Professional Documents
Culture Documents
THREE-PHASE
SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINES
11.1 Introduction
It was shown in an earlier chapter that an alternator
driven at a constant speed produces an alternating voltage
at a fixed frequency dependent on the number of poles in
the machine. A machine designed to be connected to the
supply and run at synchronous speed is referred to as a
synchronous machine. The description applies to both
11.2 Alternators
11.2.1 Stator
The stator of the three-phase synchronous machine
consists of a slotted laminated core into which the stator
winding is fitted. The stator winding consists of three
separate windings physically displaced from each other by
120 E. Each phase winding has a number of coils
connected in series to form a definite number of magnetic
poles. A four-pole machine, for example, has four groups
of coils per phase or four "pole-phase groups". The ends
of the three phase windings are connected in either star or
delta to the external circuit.
Details of phase windings for a three-phase machine
were shown in Chapter l 0 to consist of three identical
windings symmetrically distributed around the stator.
11.2.2 Rotor
The alternator rotor can be of two types-low speed and
high speed.
209
210
High speed
Turbine prime movers, whether steam or gas,
efficiently at speeds in the vicinity of 3000 r / n
alternator driven by a turbine and producing a fn
of 50 Hz at 3000 r /min must consist of only two
In Chapter 6 the relationship between
frequency and the number of poles was shown tc
~
~
By transposition
120/
n=--
where n = r/min
f = frequency in hertz
p = number of poles
For a large-diameter rotor of twenty-four
50 Hz
n =
120
50
24
= 250 r/min
n =
120
x
2
50
= 3000 r/min
(b)
Fig. 11.2 Main types of alternator rotors: (a) low speed-salient pole, (b) high speed-cylindrical
211
Example 11.1
At what speed would the governor of a twelve-pole dieseldriven alternator have to be set to enable a frequency of
60 Hz to be generated?
n = 120{
p
120 x 60
= 600 r/min
12
An alternator in this speed range will have a large
diameter and have a comparatively short axial length.
With turbines, the extra expense and auxiliary machinery
needed restricts their use to larger sizes. Higher outputs
mean that the length of the alternator must be increased
and the increase in length causes complications in cooling.
11.2.4 Alternator cooling
Low speed
With engine-driven or hydroelectric alternators, there is
no great difficulty in providing adequate ventilation
because of the characteristically large diameter and short
axial length. In addition to the large surface area available
for direct radiation of heat, there is a fanning action due to
the rotation of the fields; an action which can be increased
by the addition of fan blades if necessary.
When the axial length is short, the heat developed in
the imbedded windings is quickly conducted to the ends,
where the fanning action can dissipate it. As the machine
size becomes larger, it is often necessary to provide
ventilation ducts within the core to provide paths through
which cooling air can flow.
High speed
The provision of adequate cooling facilities is a problem in
high-speed machines of large capacity if the operating
temperature of the windings is to be kept within safe
limits. The surface area available for cooling in a highspeed machine is less than that in a low-speed machine of
the same capacity.
1----------------1
Exciter
Alternator
, - - - - - - - - - --1
I
I
I
I
I
Exciter
field
Stator
windings
Brush
gear
and
slip
rings
Rotor
field
I
I
L ___________ J
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
_________________ J
212
the armature. The exciter output is fed into the field where V, = generated voltage per phase (r.m.s.)
windings of the synchronous machine. By adjusting the
IP = flux per pole in webers
rheostat in the exciter field circuit, the strength of the
f = frequency in hertz
magnetic field in the rotor can be varied.
N = number of turns per phase
kd = a constant, dependent on winding di
With very large alternators the d.c. excitation
requirements are substantial. This means that the d.c.
ti on
kp = a constant, dependent on coil pitch
generators have to be large also; so large that they may not
be able to self-excite. Because of this, the generator may
need an exciter of its own-one that is able to self-excite Example 11.2
and provide power for the field of the main d.c. generator Calculate the line voltage of a 50 Hz star-cor
which in turn supplies the rotor field of the alternator.
alternator given the following details:
Some alternators use "brushless" excitation in which
IP = 0.67 Wb/pole
the exciter armature has been replaced by a three-phase
Kd
= 0.85
winding which rotates within the influence of a d.c.
KP
= 0.98
magnetic field, causing a three-phase voltage to be
N = 36 turns/phase
generated in the exciter. This three-phase exciter output is
fed through a full-wave bridge rectifier, mounted on the
V, = 4.44 IPJN KdKp
end of the exciter and converted to d.c.
= 4.44 x 0.67 x 50 x 36 x 0.85
The resulting d.c. is in turn fed into the rotor windings
= 4460 v
of the synchronous machine. By varying the current
through the exciter field, the rotor field is varied and so
Then V, = yJ x Vp
governs the value of the generated voltage (see Fig. 11.4).
= I. 732 x 4460
= 7725 v
11.2.6 Generated voltage
The value of the generated a.c. voltage depends on the 11.2. 7 Effect of load on alternator voltage
strength of the rotor flux and the speed at which it cuts the An alternator can be considered to consist c
windings. Because the speed must be constant (and is components in series:
linked to the frequency required), the sole remaining I. an a.c. generating source;
factor determining the value of the generated voltage is the 2. a resistor-representing iron and copper losse~
strength of the rotor flux.
3. an inductor-representing the inductance
For an alternator the generated voltage is found from:
windings and magnetic leakage.
Any load placed on the alternator must be assum
v, = 4.44 IPJNkdkp I
in series with these components as shown in Fjgu
Three-phase bridge
rectifier
Three-phase exciter
windings
+
Rotor
Stator
field
windings
Exciter
field
1.
Rotating components
.1
Fig. 11.4 Brushless excitation
213
,---- l
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Alternator
Load
I
I
L
L_
__ J
an
armature
v,_
IZ
: IX
v.
IR
100 ] %
Example 11.3
A three-phase star-connected alternator has an output
v,
IZ_./.:
_.IX
-E---.--7 .:
JR
Leading power
Output
voltage
rE=::::::::==:::~~;~-=~;
factor
Unity power
factor
Lagging power
factor
Load current
Fig. 11.7 Effect of power factor on output voltage of an
alternator
214
x 0.6
= 90 kW
:. I=
VJ VIA.
;j3
x 415 x Ix 0.8
V3
120000
= 208 A
x 415 x 0.8
~
Purchase price
The overall cost for smaller units may be lower,
terms of cost per kVA they are more expensb
operate at lower efficiencies. As the size of tt
increases, the cost per kV A reduces while the op1
efficiency increases.
Type of prime mover
The economy of the prime mover in terms of effi
has a bearing on its selection. This in turn is affec
the type of service it will encounter. For exarr
steam turbine has a good economy throughout its
load range. However, it is expensive, large, and n
long time to get the unit on load from cold. An i1
combustion engine has poor efficiency at light load,
much cheaper to buy initially. For some loads it is c
to buy several smaller alternators than one larg'
Problems of paralleling the units then have
considered (see sect. 11.4). The cost and availab
fuel must always be a consideration. While disti
more expensive initially, as is the diesel engine its1
fuel cost per hour is less while maintenance costs
higher than those for a petrol engine. The petrol er
cheaper to buy, the fuel is readily available, and the
suited to smaller units used purely for portable
supplies on intermittent duties. In the long term th(
engine runs better on full loads than the petrol engir
petrol engine is more tolerant of dirty fuel than th<
engine and does not need specialised skil
maintenance purposes.
Starting methods
These are governed by the intended use of the geni
unit. The quicker the changeover to auxiliary pm
more expensive is the starting method. The ct
method involves merely starting the unit manually
is realised that the main power supply has failed. f
Fig. 11.8 A
215
216
d.c.
Alternator on load
,--
Synchronising
lamps
Incoming
alternator
d.c.
--~\\-'---------+~._-----Three-phase
distributions
1111
1111
217
Synchronising
lamps
,--1
Incoming
alternator
d.c.
Fig. 11.11 "Two bright, one dark" lamp method for synchronising alternators
218
d.c.
d.c.
Incoming
alternator
Alternator on load
Synchroscope
1!11
in mechanical oscillations. With turbines, the pulsing or polarity: one field is that of the rotating stator a
hunting is usually due to fluctuations in the governor other that of the rotor.
219
Rotor
\.
~
I
(a) No load
(b) Loaded
Fig. 11.14 Relative positions of stator and rotor magnetic fields in a synchronous motor
v,
(a) No load
220
Voltage control
Low-speed drives
A synchronous motor has good efficiency and
speeds its higher initial cost is adequately compens
the comparatively lower running cost. At low spe1
induction motor has a decreasing efficiency, wl
synchronous motor retains its high efficiency.
,,
-+-----:,
',,
'
'-
'
V
/Dampe
rQ .. o
IT:. I
--s
loo o
--
--11 1
221
surging effect.
Often the shorting-out bars are extended around the Induction motor starting
rotor. resulting in a squirrel cage-type rotor winding A reduced line voltage is applied to the stator windings
about the salient poles. While damping any tendency of and the d.c. winding on the rotor is short-circuited. With
the rotor to hunt, they can also assist the motor in starting. the aid of the amortisseur winding, the complete machine
behaves as an induction motor as it accelerates up to a
11.6. 7 Starting methods for synchronous motors speed slightly below synchronism. At an appropriate time
the short is removed from the rotor winding. d.c. is
Auxiliary motors
applied
and the full line voltage applied to the stator
Some synch'ronous motors are equipped with a special
winding.
Because the speed is only slightly less than
motor designed for use during the starting period only.
synchronous
speed, the rotor field is able to lock in with
The auxiliary motor runs the synchronous motor up to
the
stator
field
and accelerate to synchronism.
speed, at which stage it is first synchronised and then
Exercises
11.1
11.6
11. 7
11.8
CHAPTER12
THREE-PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR!
12.1 Introduction
The majority of a.c. motors used in industry are of the
induction type. They are rugged and have a high degree of
reliability. A three-phase induction n1otor consists of a
laminated stator with three identical windings placed
symmetrically in slots within it. The rotor is also
laminated, and usually has single-turn conductors placed
within its slots and short-circuited at the ends. To achieve
special characteristics, conventional windings are sometimes used instead. The motor derives its name from the
fact that the currents flowing in the rotor are induced and
not drawn directly from the supply.
12.2 Construction
12.2.1 Stator
The laminated stator core is made up from sheet steel
punchings with slots on the inner surface. The windings
consist of three identical windings, laid out in the same
fashion as the alternator and synchronous motor. In
motors of higher power ratings the stator slots are of the
open type to allow the insertion of pre-shaped and
insulated coils, but in smaller sizes the slots are partially
closed to reduce the air gap as much as possible.
222
223
II \I II
II \I II
Fig. 12.2 Squirrel-cage rotor for an induction motor
POPE ELECTRIC MOTORS
111111
111111
111111
12.2.3 Rotor
Squirrel-cage rotor
The rotor of a three-phase motor consists of a shaft with
bearings, laminated iron core, and rotor conductors. The
most common type of construction is that with rotor bars
in the lamination slots rather than a winding. The rotor
bars, short-circuited at each end by a solid ring, are often
made of copper strip welded to copper rings, but for small
Wound rotor
The wound rotor is fitted with insulated windings, similar
to the stator winding and having the same number of
Three-phase
supply
Stator
Rotor
Slip rings
Rheostat
224
..-
s,
.. 7
..I
I
..
I
I
I
\
\,.. ,;::
/
/
ccr
....
... ....
..
...
'
Assun1ption
le
---.
I ..
240
120~
I
I
\ .
... \
'
2
.....
5
225
<l>c
........ . .
- - , - , - --~- <l>R
,/
...
.......... <t>
B
Flg.12.7 The resultant flux produced by currents flowing at position 1 in Figure 12.6
Figure 12.6
Figure 12.6
226
~c,
Example 12.1
120{
ns111 = - " .
p
...... ow
I
I
L _ - - - - - -------0 B
(a) RWB sequence
...
B,
' '
\Ow
\
...
:\
where
nsyn =
..................................../ bs
.f = frequency in Hz
p = number of poles
1O
12
600
500
Synchronous
speed (r/min)
12.4.1 Torque
Figure 12.11 (a) represents a part of the stator an
of an induction motor with the stator flux rot2
clockwise direction as indicated. When these line
cut the rotor conductors from left to right, the
movement between the stator flux and the re
ductor is from right to left. By applying Flemin
hand rule (sect. 6.1. l) the direction of inducec
flow in the conductor is towards the reader. D
comparatively high rotor currents flowing, a Jar
established around the conductor as sho\vn i
12.1 l(b). The stator and rotor fluxes react withe;
as shown in Figure 12.11 (c) to form a resultant f
resultant field tends to straighten itself out, a1
227
LJ
Rotor conductor
Thrust
Rotor flux
'
n,,. =
120{
p
slip speed
120 x 50
= 1500r/min
4
1500 - 1440 = 60 r/min
1 ~~
1500
percentage slip
=
4%
44
0x
100
s% =
where s%
nsyn - n
nsyn
x 100
= percentage slip
= synchronous speed
n = rotor speed
nsyn
~
~
where fr = rotor frequency in Hz
s = slip percentage
f = supply frequency in Hz
228
Rotor
frequency
/Rotor
stationary
0
Slip
100/o
Example 12.3
s =
nsyn -
n x 100
nSJ'll
3000 - 2850
3000
x 100
f,,
= 5%
s.[
=TOO
5 x 50
= loO = 2.5
Hz
Breakdown
torque
Current ( 0/11)
Torque(%)
Locked
)._1or torque
Rated
speed
Rated torque
100
Rated current
100
n
(a) Current/speed curve
fl syn
n
{b) Torque/speed curve
n,
229
300
300
Torque
%
200
Torque
%
100
Rated torque
-------------
200
r---Rated torque
100
Oc__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~-l-
Speed
Speed
n~yn
300
Rated
speed
200
Torque
%
100
Rated torque
o~------------e~
Speed
nsyn
300
Torque
200
100
_____
Rated
------.,speed
Rated torque
--------------
o~----------'+Speed
nsyn
230
d
Rated speed
r'
...
Aated_!_o~~
100
a
___ _
231
L, 0-----j
L'D-----1
Lau-----1
Fig. 12.22 Basic power circuit for primary resistance motor
starting
Power output
i.e.
232
10 A
30 A
10 Ai
Start (star-connected)
Run (delta-c
v, x r,
Example 12.4
,,
,,
V1 =
415 v
Vi
70/o of V1
0
Fig. 12.24 Starting connections with a three-phase, star-connected autotransformer
233
:. J,
V2l2
v 415
z =I=
160 =
2.59 !1 (D.0.L.)
= !Z
= 78.4 x 2.59
=203.lV
For the same input current for both methods (78.4 A),
the relative torque values would be:
D.O.L.
415)'
( ill x 100 = !00%
autotransformer
( 2!~55 )' x
primary resistance
203
( 415 1 )' x 100 = 24"'
70
100 = 49%
That is, for the same input current the autotransformer starter enables the motor to develop twice as
much starting torque as the primary resistance method.
With three autotransformers used as in Figure I 2.24 it
is usual, when changing over to full voltage, to opencircuit the star-point and momentarily supply the motor
through part of the transformer windings in series. These
parts of the windings are then shorted out, effectively
taking them out of the circuit. This method is called the
Korndorfer method of starting. Autotransformers are
more often used in the open-delta circuit where only two
windings are used as in Figure 12.26. It is a cheaper
method and while the circuit is unbalanced during the
starting sequence, it is balanced as soon as the motor is in
the running connection.
Solid state
Starters with this type of construction are initially
expensive, but generally incorporate some form of
operator-adjustable starting current control. In addition,
many systems incorporate a variable frequency generator
for speed control. Most models work on a principle of
converting the alternating current to direct current and
then generating voltages and frequencies to suit. See also
sections 12.9.2 and 17.9.2.
0-----,'
L2
0----;
Lo
o------',
Fig. 12.27 Basic power circuit for secondary resistance
motor starting
234
Fuses
A fuse is designed to become an open circuit once a certain
L,
L,
La
Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers, on the other hand, can be designed to
operate with only small overloads and steps may have to
be taken to slow the action down and enable motors to be
started. Some circuit breakers operate on a magnetic
attraction principle, others on a thermal element; most
operate with both magnetic and thermal elements.
Contactors
Both fuses and circuit breakers are designed to protect
electrical circuits against excessive currents, but serve no
useful purpose in the event of power failures. As a means
of protection contactors are used. When a power failure
or low-voltage situation occurs the contactor drops out,
so switching the equipment off until power is restored. As
an added protection against faulty starting sequences,
most motor starters are automatic once the initial
pushbutton operation has been made.
The following examples show pushbutton-operated
circuits for each of the five means of starting three-phase
induction motors. The circuits are shown with fuse
protection and thermal overload current protection as
possibly the most common protection methods encountered. Individual manufacturers have their own
preferences for starter circuits and these may vary in detail
from one firm to another and from one model to another.
K1.1
K1.2
K1.3
Oil-
Power circuit
Control ci.
L,
L,
La
Circuit operation
1. Pressing the start button completes a circuit from L 3
through the normally closed stop button to coil KI,
and the overload to L2
2. Main contactor coil Kl then closes and applies full
line voltage directly to the motor via contactor
contacts Kl.I, Kl.2 and Kl.3.
3. Contact Kl.4 bridges out the start button contacts so
that, on the release of the start button, the contactor
remains in the operational state-Le. the control circuit
is latched in the "on" position. Pressing the stop button
disables the latching circuit and allows the main
contactor to revert to the "off" state.
K1.1
Circuit operation
1. Pressing the start button completes a circuit from L 3
Power circuit
Control ci1
235
mined delay and completes the circuit for coil K2. Its
operation causes contacts K2. l, K2.2 and K2.3 to
close and allow full line voltage to be applied to the
motor.
Circuit operation
I. Pressing the start button completes a circuit from L3
L,
L,
K3.1
K3.2
K3.3
1<1.4
K4.1
~
K3.4
K2/5
K2.5
K3.5
K3/5
Control circuit
Fig. 12.30 Con/actor circuit for star-delta starting
236
Circuit operation
1. Pressing the start button completes a circuit from L3
Circuit operation
l. Pressing the start button completes a circui1
L,
L,
La
I
I
K1 .1
K1.2
K1.3
K3.1
IE
I
IE
I
K32
K1.4
K2.3
~
Power circuit
I
I
I
I
I
I
Control circuit
237
L,
L,
L,
K1.4
K2.1
K1/4
Power circuit
K3.1
K4/2
Control circuit
238
Starting
Stator
method
voltage at
Starting
current
start
Direct-on-
line voltage
/o/FL)
Starting
torque
{O/o TFL}
700/o
No. of
starting
steps
Current surge
during
transition
stages
n.a.
150o/o
line
Types of
Example loads
Genera
comme
loads
suited
light ine~ia
loads
centrifugal
fans
poor sta
torque
motorgenerator
starting
pumps; lathes
starting
greate1
load to
Primary
reduced
resistance
300o/o
40o/o
2+
no
almost no
Star-delta
200/o
33o/o
yes
load
light loads
reduced
units
Autotrans-
300o/o
reduced
80o/o
yes
substantial hydraulic
proportion pumps;
of full load conveyors
former
1 OOo/o
1 OOo/o
2+
no
resistance
shears
Note: The figures quoted in this table must be considered as a general
113 full I
torque
starting
slightly
than fu
torque
rotor ref
adjuste
start (T
~uide
L,
L,
T= F.r
L,
L,
Example 12.5
A motor exerts a force of 360 newtons at the rim of a
pulley with a diameter of 0.5 metre. Calculate the torque
developed by the motor.
T= F.r
= 360 x .Q2 = 90 Nm
2
L,
L,
239
= .I_
nsyn =
90
- 0.15
= 600N
When considering the mechanical output of the
induction motor, it is necessary to determine the power
produced.
power
distance
distance moved
power
for 1 second
60
(wheren = r/min)
= force x distance
2rrrn
2rrn
=FX(;0=6QXFr
But torque ( 7) = Fr
60
where n is in r/min.
Example 12.7
A 415 V, three-phase, 50 Hz, four-pole induction motor
has a full-load speed of 1440 r/min. Calculate the power
produced by the motor if it develops a torque of 100 Nm.
p = 2rr.n. T
60
2 x .,,. x 1440
60
15 079 watts
15.1 kW
That is, the speed depends on both the frequency and the
nu1nber of magnetic poles in the machine.
The synchronous speed is that of the rotating
magnetic field, while the actual speed must always be less
than this by the amount of slip necessary to allow the
motor to develop the required amount of torque. To
change the speed of an induction motor by an appreciable
amount, other than by loading it to alter the slip speed,
either the frequency of the supply or the number of poles
in the windings must be changed. Under normal circumstances the speed of the induction motor must then be
considered as fixed. If any application requires that the
2rrnT
P =--watts
i.e.
120(
better results, but the costs are still so high that the direct
current machine becomes competitive even after allowing
x 100
Example 12.8
P;. = VJVIA.
_ output
T/ - input
= 15 079 x IOO
VJVIA.
15 079 x 100
= ,jj x 415 x 31 x 0.86
= 78.7%
240
..
. IJ
Fig. 12.34 A two-stage secondary resistance starter. The
direct-on-line contactor is at the top, while the
lower contactor short-circuits the rotor resistors
when operated by the timer.
Dynamic braking
In this method the motor converts its energy o
into electrical energy. For a three-phase inductic
241
Plug braking
L,
L,
L,
I
I
I
t-----+---+-r-.,
r;;\
~
l1> y ,
K2.1-2.3
Power circuit
j
-
I
IE
I
II~K2.4
K1/5
K2/4
K3/1
~-____.
Control circuit
242
-8
A,
A
A
I
I
Reversed
phase
s,
(a)
(b)
L,
~----
0 - - - - - - - , '1
-~----
....
L,0-----~
\
\
\
\
I
L20-X_]
'\
______
L2 o-x---~
......
_________
----
JL2 0---1--fY--VYl
-,I
JL,()----------J
L, ( _ } - - - - - - - - - '
----------/
/
(a)
(c)
(b)
a three-phase
motor
243
VJ
Exercises
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
Problems
12.13 Determine the percentage slip for the
following three-phase, 50 Hz motors:
(a) four-pole, 1420 r/min;
(b) six-pole, 960 r/min;
(c) eight-pole, 720 r/min.
12.14 A 15 kW, three-phase, 415 V, 50 Hz, four-pole
induction motor draws 190 A when started
D.O.L. in delta. Determine the starting
current using:
(a) the star-delta method;
(b) the autotransformer method (60% tapping).
12.15 At full load the efficiency of the motor in
problem 12.14 is 83%, the power factor is 0.84
and the slip is 4%. Determine:
(a) the torque developed;
(b) the current drawn.
12.16 Calculate the full-load torque of each of the
following motors:
(a) 7.5 kW, 1440 r/min;