Facade Fabrics PDF

Textiles & Fabrics in
Facades
NEW BUILDING MATERIALS & SPECIFICATIONS
AISWARYA SREEKUMAR
BEM/ 547
15-03-2013
BUILDING ENGINEERING
AND MANAGEMENT
Contents
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................... 5
1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 7
1.1
Brief History of Textiles in Building Construction ................................................................... 7
1.2
Technical Textiles .................................................................................................................. 11
1.3
Making of Textiles and Fabrics .............................................................................................. 12
1.3.1
Woven Structures and Weaving ................................................................................... 13
1.3.2
Knitted Structures and Knitting..................................................................................... 13
1.3.3
Nonwoven Structures and Nonwovens ........................................................................ 14
1.3.4
Fabric Finishing, Coating and Lamination ..................................................................... 15
1.4
2
Types of Fabric Faade Materials.......................................................................................... 16
MATERIAL STUDY- PVC coated PES ............................................................................................... 18

2.1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 18
2.2
Chemical Composition .......................................................................................................... 19
2.3
Method of Manufacture ....................................................................................................... 19
2.4
Characteristic Properties....................................................................................................... 22
2.4.1
Physical.......................................................................................................................... 22
2.4.2
Durability ....................................................................................................................... 22
2.4.3
Performance Properties ................................................................................................ 23
2.5
Testing and Acceptance Criteria ........................................................................................... 24
2.5.1
Non-Wicking.................................................................................................................. 24
2.5.2
Ultraviolet Light and Weathering Resistance ............................................................... 24
2.5.3
Fungus and Mildew Resistance ..................................................................................... 25
2.5.4
Flame Resistance........................................................................................................... 25
2.5.5
Performance Properties for Architectural Fabrics ........................................................ 26
2.5.6
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 30
2.6
Applications........................................................................................................................... 30
2.7
Advantages............................................................................................................................ 31
2.8
Limitations............................................................................................................................. 31
2.9
Installation systems............................................................................................................... 32
2.10
Cost Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 32
2.11
Maintainability Aspects......................................................................................................... 33
2.11.1
Material pollution: ........................................................................................................ 33
2.11.2
Cleaning:........................................................................................................................ 33
AISWARYA SREEKUMAR - BEM/547, DEPT OF BEM, SPA-D | 15-03-2013
Textiles & Fabrics in Facades
2.11.3
Maintenance: ................................................................................................................ 33
2.11.4
Environmental compatibility:........................................................................................ 33
2.12
Commercial Catalogues/ Brochures ..................................................................................... 33
2.13
Case Study ............................................................................................................................. 34
2.13.1
COPENHAGEN CONCERT CENTRE [DR KONCERTHUSET (DRK)] .................................... 34
2.13.2
BMW MOTORSHOW IAA FRANKFURT .......................................................................... 37
2.14
Performance Specification .................................................................................................... 39
2.14.1
3
PVC (Poly Vinyl-Chloride) COATED PES (POLYESTER).................................................... 39
MATERIAL STUDY- ETFE ................................................................................................................ 41

3.1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 41
3.2
Chemical Composition .......................................................................................................... 42
3.3
Method of Manufacture ....................................................................................................... 42
3.4
Manufacturing of the ETFE granulate: .................................................................................. 43
3.4.1
Raw materials and monomers ...................................................................................... 44
3.4.2
Polymerization .............................................................................................................. 44
3.4.3
Granulation ................................................................................................................... 44
3.4.4
Refining ......................................................................................................................... 44
3.4.5
Extruding ....................................................................................................................... 45
3.4.6
Finishing the foil cushions: ............................................................................................ 46
3.4.7
Types of ETFE structure................................................................................................. 46
3.5
Characteristic Properties....................................................................................................... 47
3.5.1
Material Strength .......................................................................................................... 47
3.5.2
Weight ........................................................................................................................... 48
3.5.3
Cushion Size .................................................................................................................. 48
3.5.4
Insulation....................................................................................................................... 48
3.5.5
Transparency and Translucency.................................................................................... 48
3.5.6
Solar Control ................................................................................................................. 49
3.5.7
G Value .......................................................................................................................... 50
3.5.8
Life Expectancy.............................................................................................................. 50
3.5.9
Fire ................................................................................................................................ 51
3.5.10
Acoustics ....................................................................................................................... 51
3.5.11
Environmental ............................................................................................................... 52
3.6
Applications........................................................................................................................... 52
3.7
Advantages............................................................................................................................ 53
TEXTILES & FABRICS IN FACADES | NEW BUILDING MATERIALS & SPECIFICATIONS
3.8
Limitations............................................................................................................................. 53
3.9
Handling, Installation and Storage ........................................................................................ 54
3.9.1
Fragility.......................................................................................................................... 54
3.9.2
Inflation Units................................................................................................................ 55
3.9.3
Power Failure ................................................................................................................ 55
3.9.4
Safety/Explosion & Other Risk ...................................................................................... 55
3.9.5
Repair and Replacement ............................................................................................... 56
3.9.6
Transportation .............................................................................................................. 56
3.9.7
Framing ......................................................................................................................... 56
3.9.8
Typical Section of an ETFE Cushion ............................................................................... 57
3.10
Cost Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 57
3.11
Maintainability Aspects......................................................................................................... 57
3.11.1
Rainwater & Drainage ................................................................................................... 57
3.11.2
Cleaning......................................................................................................................... 58
3.11.3
Maintenance ................................................................................................................. 58
3.12
Commercial Catalogues/ Brochures ..................................................................................... 58
3.13
Case Study ............................................................................................................................. 59
3.13.1
GLASS CUBE - NATIONAL AQUATICS CENTRE BEIJING .................................................. 59
3.13.2
ALLIANZ ARENA, MUNICH, GERMANY .......................................................................... 63
3.14
Performance Specification .................................................................................................... 65
3.14.1
4
ETFE (Ethylene Tetra Fluoro Ethylene).......................................................................... 65
References .................................................................................................................................... 66
List of Figures
Figure 1: Example of primordial tent construction using animal skin
Figure 2: American Indian Tepee
Figure 3: The Bedouin Tent
Figure 4a: Velaria over Roman Colloseum
Figure 4c: Royal Court Tents
Figure 4b: Circus Tents
Figure 5: German Pavilion for Expo 67, Montreal
Figure 5a: Fuji Company Pavilion Air-in filled Structure, Osaka
Figure 5b: American Pavilion Air-supported Structure, Osaka
Figure 6: British pavilion for expo 92, Seville
Figure 7: Constituents of Technical Textiles
Figure 8: Most common man-made faade fabric materials
Figure 9: Making of Textiles and Fabrics
Figure 10: Warp and Weft
Figure 11: Knitted fabric
Figure 12: Fabric bond and showing the various layers and coats
Figure 13: Faade of Cogeneration Plant, Chinaham, United Kingdom with PVC coated PES
mesh panels
Figure 14: Manufacturing Process of PVC coated PES
Figure 15: Faade Fabric of Deichmann Flagship Store, Germany
Figure 16: Typical substructure for textile architecture using PVC coated PES
Figure 17: Section showing the layers of the Stamisol system
Figure 18: Copenhagen Concert Centre at night displaying the cobalt blue PVC coated PES
mesh facade
Figure 19: BMW motor show canopy made of PVC coated PES opaque structure fabric as
roofing
Figure 20: ETFE tension layer on a facade
Figure 21: Flow chart of the ETFE granulate production
Figure22: ETFE granulate unpacked and packed
Figure 23: ET-foils production line (1: extruder, 2: shaping, 3: casting, 4: winder, 5:
automation)
Figure 24: Typical ETFE section
Figure 25: ETFE installation on the Beijing Water Cube
Figure 26: Conceptual drawing of ETFE skin of Water Cube
Figure 27: ETFE skin from the swimming pool inside of the Aquatics Centre
Figure 28: ETFE skin back lit with colour changing LED lights on the Allianz Arena
Figure 29: ETFE skin on installation during construction of the Allianz Arena
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Brief History of Textiles in Building Construction
Tensile architecture is probably one of the oldest methods used to provide protection from
adverse climatic conditions and against predator attack. The humble conic tent is the
simplest form of tensile structure, and excelled where two conditions prevailed: a shortage of
building material and a need for mobility. Evidence has been found which confirms that
humans have been making tents for at least 15.000 years, initially using animal skins, and
only 3000 years later, incorporating woven fabrics.
Figure 1: Example of primordial tent construction using animal skin
Differing forms depended on different materials available at the time for example the
American Indian Tepee, the Bedouin tents or the Mongolian Yurt.
Figure 2: American Indian Tepee
Figure 3: The Bedouin Tent
Figure 4: The Mongolian Yurt

One of the first applications of tensile technology came at the very beginning by transferring
sailing principles, the spectators at Roman amphitheatres (e.g. the Coliseum) were protected
against the sun by retractable sheets and fabrics roofs, supported by timber masts and cotton
fibre ropes as operated by sailors.
Figure 4a: Velaria over Roman Colloseum
Figure 4c: Royal Court Tents
Figure 4b: Circus Tents
FABRIC MEMBRANE AND CABLENET STRUCTURES
Figure 5: German Pavilion for Expo 67, Montreal

Modern fabric materials in modern architecture can shape space, enabling architects to sculpt
3-dimensional areas in a manner that is not possible with any other type of material. This kind
of architecture is offering much more: the designer is able to play with light and use this for
natural illumination of the space, softening it, fusing it, sharpening it or shaping it. This
creates mood and ambience to reflect architectural intent, resulting in an energy saving
covering system, by approaching the elementary need of being in touch with nature. The
dynamic shape and form of membranes allow new possibilities to become reality.
LARGE SPAN GRID SHELL AND AIR-STRUCTURES
Figure 5a: Fuji Company Pavilion Air-in filled Structure, Osaka
Figure 5b: American Pavilion Air-supported Structure, Osaka
10
The light weight tensile membrane structures developed strongly after the World War II. Later
this was followed the pneumatic structures. Textile and fabric were also used in structures
where they had no load-bearing role.
New fibres were invented and several new polymers, synthetic rubbers and adhesives for
coating and lamination of textiles were developed. These man-made materials were
developed to surpass the properties of natural fibres. Examples of textile and fabric
architecture that are horizontal coverings, either roofs or enclosing structures reached their
maturity in the 1970s and 1980s.
FABRIC FACADES
Figure 6: British pavilion for expo 92, Seville
THE FACADES were covered with textile and fabric fairly late, in the 1990s. End-use
requirements impose demands on the design and also on the selection of fabric for faade
treatment. In no other sector of architecture do form and load distribution depend on each
other as greatly as they do in membrane construction. Hence, these represent the perfect
marriage between architecture and engineering. As in nature, the course of forces that are
shown in the form and shape can fascinate not only architects and engineers, but also the
wider public as well, especially those who can appreciate the equilibrium between aesthetics
and functionality.
11
1.2 Technical Textiles

TECHNICAL TEXTILES are replacing traditional textile materials as well as other materials,
metals and construction materials. Common to the manufacturing and use of all the
mentioned materials is the manipulation of fibres, fabrics and finishing and the
understanding of the properties of flexible materials. Technical textiles can be divided into
many categories, depending on their end use.
Figure 7: Constituents of Technical Textiles

BUILDTECH- These are the Construction Textiles, also known as Buildtex, used for concrete
reinforcement, facade foundation, interior construction, insulation, air conditioning, noise
prevention, visual protection, protection against sun light, building safety etc. Such fabrics as
PVC coated high tenacity PES, Teflon coated glass fibre fabrics or silicone coated PES are
used extensively in football stadia, airports and hotels.
12
1.3 Making of Textiles and Fabrics
Figure 8: Most common man-made faade fabric materials
Figure 9: Making of Textiles and Fabrics

13
1.3.1
Woven Structures and Weaving
Weaving is the most common technique to produce textiles. Woven fabrics can obtain higher
strengths and stabilities than any other structures in textile manufacture. The two different
yarn directions in woven fabrics are the weave and the weft. Weaves are the ones running
along the length of the fabric and forming the warp. The weft crosses the warp from one side
to the other.
Figure 10: Warp and Weft
1.3.2
Knitted Structures and Knitting
It is less used in technical textile applications compared to the use of woven and nonwoven
fabrics. In knitting, one or several yarns are inter-looped to form a continuous structure &
compared to other production techniques, knitting has an advantage, which is its versatility
and rapidity. Possible structures are endless and knitted constructions can easily be designed
to meet exact end-use requirements such as flat structures, shapes, meshes and nets or three
dimensional products. The yarn encounters less stress than in weaving. Thus delicate fibres,
such as aramid, carbon and glass can be used.
Figure 11: Knitted fabric
14
1.3.3
Nonwoven Structures and Nonwovens
Nonwoven fabric is a flat structure in which the chosen material is bonded chemically,
mechanically or thermally. The main difference with the traditional textile techniques is that
there is no need to convert the chosen material into yarn, nor is it woven or knitted to form a
binding structure. The production of nonwovens involves three stages:
web (or batt) forming,
web bonding and/or manipulation and
Finishing.
These operations can be performed one after another separately or overlapping each other.
1.3.3.1 Web Forming Phase

The technique to form a web can be
a dry-laid technique that derives its origins from textile industry;
a wet-laid technique with roots in paper making or
a spun-laid or polymer-laid techniques that have their machinery developed for

polymer extrusion.
1.3.3.2 WEB BONDING PHASE

The technique to bond a web can be
chemical,
mechanical or
thermal and a combination of processes can be used.
In web formation, the manufacture width and weight are chosen. The composition of fibre
orientations affects the fabrics tensile strength. In the web bonding stage, density, flexibility,
porosity, softness and strength are determined by the degree of bonding
1.3.3.3 FINISHING PHASE

The end-use application determines the processes chosen. Finishing can modify or add to
the existing properties of the nonwoven fabric. The finishing methods are traditionally
divided into dry and wet finishing. Chemical substances can be used before and after
15
binding, whereas mechanical finishing processes are applied after the web (batt) is reinforced
in the binding stage. After finishing, the nonwoven fabric is rolled and can be further
converted closer to its final form
1.3.4
Fabric Finishing, Coating and Lamination
Figure 12: Fabric bond and showing the various layers and coats
Irrespective of the techniques used in technical fabric production viz. woven, knitted or
nonwoven, the fabric is the finished, coated and laminated to obtain the desirable end use
properties.
1.3.4.1 Fabric Finishing

The purpose of FINISHING is to improve the fabrics functionality and its aesthetic values.
Four main subgroups of finishing exist.
mechanical finishing processes,
heat setting processes,
chemical finishing processes and
finishing processes related to coating processes.
1.3.4.2 Fabric Coating

COATING processes differ from finishing processes. A coating process closes the holes of a
fabric to some degree, whereas finishing forms a cover only on the yarns. Coating is done by
applying a direct thermoplastic polymer spreading on the fabric. Here, the fabric acts as the
16
substrate for the coating. After the spreading, the coating is dried or cured into a deposit
layer on top of the fabric. Coating materials worth mentioning are:
PVC (polyvinyl chloride),
PVCD (polyvinylidene chloride),
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene),
natural and synthetic rubbers,
polychloroprene (neoprene),
chlorosulphonated polyethylene (Hypalon),
silicone rubbers and polyurethanes.
1.3.4.3 Fabric Lamination

Polymer materials are applied to fabrics by a separate LAMINATION PROCESS. The used
adhesives are solvent or water-based films, granules, jellies, powders and webs. Machinery
and manufacturing methods are chosen according to the substrate material; flat and uniform
or stretchy and structurally uneven.
Lamination shortens the time of production, lowers the production costs and ensures even
quality. It can also prevent the need of sewing when the final product is prepared for its enduse purpose. The substrate fabric affects the physical properties, whereas coating or
lamination affects the chemical properties of the fabric. In addition to the properties of the
substrate and the polymer layer, many of the properties of the finished fabric result from the
combination of the layers. The layers are carefully designed to act together for the desired
purposes
1.4 Types of Fabric Faade Materials

a. COATED FABRICS, meshes, sheets or films.
b. UNCOATED FABRICS are cotton and polyester, metal and fluoro-polymer fabrics.
c. COTTON AND POLYESTER MIXES are impregnated against weathering and used mostly
in small to medium structures.
d. METAL FABRICS are chosen for facades, protection or sun shading purposes.
e. FLUORO-POLYMERS LIKE PTFE is suitable for kinetic structures.
f.
Most of the architectural fabrics are coated or laminated fabrics with a closed or an open
textile matrix base.
17
1. PVC coated polyester and PTFE coated fibreglass most common

2. Silicone coated fibreglass -newcomer.
3. Also popular materials are coated fluoro-polymer fabrics (PTFE, ETFE, PVDF etc.),
4. PVC coated glass fibres and aramide fabrics.
5. ETFE sheeting replaces coated fabrics more often now.
18
2 MATERIAL STUDY- PVC coated PES
Figure 13: Faade of Cogeneration Plant, Chinaham, United Kingdom with PVC coated
PES mesh panels
2.1 Introduction
PVC coated polyester is one of the most common architectural fabrics. Its advantages are its
tensile and tear strength and high elasticity. The material is considered inexpensive with a
life-span of approximately 15-20 years. It is suitable for example for long spans and
temporary structures. This high-tenacity membrane material has been used for more than 30
years for roofing and facades as well as for temporary structures and exhibition buildings.
The substrate fabric is polyester. The coating is PVC. The variety of different types available in
many different tensile strengths and colours allows a wide range of application. The high
tensile strength available allow wide span membrane structures to be built. In addition to its
suitability for permanent structures, the high flexibility of the fabric makes it ideal for
retractable systems. This is an economical membrane material that has become very popular
in all types of application. There is a wide range of strengths, weaving and coating types
available, from standard materials up to high quality, highly engineered membrane.
19
2.2 Chemical Composition

A coated structural fabric usually consists of a woven base cloth stabilized and protected by a
coating on both sides. The base cloth consists of warp threads running the length of the roll
and weft threads running across the width. A mesh fabric is a coated cloth with spacing
between the thread bundles. Sometimes mesh fabric can also refer to a woven shade cloth
where pre-coated threads are woven into cloth.
For the engineering of tension structures, the most common choices are PVC coated Polyester
cloth materials. Vinyl-coated polyester is the most frequently used material for flexible fabric
structures.
It is made up of a polyester scrim, a bonding or adhesive agent, and exterior PVC coatings.
The scrim supports the coating (which is initially applied in liquid form) and provides the
tensile strength, elongation, tear strength, and dimensional stability of the resulting fabric.
Vinyl-coated polyester is manufactured in large panels by heat-sealing an over-lap seam with
either a radio-frequency welder or a hot-air sealer. A proper seam will be able to carry the
load requirements for the structure. The seam area should be stronger than the original
coated fabric when testing for tensile strength.
The adhesive agent acts as a chemical bond between the polyester fibres and the exterior
coating and also prevents wicking, or fibres absorbing water, which could result in freezethaw damage in the fabric.
2.3 Method of Manufacture

Polyester is produced by CP (continuous polymerisation) process using PTA
(purified Terephthalic Acid) and MEG. The old process is called Batch process
using DMT ( Dimethy Terephthalate) and MEG( Mono Ethylene Glycol). Catalysts like
5b3O3 (ANTIMONY TRIOXIDE) are used to start and control the reaction. TiO2
(Titanium di oxide) is added to make the polyester fibre / filament dull.
Firstly, PTA which is a white powder is fed by a screw conveyor into hot MEG to dissolve it.
Then catalysts and TiO2 are added. After that Esterification takes place at high temperature.
Then monomer is formed.
20
Figure 14: Manufacturing Process of PVC coated PES
21
Secondly, Polymerisation is carried out at high temperature (290 to 300 degree centigrade)
and in almost total vacuum. Monomer gets polymerised into the final product, PET (Poly
ethylene Terephthalate).
Thirdly, PET is in the form of thick viscous liquid- them pumped to melt spinning machines
a metering pump- discharges an accurate quantity of polymer per revolution (to control the
denier of the fibre) through a pack which has sand or stainless steel particles as filter
media and a spinnerette which could be circular or rectangular and will have a specific
number of holes depending on the technology used and the final denier being produced.
Fourthly, Polymer which comes out of each hole of the spinneret is instantly solidified by the
flow of cool dry air. This process is called quenching.
Next, the filaments from each spinneret are collected together to form a small ribbon,
passed over a wheel which rotates in a bath of spin finish: and this ribbon is then mixed with
ribbon coming from other spinning positions, this combined ribbon is a tow and is coiled in
cans. The material is called undrawn TOW and has no textile properties.
At the next machine (the draw machine), undrawn tows from several cans are collected in
the form of a sheet and passed through a trough of hot water to raise the temperature of
polymer to 70 degrees C which is the glass transition temperature of this polymer so that the
polymer can be drawn. The polymer is drawn approximately 4 times and the actual draw or
the pull takes place either in a steam chamber or in a hot water trough.
After the drawing is complete, each filament has the required denier, and has all its sub
microscopic chains aligned parallel to the fibre axis, thereby improving the crystallinity of the
fibre structure and imparting certain strength.
Next step is to set the strength by annealing the filaments by passing them under tension
on several steam heated cylinders at temperatures 180 to 220 degrees C.
Next the fibre is quenched in a hot water bath, then passed through a steam chest to again
heat up the tow to 100 degree C so that the crimping process which takes place in the stuffer
box proceeds smoothly and the crimps have a good stability.
Textile spin finish is applied either before crimping or after crimping by a bank of hollow cone
sprays mounted on both sides of the tow.
The last step is to set the crimps and dry the tow fully which is carried out by laying the
tow on a lattice which passes through a hot air chamber at 85 degrees centigrade or so.
Finally, the tow is guided to a cutter and the cut fibres are baled for despatch. The bale is
transported to a ware house where it is "matured" for a minimum of 8/10 days before it is
permitted to be despatched to the spinning mill.
Following the manufacture, the bale is then spun by weaving, or non-woven methods. The
substrate fibre is then finished, coated using PVC and then finally laminated
22
2.4 Characteristic Properties

2.4.1
Physical
The base fabric's tensile strength is determined by the size (denier) and strength (tenacity) of
the yarns and the number of yarns per linear inch or meter. The larger the yarn and the more
yarns per inch, the greater the finished product's tensile strength.
Polyester fibres are available in 4 tenacity levels viz.:
Low pill fibres- 3.0 to 3.5 gpd [grams per denier (linear mass density of fibres)]
Medium Tenacity - 4.8 to 5.0 gpd
High tenacity 6.0 to 6.4 gpd range and
Super high tenacity 7.0 gpd and above
Currently most fibre producers offer only high tenacity fibres.

Depending on the material characteristics, translucency varies between about 5 and 35 %.
The material is available in a range of different colours and, dependant on the quantity
needed, can have different colours on the two sides. With the addition of an intermediate
layer, light transmission can be reduced to zero.
The PVC coating liquid (vinyl Organisol or Plastisol) contains chemicals to achieve the desired
properties of colour, water and mildew resistance, and flame retarding properties. Fabric can
also be manufactured that contains high levels of light transmission or can be made
completely opaque. After the coating has been applied to the scrim, the fabric is put through
a heating chamber that dries the liquid coating. PVC coatings are available in a range of
colours, although non-standard colours can be pricey. Colours may be subject to minimum
order runs that allow the coating machine to clear out traces of any previous colour
2.4.2
Durability
High quality lowwick treated PVC-Polyester fabrics generally have a structural lifespan in
excess of 20 years. On ordinary materials the plasticizers in the PVC migrate towards the
surface over a period of time making the surface harder to clean. The PVC coating contains
additives that include UV stabilisers, fire retardants, colouring and fungicidal agents.
23
2.4.3
Performance Properties
The type of yarn selected and the weave design of the base fabric will provide the following
performance properties:
High tensile strength
High tear strength
Uniaxial and biaxial stretch characteristics
Resistance to tear propagation
Puncture resistance
Dimensional stability of base fabric under changes in temperature and humidity
Resistance to chemical attack
Resistance to UV light degradation
Retention of these properties in years of outdoor exposure
The proper compounding of the vinyl coating and the appropriate coating processes will
impart the following characteristics to the architectural fabric:
Protection of the base fabric
Quality adhesion to the base fabric
High-temperature, dead-load performance
Non-wicking
Abrasion resistance
Flame resistance
Colour capability
Non-fading colours
Flexibility in cold weather
Flexibility in years of outdoor exposure
Weldability
Repairability in the field
Chemical resistance
Maintenance of these properties after years of outdoor exposure
24
2.5 Testing and Acceptance Criteria

2.5.1
Non-Wicking
The ability of a material to resist moisture from wicking into the polyester yarns is important
for both structural and aesthetic reasons. Continuous filament polyester yarn can pull water
into the space between the filaments by capillary action. If allowed to do so, this moisture
can affect the adhesion properties of the material, causing seam problems or delamination of
the coating compound. Even small amounts of moisture present in the base fabric can be a
source of fungal growth, causing the material to discolour. This creates an aesthetic problem
when viewed from the inside of the building.
Non-wicking properties are achieved by the selection of polyester yarns, the adhesive coat,
and the coating procedure. In recent years, the use of anti-wick polyester yarns has greatly
reduced the problems associated with wicking. The yarns are treated with a finish by the yarn
producer to reduce wicking. In addition, the application of an adhesive coating compound
that fully saturates the base fabric is another effective way to eliminate wicking.
A wicking test is performed by immersing a one-inch strip of PVC-coated polyester fabric
into a dye-water solution. The sample is exposed on one end for a period of 24 hours, then
removed from the solution, and examined for wicking.
2.5.2
Ultraviolet Light and Weathering Resistance
The principle in extending the life of a structure is to maintain the tensile strength of the base
fabric. To do this, it is necessary to protect the base fabric from UV light and other factors.
With PVC-coated polyester fabric, it is the top exterior coating compound that provides
protection from UV light. The PVC compound must be formulated to either reflect UV light
or absorb the light, so that the UV light cannot affect the base fabric or the PVC compound
itself. This is normally accomplished with the proper selection of pigments, the use of UV
absorbers, or a combination of both. The formulating process gets further complicated when
considering the desire for different colour structures or light transmission into the structures.
Ultraviolet light testing of PVC-coated polyester fabrics can be performed by either ASTM G26 Xenon-Arc testing or ASTM G-53 Fluorescent UV testing. These accelerated weathering
machines combine high concentrations of UV light with water spray and high temperatures.
25
These machines can simulate years of outdoor exposure in a matter of months, and have a
very good correlation to actual field exposure.
2.5.3
Fungus and Mildew Resistance
Architectural fabric structures are frequently used in hot and humid environments, which are
susceptible to fungus and mildew growth. Fungus growth on a PVC-coated polyester fabric
can be not only an aesthetic problem but can lead to structural problems with the material.
Frequently, fungus growth on a structure begins with a collection of dirt on the surface of the
material.
To minimize the potential problems of a fungal attack on the material, manufacturers will
incorporate a fungicide into the adhesive coat and the exterior coating compound. In
addition, the use of a top-coating system to reduce dirt collection on the material will help
reduce fungal attacks. While not a routine test, laboratory testing is done when a material is
developed to assure that the material does not support the growth of fungus or mildew.
2.5.4
Flame Resistance
The best way to describe the flame resistant characteristics of a PVC-coated polyester fabric
is to refer to it as a limited combustible material. The material will burn when in the
presence of a flame source, but will be self-extinguishing once the flame is removed. This
property can actually be an advantage when considering what happens during a fire inside
an architectural fabric building.
The fire-resistance properties of PVC-coated polyester fabric are related to the exteriorcoating compound. The PVC compound must be formulated with the proper types and
amounts of flame-retardant additives to impart the self-extinguishing properties that are
required for a safe building material. Since these additives are incorporated into the PVC
compound and are not extractable, the material will remain flame retardant for the life of the
coated fabric.
There are a variety of flame resistance testing procedures that are used for building materials,
but many of these do not apply to a PVC-coated polyester fabric. The primary test that is
used in the United States for coated fabric is the NFPA 701 Vertical Flame Test. In this test, a
sample of the PVC-coated polyester fabric is held in a vertical position and a flame is
26
exposed to the bottom of the material for 12 seconds, then removed. The material must selfextinguish within 2 seconds after the flame is removed, and cannot have an excessive char
length.
A second common flame test used with PVC coated polyester fabrics is the ASTM E-84
Tunnel Test. In this test, a 7.62m (25-ft.) sample of material is held in a horizontal position
and ignited from one end. The test then rates flame spread and smoke development of the
material as compared to a control material. PVC-coated materials have relatively low flamespread ratings due to their self-extinguishing properties, and the smoke-development
ratings are relatively low due to the materials light-weight nature.
2.5.5
Performance Properties for Architectural Fabrics
Architectural Fabrics are made up of four components: base fabric (greige goods), adhesive or
primer coat, exterior coatings (plasticized PVC), top coating systems.
Each of these components contributes to the different performance properties, with some of
the components having an effect on several properties. Our review of the different critical
performance properties of the architectural fabrics will continue to refer to the four different
components that make up the coated fabric.
2.5.5.1 Tensile Strength

The first and most important performance property that needs to be considered is the tensile
strength of the material. Because the tensile strength of the architectural fabric depends on
the base fabric and the polyester yarns, the useful life of a structure is then dependent on
keeping the yarns from deteriorating. If the yarns start to break down, then the structural
integrity of the entire building system is in question. Protecting the yarns from damage is one
of the main functions of the exterior coating compounds.
Testing the tensile strength of a material can be done by either the Cut Strip Test Method or
the Grab Test Method as outlined in ASTM D-751. Samples of a material are tested in both
the warp and fill directions and three to five samples are taken across the width of the
material.
27
2.5.5.2 Uniaxial And Biaxial Elongation

As a load is applied to PVC-coated polyester fabric, the material will stretch and ultimately
break at its breaking strength. This property is similar to conventional building materials such
as steel or glass. However, the length of elongation will be significantly greater for PVC coated
materials. Typical elongation at break values for PVC coated materials will range from 20
percent to 50 percent.
Testing the uniaxial elongation properties of a material can be done per ASTM D-751 Cut
Strip Test Method, or testing under a static load can be done by ASTM D-4851. Biaxial testing
is done by various test methods as developed by the material manufacturers or structure
fabricators.
2.5.5.3 Dimensional Stability

The dimensional stability properties of any building material are important. If a material
changes in size due to change in temperature or humidity, these changes need to be
considered when engineering the building. This is very important when designing a tension
membrane structure since patterns are cut to a given size to allow for a given pre-tension on
the building.
The dimensional stability of an architectural fabric is directly related to the base fabric and the
polyester yarns. Early architectural fabrics were made from nylon fibres, but these materials
were not dimensionally stable and were quickly replaced with polyester yarns. The
dimensional stability of a base fabric made from polyester yarns is so good that this
performance property is generally not specified or tested, other than to require a polyester
base fabric.
2.5.5.4 Tear Strength

The tear strength of an architectural fabric is an important performance property. The ability
of a material to resist a tear or tear propagation may be critical to the structural integrity of
the building. This can be particularly true in an air-supported structure where the loss of air
pressure inside the building can lead to a catastrophic failure.
28
Tear strength properties are related to a combination of factors involving the base fabric,
weave construction, and adhesion values. To obtain the highest possible tear properties, the
yarns need to be able to slide within the PVC coated fabric.
Testing for tear strength of a material can be done by either ASTM D-751 Tongue Tear
Method or ASTM D-4533 Trapezoid Tear Method. In many cases both methods are used to
better characterize the tear properties. In addition, tear testing is performed on material that
has been aged, either naturally or by accelerated weathering, to determine if there is a loss in
tear strength over time.
2.5.5.5 Coating Adhesion

Coating adhesion is the ability of the exterior coating compound to be adhered to the
polyester base fabric. Having the strongest base fabric and the best-formulated PVC
compound is of no value if the two cannot be properly bonded together. Good coating
adhesion is required to allow the material to be handled and welded. It is also important in
preventing the exterior coating compound from delaminating when the material is exposed
to the environment.
Developing good coating adhesion is the primary function of the adhesive coat. The adhesive
coating compound is formulated as a PVC plastisol with an adhesion promoter added to the
compound. When this compound is applied to the base fabric, a chemical bond forms
between the polyester yarns and the adhesive coat. This process is carefully monitored to
develop the right level of adhesion. Too little adhesion will cause problems with seam
strength or coating delamination, and too-high adhesion will adversely affect tear strength.
Coating adhesion is tested per ASTM D-751 Peel Adhesion test. Samples are prepared by
either welding or gluing two pieces of material together, then peeling the samples apart in a
constant-rate-of-separation testing machine. Results are reported as pounds-force per inch.
2.5.5.6 Weldability and Seam Strength

One of the most advantageous performance properties of PVC coated polyester fabrics is its
ability to be efficiently welded into large panels that can be incorporated into a structure.
Unlike conventional building materials such as wood, steel or bricks that require assembly at
29
the job site, PVC coated polyester fabrics can be pre-fabricated into large panels and then
brought to the job site for final assembly.
The PVC-coated polyester fabric uses a plasticized PVC exterior coating compound on both
the top and bottom of the material. This PVC compound is a thermoplastic material, meaning
that it can be heat bonded to itself. The heat bonding process can be accomplished with a
radio frequency welder or a hot air or hot wedge welder. Seams can be produced at speeds of
up to 6.1m (20 ft.) per minute.
Since the base fabric carries the loads on a building, the seams must be able to transfer these
loads from one piece of coated fabric to another. This creates a shear force on the seam. As a
result, it is important that the tensile performance properties of the finished seam be equal to
the strength of the fabric itself to ensure the integrity of the entire structure. Each seam must
be able to handle all of the load requirements on the building under the full range of
environmental conditions.
The strength of the seam is a function of the adhesive coat, exterior coat, and the welding
process. The adhesive coat must form a bond between the polyester base fabric and the
exterior coating compound such that it can handle the shear forces that are created under
loads. The exterior coating compound must be formulated and applied properly such that it
can be welded to itself and handle the shear forces. The welding process must be designed to
give the proper amount of overlap and the necessary amount of heat and time to form a
good weld. Typically, high tensile strength materials require a greater overlap at the seam to
carry the shear forces.
Seam strength testing involves a series of tests that include weld adhesion, seam shear
strength, and dead (static) load testing. The weld adhesion is done with the same ASTM D751Peel Adhesion Test previously described. This is a quick check to determine that the PVC
coating compound has been heat bonded to itself.
The seam shear test is a modification of ASTM D-751 Cut Strip Tensile test. In this test, a
2.54cm (1-in.) sample is cut perpendicular to the seam and a tensile test is performed across
the seam. The coated fabric should always break outside the seam area, with results
30
equivalent to the tensile strength of the PVC coated fabric, assuring that the fabricated seam
is at least as strong as the fabric itself.
While no current ASTM procedure exists for a dead load or static load test on a seam, this is
the most important test that can be performed. The test involves applying a load across the
seam on a 2.54cm (1-in.) sample for a period of four hours. The test is performed at both
room temperature and at high temperature, usually 71C (160 F). This test most closely
simulates actual field conditions in that there is a constant load on the seam when the
building is in service.
2.5.6
Summary
High performance properties in an architectural fabric are achieved by the proper selection
of the base fibre, the selected fabric weave, the appropriate formulated coating compounds
and the coating processes utilized to produce the fabric.
2.6 Applications
Figure 15: Faade Fabric of Deichmann Flagship Store, Germany
PVC Coated Polyester Meshes (open matrix): uses include shade panels, sunscreens,
facade systems and printed screens
PVC Coated Polyester Fabric (opaque fabric): uses include canopies/roofs, walls,
facades and printed screens
31
2.7 Advantages
The fabric with light transmission of approximately 8% is sufficient to provide a good level of
diffuse daylight. Whereas a PVC coated PES with openness factor of 28% will have 100
percent light transmission. The availability of PVC coated PES in both opaque and open frame
allows the choice in range of day light transmissions, diffused or full.
The flexibility of the material reduces the risk of damage due to folding and unfolding;
although care must still be taken not to damage the fabric during transportation or
installation. The low shear stiffness of PVC-polyester fabric enables the double curvature of
conic forms to be achieved with little risk of wrinkling.
Whereas in open matrix PVC coated PES, their extremely low shear stiffness enables them to
be stretched around substructure framing.
The PVC coating provides excellent water-resistance over the life of the fabric, which is
anticipated to be well in excess of 15 years. The performance of PVC-coated polyester fabric
when exposed to fire is well known: the material will retreat from a flame, allowing the
canopy to be self-venting. The material is Class A in terms of flame spread, and does not
produce flaming droplets.
When compared to other faade fabrics:
1. most cost effective
2. temporary and permanent structures
3. soft, pliable and easy to handle
4. less expensive than PTFE and ETFE
5. variety of colors, weights, topcoats and textures
6. Fire resistant (Class C, NFPA 701)
7. life span of 20+ years
2.8 Limitations
Disadvantages of PVC-coated polyester fabric, compared to PTFE-coated glass fibre fabrics,
include relatively high levels of creep which can necessitate re-tensioning, lower resistance to
dirt build-up and a shorter lifespan.
32
Typical serviceability considerations include the potential for temporary de-stressing of the
membrane or inversion of the fabric surface.
2.9 Installation systems
Figure 16: Typical substructure for textile architecture using PVC coated PES
2.10 Cost Analysis

Fabric type
Typical use
Cost comparison
PTFE-coated fiberglass
Largo scale permanent

structures Class A
ASTM E-108
$75- 100 per sq. ft.
Silicone-coated fiberglass
Large scale permanent

structures Class A
ASTM E-108
$75- 100 per sq. ft.
Vinyl-coated polyester
Temporary and permanent

structures
$50 -76 per sq. ft.
Woven PTFE
(More pliable than standard

PTFE) Retractable roofs,
structures
$85- 125 per sq. ft.
33
ETFE
High transparency (97%) Atria.

Indoor parks, biospheres,
skylight applications
$100 125 per sq. ft.
HDPE (High Density

PolyethyIene)
Shade structures/systems
$25-50 per sq. ft.
Laminates
Tents, awnings & canopies
$36-50 per sq. ft.
2.11 Maintainability Aspects

2.11.1 Material pollution:
The addition of anti-adhesive PVDF (Polyvinyl di-fluoride) coatings has meant that material
staining has been considerably reduced over the past 10 years, compared to the standard
materials (still available) with only an acrylic coating. One major advantage of the PVDF
coating is the considerable increase in cleaning intervals.
2.11.2 Cleaning:
Depending on the specific characteristics of the coating, the material is more or less dirt
resistant and the cleaning intervals vary according to the appearance required.
2.11.3 Maintenance:
The material is maintenance-free. However, inspections are still recommended in order to
find defects (for example damage caused by mechanical impacts of sharp objects) and to
identify and repair such damages as early as possible. It is also recommended that the
perimeter clamping system and the primary structure be regularly inspected. The inspections
should normally be carried out annually. However, the specific intervals need to be assessed
on a project-by-project basis.
2.11.4 Environmental compatibility:

The recycling of PVC based products is well established, and efficient. The PVC can be
separated from the polyester base cloth and re-used for many useful products. The clamp
details (mainly aluminium clamp plates) can be easily separated from the membrane and can
be 100% recycled.
2.12 Commercial Catalogues/ Brochures
34
FERRARI Stamisol F 381
HighTEX PVC coated PES
2.13 Case Study

2.13.1 COPENHAGEN CONCERT CENTRE [DR KONCERTHUSET (DRK)]
2.13.1.1 Project Data

Location
: Copenhagen, Denmark
Architect
: Jean Nouvel
Opened on
: January 2009
Area
: 26,000 sq. m
Height
: 45 metres
Client
: Denmark Radio
Architect
: Ateliers Jean Nouvel
Exterior (steel) framing: Bladt Industries A/S

Fabric assemblies
: Seijlmager A/S
Assembly installation : August Olsen Eftf. A/S; Bladt Industries A/S

Fabric
: Stamisol FT381, Ice blue from Serge Ferrari

(Stamisol Colour absent)
Material
: PVC coated polyester open fabric
35
Figure 17: Section showing the layers of the Stamisol system
2.13.1.2 Description
It encloses a series of volumes that include the main 1,800-seat concert hall and three
smaller, more flexible performance spaces. It is the home of the Danish National Symphony
Orchestra.
From the exterior, the cube-like DR Koncerthuset (DRK) is a compelling structure that
changes under the light of day and night.
Most notable is its cobalt blue skin, A STAMISOL FT 381 FABRIC BY SERGE FERRARI.
Named Ice Blue, the fabric has been stretched over a structure of steel beams, tension cables
and a glass facade and functions as a translucent veil revealing the armature and spaces
within.
36
Figure 18: Copenhagen Concert Centre at night displaying the cobalt blue PVC coated
PES mesh facade
A quality of mystery infuses the building, which has been lauded for its intimate performance
spaces. By day, the outlines of the interior performance hall and studios, and people moving
about on different levels can be seen through the blue skin. By night, the deep blue textile
faade serves as a giant screen for projected video montages. The faades are diaphanous
filters permitting views of the city, the canal and neighbouring architecture, states Nouvel.
At night these faades become screens for projecting images.
Nouvels design strategy was to create a dialogue with the unremarkable site and its bold
design and the Ferrari fabrics unique qualities allowed it to do so. It evokes a sense of
restrained drama as the translucent blue textile merges the buildings interior and exterior
worlds. By day, passers-by can visually access the interior spaces, albeit opaquely, and by
night local residents and visitors become an audience for the projected video montages.
The strong, durable blue skin imparts the DRK with a sense of lightness and luminosity. To
create the skin, 16,000 m2 of the fabric were stretched over panels measuring 5m by 15m to
15m by 15m. The membrane is fully recyclable and comes with a warranty of 10 years.
37
2.13.2 BMW MOTORSHOW IAA FRANKFURT

Location
: Frankfurt, Germany
Architect
: Jean Nouvel
Opened on
: 1995
Area of fabric
: 5,200 m
Height
: 45 metres
Client
: BMW AG, Munich, Germany
Architect
: Sobek, Rieger & Partners,
Fabric
: Hightex
Material
: PVC-coated polyester opaque fabric
2.13.2.2 Description
BMW chose a tensile tent structure to solve its exhibit difficulties. The construction at the
Frankfurt exhibition complex in Germany drove auto market BMW out of its usual hall for the
1995 IAA Cars. An open courtyard area was converted into a traffic-stopping exhibition space
through the use of a tensile tent structure. The membrane structure, which measured 97 by
57 meters, offered 4,000 m2 of display space. The textile design highlights the idea of
mobility, for the pavilion could be reassembled anywhere else at any time.
38
Figure 19: BMW motor show canopy made of PVC coated PES opaque structure fabric
as roofing
At one end, it is cut out in semi-circular form around an existing forecourt. All components
and details were standardised to facilitate quick assembly and disassembly of this temporary
structure. One condition of the brief was that the existing surface of the site was not to be
affected by subsequent construction work. The tops of foundations were, therefore, set
below the level of the paving. With the removal of a minimum number of paving stones, the
feet of the steel masts can be bolted to or removed from the foundations. About 5,200m of
PVC-coated polyester fabrics were heat-sealed together to form the tent roof. Only 1.1 mm
thick, it is made of high-strength plastic fibres and has a self-cleaning surface. The
membrane roof is supported by five raking steel lattice masts up to 22 m high and is held in
position by peripheral ropes fixed in membrane sleeves.
The ropes convey the loads from the roof to fully flexible node points, where they are in turn
transmitted to tubular columns and guy ropes. The flexible connections allow the roof skin to
change form, particularly during the assembly stage.
The facade consists of a pneumatic cushion and a system of open able glass louver, which, in
conjunction with the eye-like glass-louvered openings at the tips of the masts, provide a
39
natural means of ventilation. A tubular air cushion and intermediate panels close the gap
between the facade and the membrane roof.
2.14 Performance Specification

2.14.1 PVC (Poly Vinyl-Chloride) COATED PES (POLYESTER)
2.14.1.1 Material
Tensile Strength - Cut Strip Test Method or the Grab Test Method as outlined in ASTM D751.
Uniaxial Elongation Test - ASTM D-751 Cut Strip Test Method, or testing under a static load
can be done by ASTM D-4851.
Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Material ASTM E 84-77a
Tear Strength Test- ASTM D-751 Tongue Tear Method or ASTM D-4533 Trapezoid Tear
Method
Coating Adhesion Test- ASTM D-751 Peel Adhesion test
Seam Shear Strength Test - modification of ASTM D-751 Cut Strip Tensile test
PVC coated polyester shall be water and chemical resistant and shall have very high transit
strength to weight ratio and high modulus of elasticity, good textile processing The laminate
shall have low coefficient of thermal expansion and a high thermal conductivity and high
dielectric constants. The PVC coating shall be dimensionally stable, shall have moisture and
corrosion resistance.
2.14.1.2 Dimension Tolerance

Tolerance of + 0.10 mm in overall size of PVC coated PES
2.14.1.3 Temperature Tolerance

Tolerance of -30 to +70 degrees permissible.
2.14.1.4 Openness of fabric matrix

0 % to 30 % range permissible
40
2.14.1.5 Finish
Coating over polyester with PVC.
(1) A very thin layer of acrylic solution which is a formulation of acrylic resin and possibly other
resins such as PVC or polyurethane, dissolved in solvents is applied to the surface of the
material, with the resulting thickness of 508 to 1016m (0.5 to 1 mm) or
(2) A PVDF (poly-vinylidene fluoride) resin solution top-finish which blend PVDF resin and
acrylic resin is applied to the surface of the PVC-coated material in the same manner as
an acrylic topcoat, but it is usually applied at a thickness of 762 to 1524m (0.7 to 1.5 mm)
or
(3) Tedlar PVF film finish to the PVC coated material. The Tedlar PVF film is chemically
similar to Teflon fluoro-polymer material, and therefore is a very chemically inert and
durable material. Tedlar PVF film is available in pigmented films ranging in thickness from
0.0254 to 0.0381mm
2.14.1.6 Tests
Frequency of tests as per direction of Engineer-in-Charge & tests to be conducted as per para
2.14.1.1
2.14.1.7 Measurement and Rate

The width and length to be measured in centimetres and area to be calculated as square metre
correct up to two places of decimal. The rate includes cost of all the materials, labour scaffolding,
and fittings & fixing up to all heights etc. involved in operations described above, but excludes the
cost of paint.
41
3 MATERIAL STUDY- ETFE
Figure 20: ETFE tension layer on a facade
3.1 Introduction
ETFE is a relatively new material successfully being implemented for use in cladding. ETFE has
95% light transmission of all frequencies but does not offer the clear visibility of glass. The
first projects utilizing this extremely lightweight, almost completely transparent material were
botanical gardens, zoo buildings, swimming pools and exhibitions. ETFE is finding its place in
more traditional buildings as roofing for courtyards, atria, shopping malls, and stores. The
attraction to ETFE is the considerable savings on material required to support the cladding.
This savings translates into a more efficient building structure and a low maintenance
cladding system. An ETFE cladding system offers a flexible alternative to traditional glass
cladding which is sensitive to slight movements of the building's primary structure. ETFE,
whether used as a single-layer membrane stretched between frameworks or as pneumatically
pre-stressed cushions, has the ability to adapt to deformations of a structure.
ETFE foil roofs can be supplied as a single layer membrane supported by a cable net system
or commonly as a series of pneumatic cushions made up of between two and five layers of a
42
modified copolymer called Ethylene Tetra Flouro Ethylene (ETFE). The ETFE copolymer is
extruded into thin films (or foils) which are used to form either a single layer membrane or
multi-layer cushions supported in an aluminium perimeter extrusion which, in turn, is
supported by the main building frame.
In the case of ETFE cushions, they are kept continually pressurised by a small inflation unit
which maintains the pressure at approx. 220 Pa and gives the foil a structural stability and the
roof some insulation properties
3.2 Chemical Composition

ETFE (ethylene tetra fluoro ethylene) is a relatively new material in the building industry
gaining popularity in cladding use for modem structures.
First developed by Dr. Plunkett in 1938 at Dupont, it is one of the seven fluoro polymers
generated from the invention of PTFE (poly tetra fluoro ethylene) or the plastic more
commonly known as Teflon. Each of the fluoropolymer PTFE relatives have unique material
properties, ETFE is has the distinctive capability of being extruded. ETFE is a thermo-plastic
and can be heated and extruded through a die producing a thin film.
Fluoro polymers are a class of plastics that contain both carbon and fluorine. ETFE is a
copolymer of ethylene and tetra fluoro ethylene and is known as a "tough polymer." The
ETFE film manufactured by Dupont is Tefzel. Many other plastics manufacturers produce
ETFE under different names such as 3M's Dyneon and Nowofol's NOWOFLON.
3.3 Method of Manufacture

Unlike many synthetic plastics, ETFE is not a derivative of a petrochemical.
ETFE starts as a combination of fluorspar (CaF2), hydrogen sulfate (HSO4), and
trichloromethane (CHCl3) called chlorodifluoromethane (CHF2CL).
Chlorodi-fluoro-methane is a raw material classified as a class II substance under the
Montreal Treaty on ozone depleting substances; it does not contribute to global warming.
No Class I materials or ozone depleting substances are used in the manufacturing process of
ETFE. The chlorodi-fluoro-methane is then manufactured into tetra fluoro ethylene (TFE) in
the process describedThe by-products formed are calcium sulphate (CaSO4), hydrogen
43
fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). The calcium sulfate and hydrogen fluoride are
reused to produce more fluorspar which can be used again as an input into the
manufacturing process.
3.4 Manufacturing of the ETFE granulate:
Figure 21: Flow chart of the ETFE granulate production
44
3.4.1
Raw materials and monomers
Unlike many synthetic plastics, ETFE is not a derivative of a petrochemical. ETFE starts as a
combination of fluorspar (CaF2), hydrogen sulfate (HSO4), and trichloromethane (CHCl3)
called chlorodifluoromethane (CHF2CL). Chlorodifluoromethane is a raw material classified as
a class II substance under the Montreal Treaty on ozone depleting substances; it does not
contribute to global warming. No Class I materials or ozone depleting substances are used in
the manufacturing process of ETFE. The chlorodifluoromethane is then manufactured into
tetra fluoro ethylene (TFE) in the process described below. The by-products formed are
calcium sulphate (CaSO4), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). The calcium
sulphate and hydrogen fluoride are reused to produce more fluorspar which can be used
again as an input into the manufacturing process.
3.4.2
Polymerization
The process takes place at 125 degrees Celsius. The TFE is then polymerized with ethylene to
produce ETFE (25% ethylene and 75% TFE). Polymerization is a chemical reaction that
constructs a long molecular chain using small basic molecules each with a double bond. The
entire ETFE manufacturing process is water based and does not include use of any solvents
or additives. The result of the process is an ETFE powder.
3.4.3
Granulation
The next step is granulation: heating up the powder to 265-285 degrees and forming ETFE
granules. ETFE producers sell the material in granules which can be formed into many
different products including a sheet, rod, and film. The ETFE product used in the building
industry for cladding is ETFE film, also referred to as ETFE foil.
3.4.4
Refining
The degassed thermoplastic dispersion is precipitated and the resulting powder is dried.
Since the powder is difficult to process due to its low pourability, it is melt granulated before
dispatch. After this, quality control determines whether the product meets the customer
requirements. It is dispatched only after a positive result.
45
Figure22: ETFE granulate unpacked and packed
3.4.5
Extruding
The dehumidified granules are placed in an extruder then melted by the friction created by
metal screw as well as external heating: the process occurs at 250 degrees Celsius. The ETFE
is dehumidified again under a vacuum and filtered through a sieve. Lastly, the material is
pushed out through a nozzle. The ETFE film is extruded through a die at a thickness of 30200 microns.
Figure 23: ET-foils production line (1: extruder, 2: shaping, 3: casting, 4: winder, 5:
automation)
The typical width of extruded sheet of ETFE foil is 1.2-1.55 m. ETFE film can be manufactured
in three product types: transparent film, translucent film, and film printed with a graphical
design. Additionally, colored foil can be produced by adding pigments to the material during
the manufacturing process. The fabrication of ETFE is still quite specialized, most of the
manufacturers are found in Germany. ETFE manufacturers often provide the entire cladding
46
system and oversee the film production, pillow fabrication, and erection of the pillows onto
the support structure.
3.4.6
Finishing the foil cushions:
In accordance with the construction requirements, the sheets delivered with a width of 1550
mm and depending on the foil thickness approximately 200 m linear length, are cut to
length. The individual units for the cushions are tailored on a cutting plotter. At the same
time, the relevant positions of all further components to be assembled, for example valves,
are drawn in. Then, the individual sheets are welded into larger surfaces (surface welding)
and the valves are installed. Two or more layers of the welded foil units are laid exactly one
on top of the other and are fixed by means of a manual welding tools. Subsequently, in the
border area of the cushions, the keder are welded and the cushions are thereby closed (edge
welding). The tailoring is thus completed and the large cushion can be packed for dispatch:
the large cushion is folded into a sheet with approximately 30 cm width and 2.5 m length,
and wrapped in a polyethylene protective film. Together with three to six other cushions, the
foil package is prepared for dispatch in a wooden box. The remaining components for the
overall project (aluminium profiles, keder, seal and screws) are sorted and packed for
dispatch.
3.4.7
Types of ETFE structure
47
3.5 Characteristic Properties

ETFE polymer films are replacing textile fabrics more and more often. They are not textiles
but plastic foils and so commonly used that the material deserves to be studied along the
coated fabrics. ETFE has high mechanical properties and a high fire resistance factor. ETFE can
be coloured and printed onto. The lifespan of ETFE is up to 25-35 years and it is an
inexpensive material.
It is often chosen for pneumatic structures, greenhouses, swimming pool buildings etc.. Its
maximum spans are smaller than those of PVC coated polyester and it is not used in large
span load bearing structures.
3.5.1
Material Strength
Based on 250 micron ETFE Foil
ETFE film is an extremely flexible plastic membrane that can support high short term loading.
ETFE foil experiences large deflections under extreme loading conditions. The tear
48
propagation strength of ETFE film is 180 N/mm. The breaking strength of ETFE is 50 N/mm2.
However, the fracture strength of ETFE is less valuable than the yield strength. ETFE cushions
are not designed for failure in the plastic rang because of the large deformations of up to
800% at fracture strength. The yield point for ETFE film is 21 N/mm2 or 23 N/mm2.[17] The
yield strength is a function of temperature, loading rate, load history, and stress state. ETFE is
very ductile material and demonstrates good failure behaviour: the large deformations
before breaking point visually indicate yielding and future failure.
3.5.2
Weight
ETFE Foil cushions are extremely light weight weighing only 2 - 3.5 kg/m.
3.5.3
Cushion Size
ETFE foil cushions can be manufactured to any size and to fit any shape. Size is limited by the
wind and snow loading allowed for within the design and by the orientation of the cushions
i.e. whether they are installed horizontally or vertically.
As a general design guideline, rectangular cushions can span up to 3.5m in one direction and
as long as required in the other direction. For triangular cushions, the size can be greater
than this. If design dictates that larger cushions are required, these can be created by
reinforcing the internal and external layers of the cushion by cable restraints.
3.5.4
Insulation
While a single ply ETFE membrane has an approximate U value of 5.6 w/m
three layer cushion can achieve a U value of 1.96 w/m
K, a standard
K a better insulation value than
triple glazing when used horizontally (glazing manufacturers figures are for vertical glazing
which considerably enhances the figures). The insulative qualities of ETFE cushions can also
be improved by the addition of more layers of foil (up to five in total) or by treating the foil
with specialist coatings to enhance the thermal properties.
3.5.5
Transparency and Translucency
ETFE Foil is naturally a very transparent material and transmits light across the entire visible
light region (380- 780nm). A single layer of medium weight ETFE has an approximate 85%
light transmission, although multiple layers will lead to a small reduction. Transmission across
the ultraviolet range (320- 380nm) is also very good (approx 83-88%) and therefore allows
49
plants and vegetation underneath to thrive. It is also important to note that the film absorbs
a large proportion of infra-red light transmitted, a quality which can be exploited to improve
buildings energy consumption
Translucency of the ETFE membrane is about 95 % within the range of 400 - 600 Nm, with
scattered light at a proportion of 12 % and direct light at a proportion of 88 %. For a threelayered module (upper layer 200m, middle layer 100m, inner layer 200m), the degree of
light transmission for vertical incidence is = 0.7. This range represents the translucency
characteristics important for life (of humans, animals and plants).
Compared to open air environment the dangerous UV-B and UV-C radiation (which causes
burning and is carcinogenic) is considerably reduced by filtration.
U-values are as follows:
(1) for one-layered membranes 5.1 W/mK
(2) for two-layered membranes 3.5 W/mK
(3) for three-layered membranes 2.0 W/mK
(4) for four-layered membranes 1.5 W/mK
Depending on test procedures these values may vary considerably.
3.5.6
Solar Control
As described above, the base material of an ETFE installation is very transparent, however, the
ETFE Foil can be treated in a number of different ways to manipulate its light transmission
properties. These include:
1. Printing: Also known as fritting, the surface of the foil is covered with a variety of
patterns to reduce solar gain while retaining translucency. By varying the percentage
of coverage and density of the ink, the energy transmission can be altered.
Alternatively, the foil can be over printed with a number of treatments to affect
transmission. A range of over 20 standard fritting patterns is available in the market
to achieve this variety of light transmissions, however, bespoke patterns are available
at an extra cost.
50
2. Tinting: A selection of coloured foils are also available, although less readily than the
standard clear foil. Coloured foils can be used alongside clear foil to incorporate
branding and large scale imagery. White ETFE foil can be used to reduce glare but
maintain some light transmission and insulation properties.
3. Surface treatments: Surface treatments undertaken during the manufacturing process
can vary the properties of the fabric and allow us to manipulate light transmission.
These treatments render the foil matt in appearance and therefore provide an excellent
projection surface for light shows and images.
4. Radiation: The foil be conditioned with a range of radiation treatments which can
reduce the levels of IR and UV rays transmitting through the membrane skin. Adding
additional layers of ETFE foil to a cushion also allows light transmission and solar gain
to be controlled. Multi-layer cushions can be constructed to incorporate movable
layers and intelligent (offset) printing. By alternatively pressurising individual
chambers within the cushion, maximum shading or reduced shading as and when
required is achievable. Essentially this means that it is possible to create a building
skin which is reactive to the environment through changes in climate.
3.5.7
G Value
The G value of an installation reflects the fraction of solar energy transmittance through
glazing. This is usually expressed as a percentage or a value between 0 & 1; the higher the
number, the more energy is being transmitted through the glazing and the more the building
will heat up. The G value of an ETFE roof can be reduced to as little as 0.48 for a 2 layer
system with a fritted top surface and to around 0.35 by using a 3 layer system. For
comparison, standard glass is approx 0.88 whereas some specially treated glass may be as
low as 0.46.
It must be noted that the G value of any ETFE installation is very dependent on aspect and
location and should be calculated on a project by project basis taking these elements into
account.
3.5.8
Life Expectancy
ETFE Foil has an excellent life expectancy as it is unaffected by UV light, atmospheric

pollution and other forms of environmental weathering. While no ETFE structures have been
51
in place for long enough to gain a true understanding of the life cycle of the foil, the material
has been extensively researched and tested in a laboratory environment and out in the field.
These tests have concluded that no degradation or loss of strength has occurred and there is
no sign that the material will become brittle or discolour over time. As a result, it is
anticipated that the material has a life expectancy in excess of 50 years.
3.5.9
Fire
ETFE Foil as a material has low flammability (270C) and is considered self-extinguishing. In
the event of a fire, hot smoke will cause the foil to soften, fail and then shrink away from the
fire source to create natural ventilation. The quantity of material used in the roof is not
important in this situation the foil will not create molten drips or any fumes. ETFE foil has
been comprehensively tested. This is a selection of the fire results:
DIN 4102 Class B1
EN 13501-1 Class B-s1,d0
NFP 92-505 M2
NFPA 701 Pass
In some cases, it is not possible to guarantee that smoke will reach the ETFE at a temperature
which will cause the cushions to fail, therefore, it is worth considering the installation of
automatic actuators in order to ventilate the space of smoke. It has a working temperature
range of 89 K to 423 K (-185 C to 150 C or -300 F to 300 F)
3.5.10 Acoustics
ETFE foil cushions are a relatively transparent form of roofing which means that there are
minimal acoustic benefits in its natural state. Rain noise can be suppressed using a rain
attenuation layer added to the top surface of the cushions. This acts as a dampener, stopping
the sound reverberating around the space below. In general, the installation of a rain
attenuation layer is only necessary in exceptional circumstances. This can be retro-fitted to
the ETFE foil cushion system and therefore is recommended that rain noise is assessed prior
to making a decision to install.
52
3.5.11 Environmental
The raw material associated with ETFE is a class II substance admitted under the Montral
treaty. Unlike its class I counterparts it causes minimal damage to the ozone layer, as is the
case for all materials used in the manufacturing process. The production of ETFE involves the
transformation of the monomer TFE in to the polymer ETFE using polymerisation; no solvents
are used in this water based procedure. The material is then extruded to varying thicknesses
depending on application; a process which uses minimal energy. Fabrication of the foil
involves welding large sheets of the ETFE; this is relatively quick and again a low energy
consumer.
ETFE can be recycled with ease, but due to its properties (does not degrade under UV light,
sunlight, weather, pollution) it has a very long life which is estimated between 50-100 years,
making the need for recycling small. Excess material from the cushion manufacturing process
can be recycled effectively by all ETFE suppliers. The aluminium frames do require a high
level of energy for production, but they also have a long life and are readily recycled when
they reach their end of life.
ETFE cushion systems offer both good insulation and translucency, due to the fact they trap a
layer of air and can be adapted using dot matrix coatings to change the solar transmission.
The cleaning and maintenance of ETFE is also small, the majority of the time water will wash
off any dirt, and this is due to the smoothness and anti-adhesive properties of the material. If
cleaning is needed then only light PH neutral detergents are used making the environmental
impact minimal.
3.6 Applications
ETFE foil systems are mainly utilized for transparent roofs and facades in architecturally
challenging buildings. The transmittance of ultra-violet light also makes them ideal for
private and public swimming pools as well as in zoological and botanical gardens. The light
transmission can be intelligently controlled by printing patterns onto the foils or by adding
pigments to colour the foils. The combination of several layers of foil, staggered printing and
pneumatic controls allow shading to be adjusted in a selective manner.
53
3.7 Advantages
Compared to glass, ETFE:
1. Transmits more light
2. Insulates better
3. Costs 24% to 70% less to install
4. Is only 1/100 the weight of glass. The systems low weight (particularly advantageous
for refurbishment projects)
ETFE is often called a miracle construction material because:
1. ETFE is strong enough to bear 400 times its own weight
2. ETFE can be stretched to three times its length without loss of elasticity- Flexible 3D
shaping
3. ETFE can be repaired by welding patches over tears
4. ETFE has a non-stick surface that resists dirt
5. ETFE is expected to last as long as 50 years
6. Can be used in single and multi-layers which can produce desired spatial acoustics
with short reverberation times
7. ETFE cushions will not break or fall from the extrusion frames if damaged
8. Wider spans result in a larger transparent/translucent spaces
9. Deformation is not an issue and therefore ideally suited for cable structures
10. Large range of colouring and graphic printing available
11. Lower cleaning costs
12. Light weight supporting structure options possible
3.8 Limitations
ETFE does have disadvantages, however.
1. ETFE has poor acoustic insulation transmits more sound than glass, and can be too
noisy for some places
2. ETFE is usually applied in several layers that must be inflated and require steady air
pressure
3. It can be punctured by excessive bird pecking and sharp edges
54
4. Working with ETFE is too complex for small residential projects

5. Maintenance of the inflation units is challenging.
3.9 Handling, Installation and Storage

3.9.1
Fragility
ETFE foil cushion systems are certified as class C non fragile roof assembly in accordance with
ACR (M) 001:200 test for fragility of roofing assemblies. Class C is the lowest class of nonfragile assembly and, particularly if engineered to pass the test criteria, may be close to the
boundary between fragile and non-fragile. Its classification and use therefore requires the
following to be taken into account:
a) Normal industry-recommended best practice is that Class 'C' assemblies should never
intentionally be walked upon and appropriate temporary access equipment, such as crawling
boards, etc., should always be used. Note: Accidental damage to such assemblies might
render the classification void.
b) A Class C assembly must be treated like any other safety critical item, e.g., a safety net.
Therefore, any adverse occurrence that could affect its fitness for purpose should trigger an
inspection. If an assembly has been subjected to an impact load (such as a trip or stumble), it
can be treated as a fragile area and identified and protected accordingly, until it has been
replaced and the adjoining fitted panels inspected by a competent person and replaced if
necessary. Procedures to ensure this happens must be in place.
c) The workforce must be aware of these limitations, as required by Regulations 3 and 8 of
the Managing Health and Safety at Work Regulations [MHSWR].
d) Any person falling on a class C assembly may make it fragile for subsequent loads. While
persons may be capable of self-recovery from a fall or stumble, where they are unable to, the
additional weight of a rescuer may cause the assembly to fail. And, because all non-fragility
classifications depend on the fixings of assemblies, any adjoining assemblies may also have
become fragile. In such situations the incident panel and all adjoining panels must be treated
as fragile. This is a foreseeable risk of selecting Class C assemblies. Therefore, where class C
assemblies are being used, rescue plans must be developed in advance of work starting.
55
Again, in accordance with Reg. 5 and 8 of the MHSWR, the workforce needs to be aware of
the Rescue Procedures.
3.9.2
Inflation Units
ETFE cushion systems are continually inflated by air handling units from which air pipes run
to each individual cushion. As the cushions only need to maintain pressure and not generate
air flow, the energy consumption used by these units is minimal. An entire roof is generally
powered by a single air handling unit which contains 2 fans powered by electric motors. For
large installations there is sometimes a need for additional air handling units to be installed.
The fans run alternately to maintain pressure within the cushions, with only one fan running
at any given time. In the event of a cushion failure, adverse weather conditions or a drop in
cushion pressure, both fans will run simultaneously to maintain a steady pressure.
If required the inflation units are also fitted with dehumidifiers to dry the air being fed into
the cushions. A typical air inflation unit measures 1.2m x 1.2m x 0.9m and is located near to
the ETFE cushion system, internally or externally. The system requires a dedicated and secure
power supply consisting of two 240V 13 amp electrical connections as the ETFE foil roof is a
live system the cushions are permanently linked to the air inflation unit to ensure the
pressure is maintained.
3.9.3
Power Failure
In the unlikely case of a power failure, the ETFE cushion system will maintain pressure for
between 3 and 6 hours before deflating (dependant on weather conditions). This is due to
the non-return values built into the air inflation units. After this time, there is a possibility
that, as pressure drops, the roof will become damaged. As a result it is recommended that
there is either a standby generator or alternatively a cable bracing system installed to
support the cushions should this situation arise.
3.9.4
Safety/Explosion & Other Risk
As a flexible material, ETFE Foil can take very high loadings for a short period of time which
makes it an ideal material for use in locations where there is a risk of explosion. If vandalism
is a threat, ETFE foil is also an advantage as the cushions will not break or fall from the
extrusion frames if damaged.
56
3.9.4.1 Birds
The most common threat of tearing or damage is from birds; excessive bird pecking can
cause small punctures in the ETFE cushions. In general this poses no threat to the stability of
the cushion as a whole as our system is supplied with built in active monitoring which will
automatically adjust to compensate for the slight drop in pressure.
3.9.5
Repair and Replacement
One of the outstanding characteristics of EFTE foil is its exceptional tear resistance, lack of
notch weakness and stress crack concentration. Any cuts and scratches initially propagate but
the material rapidly stretches and rounds out into a tough low radius area that dissipates the
loads and prevents further tearing.
Minor repairs to the foil, such as a puncture hole, can be carried out in situ and within a
relatively short timescale by using an adhesive ETFE foil patch. Fritted material would be used
to match existing fritted foil in order that repairs do not affect the aesthetics of the structure.
If an ETFE Foil cushion becomes more significantly damaged, an individual cushion can be
easily removed and replaced with minimal disruption to the installation as a whole. The
outside surface of the ETFE cushion can be accessed by technicians, using rope access
techniques, from the main structural steel support.
3.9.6
Transportation
The weight and size of the EFTE has added benefits making it much more energy efficient
than materials with the same desired architectural effect. For example, transportation of the
material is much easier as it can be rolled, taking up less space, hence the need for less
conveyance.
3.9.7
Framing
The ETFE foil pillows are normally installed with aluminum clips and supported by a steel,
timber, or cable grid net. Extruded aluminum framing is fastened to the primary structure
and clamps the pillows in place. The joint between the pillows and the aluminum framing
includes beading (EPDM gaskets) for waterproofing the connection. The aluminum framing is
57
attached to the primary structure by plates and bolts. Special care must be taken with
placement of the bolts hole so that screws do not pierce the pillows.
3.9.8
Typical Section of an ETFE Cushion
Figure 24: Typical ETFE section
3.10 Cost Analysis

Faade Fabric types
Cost per square feet
Teflon coated fiberglass (PTFE)
$75-125
Other non-combustibles
$85-150
Ethylene Tetra fluoroethylene film (ETFE
$100-150
Vinyl coated polyester (PVC/PVDF)
$50-75
High density polyethylene (HDPE)
$25-50
Laminates and Interior Fabrics
$35-50
3.11 Maintainability Aspects

3.11.1 Rainwater & Drainage
All ETFE structures are designed with curvature to ensure that rainwater does not pond or
collate on the top of the membrane as this leads to deformation of the foil. Rainwater will be
channelled to the perimeter of the roof where it can be collected in the main gutter system.
58
3.11.2 Cleaning
ETFE membrane is self-cleaning due to its chemical composition, and will therefore retain its
high translucency throughout its life. Any accumulated dirt is washed off by normal rain if the
shape and the connection details are designed correctly. In climates where rainfall is minimal,
or if special cleaning is required, cleaning is carried out using ecologically green detergents.
3.11.3 Maintenance
The material is maintenance-free. However, inspections are still recommended in order to
find defects (for example damage caused by mechanical impacts of sharp objects) and to
identify and repair such damage as early as possible. It is also recommended that the
perimeter clamping system and the primary structure be regularly inspected. The inspections
should normally be carried out annually. However, the specific intervals need to be assessed
on a project-by-project basis. They can be carried out in conjunction with the cleaning, if the
client requests this.
3.12 Commercial Catalogues/ Brochures

There are many manufacturers of ETFE foil cushion systems, most of the companies are in
Germany. Vector Special Projects, Vector Foiltec, and Skyspan each have developed their own
cushion cladding system. The first application of an ETFE cushion system was in the
Netherlands for a building at the Burgers Zoo in Arnheim in 1982. Since then, Vector Foiltec
has manufactured ETFE cladding systems for three more buildings at the zoo. ETFE foil
cushions have experienced the most popularity for cladding use in UK and Germany
59
3.13 Case Study

3.13.1 GLASS CUBE - NATIONAL AQUATICS CENTRE BEIJING
"The Water Cube is largest ETFE structure in the world."

Location
: China, Beijing
Architect
: CSCEC & DESIGN, Arup Pty. Ltd, Peddle Thorp Walker Architects
Contractor
: China State Construction Engineering Corporation (CSCEC),
Size
: 100.000 m
Date
: 2007
Fabric
: Vector Foiltec
Material
: ETFE
Figure 25: ETFE installation on the Beijing Water Cube
60
It comprises over 100,000sqm of ETFE foils making this the single largest ETFE structure in
the world to date. The Water Cube is essentially a structure made from an organic network of
steel tubular members and clad with translucent ETFE pillows. The huge complex is
177x177x31m.
The cube is comprised of a series of steel tubes welded to round steel nodes, which vary
according to the loads placed upon them. There is therefore a huge variety in sizes, with
around 22000 steel members and 12000 nodes in total. There are 4,000 bubbles making up
the Water Cube, with some as large as 7.5m wide. The roof comprises seven bubbles and the
walls 16 bubbles, which are repeated throughout.
Figure 26: Conceptual drawing of ETFE skin of Water Cube

Comprising a steel space frame, it is the largest ETFE clad structure in the world with over
100,000 m of ETFE pillows that are only 0.2 mm (1/125 of an inch) in total thickness. The
ETFE cladding allows more light and heat penetration than traditional glass, resulting in a
30% decrease in energy costs.
The outer wall is based on the WeairePhelan structure, a structure devised from the natural
pattern of bubbles in soap lather. In the true Weaire-Phelan structure the edge of each cell is
curved in order to maintain 109.5 degree angles at each vertex (satisfying Plateau's rules),
but of course as a structural support system each beam was required to be straight so as to
better resist axial compression. The complex WeairePhelan pattern was developed by slicing
61
through bubbles in soap foam, resulting in more irregular, organic patterns than foam bubble
structures proposed earlier by the scientist Kelvin. Using the WeairePhelan geometry, the
Water Cube's exterior cladding is made of 4,000 ETFE bubbles, some as large as 9.14 metres
(30.0 ft) across, with seven different sizes for the roof and 15 for the walls.
Figure 27: ETFE skin from the swimming pool inside of the Aquatics Centre
3.13.1.2 Design details

There are two parts to the Water Cube's structural framework internal and external. The
external structure forms the actual roof, ceiling and walls and comprises a flat web of
rectangular boxed sections. These sections are then clad with the inflatable material
transparent "teflon" material known as ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE).
The internal steel frame is based on the unique geometry of biological cells or soap bubbles.
Ove Arup and PTW based this "soap bubbles" structural concept on a solution from two Irish
professors of physics at Trinity College, Dublin, known as the Weaire-Phelan structure,
whereby a recurring pattern of polyhedrons is packed together to occupy a three
dimensional space in the most efficient way possible.
Over 22,000 stainless steel members form the sides of these "bubbles", which are welded at
the joints to more than 12,000 spherical steel nodes. The benefit of this frame design, as well
62
as resembling water bubbles, is that it is ideally suited to the seismic conditions found in
Beijing.
One of the challenges encountered by the designers was convincing Chinese authorities of
the value of ETFE. There were a lot of myths about the use of ETFE, regarding the material
growing mould and being ineffective in muting external noise, which had to be dispelled.
PTW managing director John Bilmon and his team put the claims to bed by conducting
extensive tests and making some adjustments to the material that would reduce the acoustic
impact of outside noise. The material was also shown to be superior in terms of lighting and
thermal efficiency, and will protect the internal steel members from exposure to the harsh
chlorinated aquatic environment preventing their corrosion.
The use of ETFE will help the building last for about 100 years. The transmission of light and
strength of the ETFE membrane deteriorates far less than other materials. The membrane is
resistant to fire and severe heat, and possesses ductility and crushing resistance. It is selfcleaning in nature as the friction coefficient of the material prevents the dust from forming a
layer on the material and rain can easily clear away the dust.
The venue's design as an enclosed swimming gymnasium could have led to high humidity.
This was addressed by taking a new approach to the air conditioning system. A stringent
temperature and humidity control system, and a recycled hot water system were
incorporated into the design. These help to air-condition the public area and the swimming
pool. Indoor and outdoor air recycling systems, solar energy systems and deck ventilation
systems maintain a comfortable climate and humidity of 50%-60% in the venue.
The designers also had to prevent dewdrop from the ceiling, which could affect the
swimmers in the pool or divers on the springboard. The ETFE and air conditioning systems
have partially helped to prevent dew dropping. Moreover, the building's air supply, return
inlets and exhaust outlets improve the ventilation in the upper spaces of the building.
3.13.1.3 Environmental considerations

The ETFE cladding lets in solar heat, reducing energy costs by up to 30%. The design of the
Water Cube allows 140,000t of recycled water to be saved a year.
63
The space between the air-pillow walls has been completely sealed off creating a layer of
insulation. During summer, a 1m-high vent regulates the indoor temperature of the building
through heat exchange by drawing out the inside warm air and letting in the outside cool air.
The vent is sealed off during winter maintaining the warm temperature inside the venue.
3.13.2 ALLIANZ ARENA, MUNICH, GERMANY

Location
Munich, Germany
Opened
30 May 2005
Owner
Allianz Arena Mnchen Stadion GmbH
Operator
Allianz Arena Mnchen Stadion GmbH
Architect
Herzog & de Meuron
Structural engineer
Ove Arup & Partners
Capacity
66,000 (2005)
69,901 (20062012)
71,137 (2012) (League Matches)
67,812 (International Matches)
Figure 28: ETFE skin back lit with colour changing LED lights on the Allianz Arena
64
The football stadium in Munich, Germany is shared by two football clubs: FC Bayern and TSV
1860. Construction began in fall of 2002, the stadium is a curved shell designed by Swiss
architects Herzog & de Meuron. The roof is a double layered ETFE membrane pairing white
translucent and transparent foil layers. The stadium will highlight the ETFE fagade by
projecting colors on it during the night. The fagade of the shell is composed of printed foil
cushions that will be illuminated with different team colors at night.
Figure 29: ETFE skin on installation during construction of the Allianz Arena
There are 2,816 cushions that span up to 2 m by 4.25 m and are composed of foil layers of
0.22 mm thickness. The ETFE film pillows cover an approximately area of 65,000 m2. The ETFE
roof cushions are designed for snowfall up to 1.6m. The cushions are all unique rhomboid
shapes, the same cushion shape only occurs twice in the structure.
65
This variety of shapes and sizes would be difficult to achieve with traditional glazing but is
easily accomplished with ETFE cushions. The roof and some parts of the arena's facade are
transparent and the remaining portion of the cladding is composed of translucent white ETFE
film. The Allianz Arena cladding system also features opening panels to provide the stadium
with natural ventilation.
3.14 Performance Specification

3.14.1 ETFE (Ethylene Tetra Fluoro Ethylene)
3.14.1.1 General Description

Tefzel ETFE a fluorocarbon-based polymer. ETFE is an abbreviation for the chemical name
Ethylene TetrafluoroEthylene. and the Tefzel brand of ETFE manufactured only by DuPont.
This material is to provide with both corrosion resistance and mechanical strength over a
wide temperature range.
3.14.1.2 General Properties

Tefzel ETFE of high purity, excellent chemical resistance, good permeability resistance, and
excellent abrasion resistance over a temperature range of -300F to +300F (-185C to
+150C). Tefzel ETFE in sheet, rod and film forms. Or a fabric-backed sheet for construction
of dual laminate vessels or the lining of existing chemical vessels.
3.14.1.3 Material Properties:

Test
Tensile Strength
Tensile Stress at 10% strain
Tensile Strain at Break
Tear Resistance
Opacity
Unit
M Pa
M Pa
%
N/mm
%
Value
50
21
600
500
7.5
Test Method
DIN EN ISO 527-1
DIN EN ISO 527-1
DIN EN ISO 527-1
DIN 53 363
DIN 53 363
Tensile strength > 50 N/mm, Elongation at break > 350% according to DIN EN ISO 527-1,
Tearing resistance > 400 N/mm according to DIN 53363, Cold temperature resistance of 160C, High light transmission including UV radiation, UV stable and ageing/weathering
resistant, Anti-adhesive smooth surface (self-cleaning), Resistant to hail according to SlA V280
66
and EN 13583, Youngs Modulus of approximately 700 N/mm, Fire class B1, non-burning drip
from 250C, Suitable for welding
3.14.1.4 Tests
Frequency of tests as per direction of Engineer-in-Charge & tests should be as per 3.14..1.3
3.14.1.5 Measurement and Rate

The width and length to be measured in centimetres and area to be calculated as square
metre correct up to two places of decimal. The rate includes cost of all the materials, labour
scaffolding, and fittings & fixing up to all heights etc. involved in operations described above,
but excludes the cost of paint.
4 References
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
http://fabricarchitecturemag.com/articles/0512_f2_copenhagen_concert.html
http://fabricarchitecturemag.com/articles/0700_id_part1.html
http://fabricarchitecturemag.com/articles/0900_id_part2.html
Robinson-Gayle, S., Kolokotroni, M., Cripps, A., & Tanno, S., 2001. "ETFE foil cushions
in roofs and atria." Construction and Building Materials. Vol.15, Feb., pp.3 2 3 -32 7.
(5) Moritz, K. & Barthel, R. 2004. Building with ETFE sheeting. (In Kaltenbach, F. (ed.)
Translucent Materials: Glass Plastic Metals. Munich: Architecktur-Dokumentation
GmbH & Co.KG, pp.70-78.)

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Textiles & Fabrics in

Brief History of Textiles in Building Construction ................................................................... 7

Technical Textiles .................................................................................................................. 11

Making of Textiles and Fabrics .............................................................................................. 12

Woven Structures and Weaving ................................................................................... 13

Knitted Structures and Knitting..................................................................................... 13

Nonwoven Structures and Nonwovens ........................................................................ 14

Fabric Finishing, Coating and Lamination ..................................................................... 15

Types of Fabric Faade Materials.......................................................................................... 16

MATERIAL STUDY- PVC coated PES ............................................................................................... 18

Chemical Composition .......................................................................................................... 19

Method of Manufacture ....................................................................................................... 19

Performance Properties ................................................................................................ 23

Testing and Acceptance Criteria ........................................................................................... 24

Ultraviolet Light and Weathering Resistance ............................................................... 24

Fungus and Mildew Resistance ..................................................................................... 25

Performance Properties for Architectural Fabrics ........................................................ 26

Cost Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 32

Material pollution: ........................................................................................................ 33

AISWARYA SREEKUMAR - BEM/547, DEPT OF BEM, SPA-D | 15-03-2013

Textiles & Fabrics in Facades

Commercial Catalogues/ Brochures ..................................................................................... 33

Case Study ............................................................................................................................. 34

COPENHAGEN CONCERT CENTRE [DR KONCERTHUSET (DRK)] .................................... 34

BMW MOTORSHOW IAA FRANKFURT .......................................................................... 37

Performance Specification .................................................................................................... 39

PVC (Poly Vinyl-Chloride) COATED PES (POLYESTER).................................................... 39

MATERIAL STUDY- ETFE ................................................................................................................ 41

Chemical Composition .......................................................................................................... 42

Method of Manufacture ....................................................................................................... 42

Manufacturing of the ETFE granulate: .................................................................................. 43

Raw materials and monomers ...................................................................................... 44

Finishing the foil cushions: ............................................................................................ 46

Types of ETFE structure................................................................................................. 46

Material Strength .......................................................................................................... 47

Cushion Size .................................................................................................................. 48

Transparency and Translucency.................................................................................... 48

Solar Control ................................................................................................................. 49

TEXTILES & FABRICS IN FACADES | NEW BUILDING MATERIALS & SPECIFICATIONS

Handling, Installation and Storage ........................................................................................ 54

Power Failure ................................................................................................................ 55

Safety/Explosion & Other Risk ...................................................................................... 55

Repair and Replacement ............................................................................................... 56

Typical Section of an ETFE Cushion ............................................................................... 57

Cost Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 57

Rainwater & Drainage ................................................................................................... 57

Commercial Catalogues/ Brochures ..................................................................................... 58

Case Study ............................................................................................................................. 59

GLASS CUBE - NATIONAL AQUATICS CENTRE BEIJING .................................................. 59

ALLIANZ ARENA, MUNICH, GERMANY .......................................................................... 63

Performance Specification .................................................................................................... 65

ETFE (Ethylene Tetra Fluoro Ethylene).......................................................................... 65

AISWARYA SREEKUMAR - BEM/547, DEPT OF BEM, SPA-D | 15-03-2013

Textiles & Fabrics in Facades

TEXTILES & FABRICS IN FACADES | NEW BUILDING MATERIALS & SPECIFICATIONS

AISWARYA SREEKUMAR - BEM/547, DEPT OF BEM, SPA-D | 15-03-2013

Textiles & Fabrics in Facades

Figure 1: Example of primordial tent construction using animal skin

Figure 2: American Indian Tepee

Figure 3: The Bedouin Tent

TEXTILES & FABRICS IN FACADES | NEW BUILDING MATERIALS & SPECIFICATIONS

Figure 4: The Mongolian Yurt

Figure 4a: Velaria over Roman Colloseum