrated by taking water as the density standard. Hence water acts as a
primary standard of density more often than not (S. V. Gupta, 2002).
Gupta lists the following why water has the following advantages when used as a density
standard:
1. It is generally easily available.
2. It is one of the least expensive materials.
3. It is easy to handle.
4. It is non-corrosive so it may be handled by an inexperienced
worker.
5. It remains liquid in most commonly used temperature ranges.
6. It is a self-cleaning liquid and workers do not need to clean their
hands etc.
7. It has no smell and is a friendly liquid.
8. It is a non-toxic substance.
9. Its density is known to a fairly high degree of accuracy for any
routine work requiring accuracy to one part in one hundred thousand.
10. It is non-flammable.

However, to be used as a primary standard of density, water has the following

disadvantages:
1. The density of water becomes uncertain within a few parts per
million because of the unknown concentration of dissolved gases normally
unknown isotopic compositions and contamination. For these reasons, the
density of water may become uncertain even within a few parts per hundred
thousand.
2. High surface tension causes serious problems in hydrostatic
weighing. The surface tension of water can vary due to surface contamination at
the air-water interface, which increases the uncertainty.
There are many ways of determining the density of a substance. In their book Perrys
Chemical Engineers Handbook, Theodore, Weiss, McKenna, et al (2008) enumerate several
types of devices used for measuring densities. One such device is the liquid column. Density
may be determined by measuring the gauge pressure at the base of a fixed-height liquid column
open to the atmosphere. If the process system is closed, then a differential pressure
measurement is made between the bottom and top of a fixed-height column with the top
measurement being made at a point below the liquid surface.
Much like what Archimedes did to prove that the kings crown was not pure gold, the
density of an object can also be determined with the displacement method. Green and Perry
state that there are a variety of density measurement devices based on displacement
techniques. A hydrometer is a constant-weight, variable-immersion device. The degree of
immersion, when the weight of the hydrometer equals the weight of the dis[;aced liquid, is a
measure of the density. The hydrometer is adaptable to manual or automatic usafe. Another
modification includes a magnetic float suspended below a solenoid, the varying magnetic field
maintaining the float at a constant distance from the solenoid.
Another method of determining the density is through the use of a pycnometer. Baxter
(2016) defines pycnometer as a piece of laboratory equipment or glassware used to measure
material properties of substances. It may resemble a measurement bottle with a hole or
protruding glass stopper, a sealed steel gravity cup, or even a high-tech kitchen blender, with a
vessel sitting on a base with readout controls. This vessel performs fast, precision measurement of
density or specific gravity of a liquid.
A pycnometer uses standard measurements and calculates volume by displacement of its
liquid. Forcing a liquid out a small hole via gas or pressure allows instant comparisons to be made
between volume measurements. This allows rapid assessment of the porous nature of substances
possible. Baxter further elaborates that multiple characteristics of the liquid volume can be
measured and compared before and after displacement. These may also be understood by
calculating comparisons to a water-filled vessel. Liquid factors may include density, time-related
pressure equilibrium, proportional solids content, and overall pore volume. The pycnometer
performs most of its analyses in minutes to provide a host of content calculation profiles. Its speed
and accuracy contribute to time-critical lab processes and benefit reporting time and productivity.

Using a pycnometer provides quick measurements through a minimal number of steps.

These may consist of filling the device with water to get a weight measurement to calculate volume
and then comparing that result to the vessel filled with the target substance. Accuracy and
precision are vital to such processes, so some equipment is designed especially to withstand
pressures from gas and liquid viscosities in order to completely fill the bottle. Some components
are manufactured from solid bar metals in order to prevent liquid from entering the bottle's
threads and also to eliminate surface imperfections that could affect accuracy.
The degree of performance of a pycnometer may range from low tech to high tech. Some
devices are capable of enhanced operational ranges and automation. Pre-programmed sample
standards may assist in the analysis; the procedure can be further simplified through the use of a
software interface that groups varying samples in a clear manner. Some also permit the control of
temperature variables or operation in a glove box for analysis in a controlled environment.

BOOKS

Gupta, S. V. (2002). Practical density measurement and hydrometry. Bristol: Iinstitute of Physics
Pub.
Theodore, L., Weiss, K. N., McKenna, J. D., Smith, F. L., Sharp, R. R., Santoleri, J. J., &
McGowan, T. F. (2008). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill Pub.

WEBSITES
Boley, A. (n.d.). How Can the Study of Density Be Used in the Real World? Retrieved August 20,
2016, from http://oureverydaylife.com/can-study-density-used-real-world-41598.html
Baxter, M., & Lindley, D. (2016, August 03). What Is a Pycnometer? Retrieved August 22, 2016,
from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-pycnometer.htm