Part! ) Foundations of global 2 Ww r politics We cannot always build the future for our youth but we cun build our ‘youth for the furure. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT, 32ND PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES ‘The three chapters that comprise Part {ofthis book outline important fundamen tals for the study of contemporary global politics. They take a pragmatic approach, highlighting the complexies of the subject and recognizing the contributions of historians and modern theorists. They show the need for a question-driven ap ‘proach By stressing the significance of history and theory fo an understanding of how our dsordered world works. Chapter 1 discuses thre significant topes that profoundly influence the pat- terns of world polities today: the perpetusl quest for security, the march of global aloeard ie ere elo sere a see eee hey Rein oe “stand the continuities and changes in global polit. (Chapter 2 shows thatthe study of global polities requires an understanding of history thats not limited to Europe and North America. I traces the rise and fll of the world's extended empires and great powers from the earliest recorded history to the end ofthe Cold War. For many centuries It was not clear whether Asia, Europe, or the Middle East would dominate the world, The rise ofthe moder state and the wed the industrial revolution tipped the scale in favor ex The chapter traces the historical puters — ‘ofinteracton ofthe world's great powers overtime, concluding with the six areas ‘that dominate global pots today: the United States, China, Japan Ina, Ru ‘andthe European Union, In Pat Il we focus on these great powers today and ask ‘whether the balance of power i about to shift again. (Chapter 3 highlights broad set of ideas and universal themes about global polities that provide analytical frameworks forthe study. It discusses how to ap- ‘roach the subject through levels of analysis and methods an then outlines the bestcknown and most useful theories that help make sense of our word - realism, Ueralsm, political economy (Marxism and public choice, social constructivism, Feminism, and eral approaches, These theories help guide cur enquiry through out the book and enable us to understand events and behavior in global politics‘The world faces many threats to human security and prosperity in the 21st century. Many of them are from people; others are products of the eco nomic and physical environment. Recently, the US. Commission on the Prevention of Weapons of Mass Destruction Proliferation and Terrorism produced a slim, powerful volume on future world risks." It concluded that we know the threats we Face, we know that our margin of safety is shrinking, and we also know what must be done to counter the risks. With similar concern, the Sectetary-General of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon, declared that rising temperatures due to climate change would “increase pressure on water, food, and land; reverse years of ‘development gains; exacerbate poverty; destabilize fragile states; and topple governments."> This book describes and explains the factors behind these and other global isues and invites. readers to consider whether the conclusions and warnings ofthe U.S. president's advisors and the leader ofthe world organization were well founded. It challenges readers to study, understand, and evaluate power and responsibility in global politis. The most serious threats today include the proli= eration of weapons of mass destruction, worldwide terrorist networks, the tenuous end to the wars in Afghanistan and lag, armed coniiet in the Middle ast and North and Central Africa, world financial * Bob Graham tal, The Word at Rik The Report of he Com lina the Prevention a Weapons of Mass Desai, Piifertion and Temes (New Yor: Random House, 2008) 2 Quoted in The New Yorker October 5, 200, 9.23 crise, global climate change, global reliance on ofl, slobal poverty, global infectious diseases, and the rising power of hostile actors on the wold stage. ‘These and other issues are o shouldbe, of deep concer to everyon in all pars of our evermore connected worl Global polities is a dynamic, messy, constantly celving phenomenon. Ic 4 stimulating, Inspi ing, even transformational field of study. Buti is also ambiguous and puzzling. Students engage with ‘lobal polities constantly ~ when fiends or family member join the miltary; when foreign teror- ists attack major cities like New York, Washing ton, London, Madrid, or Mumbais and when they travel abroad and have trouble obtaining lean ‘water, health care, proper sanitation, and personal security ‘A student can easly relate to the three following hypothetical scenarios, the first of which takes place in Spain: arian undergrads are wandsieg tough the goes and anteaters ofthe Alhambra Place in Granada, They ‘gan the inet ceo deaating the cling othe Hal of ilomats Hing been deprived of albu US ston. they ce aly amazed when hele guide tls hem that he same year the parish Queen ent Christopher Clunbus to fd the erica in 1492 she also expelled the Musi fom Spal fing tem back to Aca and he Mile at yng the base forthe geerapia dian betwee Cistans nd Masi hat we experience indy Later that day the students lean rom the intemal Hera bun hatte Une states and isles have ack Baghdad, ag a ty ina lending Msi coat, in response tothe 31 eros aac onthe United States.GT ‘The second scenario takes place in Eastern Europe: A Canadian students enoying a cofee a a Starbucks in Pol, Georgia. She and her two frends ae surprised that the bre is exactly the same asthe one they dink in their home owns of Vancouver Las Angeles and NewYork, Why is Starbucks always the sam, they wonder Wher did they get the cofee? How oi it get here? AS they contemplate these ‘questions ofpltical economy aether event consumes thelr attention. The telvision, tuned to CN in London, announces ‘that Rusia has ust attacked Georgia, not fa rom where ‘they a in Pol. They orb ther cell phones in anticipation of sending texts and picts of tanks and soir o their friend and parents back home. Only yesterday atthe same Cale tey had listened to results ofa gis sim meet at the ‘lypics in Bejing. Pethaps tomorrow there would be news aboutthe winter Olympis in Vancouver or about genocide in Darl Sudan ‘The third scenario takes place in lan Iranian students are sipping tea outside Teheran Univer- sity. Tey glance up atthe television to see Leon Panetta, former divector ofthe dreaded CI, describing how no in bad been taken of the actual ling of Osama bin Laden by US. special forces. “These damned Americans.” they fuse, “wito do they think they rel” Then, they turn to complaining about the lack of civil betes in thle ‘nm county and the dictatorial President Ahmadinejad before resu discussions about how ‘he only ay weapons ‘Traveling, like education, can be humbling. How do the students interpre these snippets of world ‘news? Daily, they receive disjointed images of Violence, pain, death, and chaos, along with more hopeful stories and information that provide con- tinuity and meaning to their life experiences. They Form strong perspectives about what can be done ‘about the problems of world conflict and violence. IF more than one side to each story, but ately, a¥ the udents quickly Find out, the ‘wedi rarely provide context forthe news they re= por. As the old adage goes, ia plane takes off and Ta, its not news 1 i rashes, I is. Wit crashes Iuecause a terrorist bomb was aboard it is headline But connection is difficult even wit news, Buti it accurate bad news, ori it exagger- ated and distorted? ‘The dally news slitle more than a series cf, videoclips 30 slowed down that we et to view ony Its a5 (Fevents are not con- nected through history and society. We never get to sce the complete story, just fragments ~ or, Inthe ‘cases described previously, disjointed events. In de- rmocracies, we continually hope that the media will lead discussions of public afar, but they rarely do, ts superficiality is ilustated by the vulgar- ity and sensationalism ofits output. We are fed a steady diet of scandals secrets, outrages, confit ‘quarrels ex, celebrities, and gossip. The media is Jess concerned with what i in the publi intrest than with what interests the publict In A Passage to Indi, the great English novelist. EM, Forster advises us to “connect, only. coanect.” ir pereplions are di empathy, helplessness, love of county ~ and yet_ ‘our knowledge base is often too slim to meaning fully integrate evens fom foreign counts. In rece year, the inemational news has been domi- nated by such fsues 28 terorfam and civil wars in the Middle East, genocide and poverty in Central ‘Africa, earthquakes in South America and Asa, a lobal economic depression, and the possibilty of tan obtaining niclear weapons. These issues are constantly changing, and new ones are considered jst as vital. To understand them, compreherd how they are shaping the global agenda, and asses how polleymakers are approaching them, students need 2 background understanding of global pls. IF students want to help end hatred alleviate poverty, reduce the likeliood of war, and prevent glabal environmental degradation, they need to understand the factors underlying world ssues and how actors inthe international environment apposch them. In the chapters. ofthis book, we.cover the founda: tions ofthe discipline of international rations _7 a. ‘rom a global perspective. We attempt to provide a degree of unity toa dsorinized, somewhat shape- less body of information bout world polite. The ‘nota is» complicated, iterated, and violent place andthe media generally do litle to clarify the patterns and make th connections that trans information into knowledge. It is difficult, maybe impossible, to comprehend, let alone judge, the blurt, bits, and bytes of current news as the broad bush of global polities covers a massive amount of snatral in which fact competes with opinion. ‘Azat from specific toes in the news, there are_ many lage, emerging isses and challenees in our—_ ‘hanging world Is the power ofthe United States Aiminishing? Is its hegemony on the dectine? I the obalization of trade and finance a force for good or bad? Can ibe baled? Is the process weaker sovereign states? Is [increasing the power of societal, international, and transnational actors? ‘What are the sources of and solutions to intera- sional terorsm? What are the causes and conse _-quences of global economic inequality? Why is ‘here an Arab Awakening in much of North Alfica and the Middle East? Jtis hard tobe an informed citizen and not study slobal politics. Close Up 1.1 considers some practi- «al easons for wanting to do so. Close Up 1.1. Why study global politics? Global polities provides a broad understanding of the world that makes éne a more informed and discriminating member of society. In Going so i opens a vast numberof career op ‘tions. A few studenis wil become so fast nated withthe subject that they will choose to stay in the field, teaching in «schoo, college, or university where they can continue to do research and explore with thelr students the vital issues of our disordered world The var- ‘ous levels of government also employ millions ‘of people, and employment postibliis span tranches dealing with a wide range of Inter national issues and social concer. Poltians also require the services of consultants and other ales ‘Many other professions deal with domestic and foreign governments ona regular basis and they to, require people who understand _how goveraments work. They need people with the politcal knowledge, exploratory skis, and ‘methods of analysis that come from studying slbal polis. Many graduates wil Lerefore find tha thee courses have given them an ex- tremely useful background for careers in fields suchas jouralism, law, busines, government, Interest groups, political atvism, social work, and nongovernmental organization (NGO) ‘Miministraion. Even those who do nat wish to specialize fn global polities wil find that traning in this field provides a useful background for many other career choices ~ sometimes directly fol lowing a BA, sometimes later. Itcan bea step ping stone to law school, journalism school, or some other specialty But perhaps most importantly, global pois provides an under standing of how the wold work, and that & a necessary ingredient for informed citizenship. } Global politics ‘Tounderstand global politics, students need to get beyond Cold War paradigms about how to concep- tualize about the world, They also need to study slobal politics less in terms of their own country’s Incerests and more in terms of the global concerns of others. They need to widen their horizons beyond their comfortable, familiar environment, and relate to the wider world in which they find themselves. For most people around the world, the immedi ate issues are not nuclear warfare or internationalterrorism but rather those that involve meeting loasic humatt needs such as safe drinking water, the climination of hunger and malnutrition, and the lack of fuel. Students need to experience the workd in all ts complexity - to challenge the idea that the ‘world can be understood from a single viewpoint. A distinguishing characteristic of new studies of ‘lobal politics is the concern to expand beyond the US.- oF Euro-ceniric view of the world to include the concerns ofall seven billion people who share this globe. Globalization, security, and the global system International relations has traditionally been studied as the relations among states, while global politics has been defined as the basic patterns of intemational beliefs and behavior that help define ‘and condition states and other actors. The chapters of ‘hs book examine the themes of global politics and ilastrate them with important contemporary events. ‘They contextualize the past to iluminate the present, siraightforwardly presenting the historical and theo- retical perspectives required to fully understand the ‘contemporary world, They discuss the bracing effets that globalization and the search for security have on tlobal affairs, including how to manage the differ- fences that are emerging because of the new global configurations of power and responsibilities. he domestic politics of individual states are not independent of the relations amon; incerdependent, global politics wields a growing influence on the domestic decision making of politi- cal leaders. No country, however powerful, i totally sf-suffcient or independent because the actions ‘of each state have repercussions for the others. A ‘reat many issues today are intermest they are simultaneously domestica tonal ‘or global. Some pundits even use the coined wor that i, local, meaning global and local a the same tine, to characterize this realty. ‘The global system refers (othe broad network of relations among sates andthe activities of thelr = ins an Ronse stan lathe word pat {ems the behavior of states and nongovernmental actors, Te foreign policy of counties, onthe other hands marower. lt eps stat or gover ‘and military relations among states. For- “cn policy is atthe forefront ofthe study of global politics, but understanding foreign poliy requires tne to look beyond his a her own state borders to consider the word a whol. I necessitates think ing and caring about global politic as well as one's personal cultural, economic, technological, and, increasingly, ecological interests In othes words, comprehend foreign policy and global police its necessary to Snterpret the changing worl. In order to provide @ map for examining the word, tis book introduces students (othe of and sew ecuryIsses and dilemmas that characterize ie contemporary word. The old security fsues refer basically to sate secur and how states ‘maintain thee vitality in the world. The new seau~ sity fssues and dilemmas ae about how both states “nd socetics are affected, and perhaps acted by, nonstate actors such a5 networks of terrorists and They include issues of human security that are posed by economic inequalities, iincss.and envi- imental desradation. The old concent of security is well established inthe study of international rel “Te new secur issues are nots developed and do not constitute uniform concepts or theories in the ascpine, Nevertheless, they are central fo an understanding of global pots today and vital for achieving a secure future forall of us. Pablo Picasso's avesome painting Gucrica expresses the universal horror of wae Figure 1.) “There is nothing accidental or by chance in his work. Te painting graphically describes in pin- ful deta! dhe deaths a ijaries that resulted on Apri 26,1937, when General Franco's lls in theES ‘Spanish Civil War, the German Luftwaffe and Ital- ‘an ar force, bombed the city of Guernica, kiting 1,654 civilians. It was the first major event of mod em warfare, a horrific expression of what would ‘become known as the importance of air power ~ the use of bombardment not to kill enemy soldiers but {o put pummel civilians into submission. Tis si ening new form of winning wars proved emblematic ‘of the Spanish Civil War end the brutality toward ‘noncombatants that would escalate over the rest of the 20th century to include Nazi death camps, atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the use of Agent Orange in Vietnam, and other brutal indiscriminate assaults on eivlians. Picasso's Guernica raises timeless issues of war and security. Before people can lead healthy and ust have secur. It isthe {emational organizations to provide i. Und nd of World War I, wars beween empires and / states were a common form of mass violence, but sinee then intemal o civil wars have become more customary. Since 9/17, terrorism against states and // Individuals hes joined evil war a the subject most in the news. Tertorists do not negotiate o play the democratic game of pois. Instead, they vent their anger in sueide bombings and targct civilians with Iprovised explosive devices. They have no desire for dialogue, prfering to become martyrs or eut off heads and display carcasses on the Interet, Cerainly if there is another event on the seal of 9/11, people will be taking off more than their shoes at the amport. Another factor that distinguishes traditional ternational relations courses ‘rom new. studiess.the_ concern for global issues. Proponents of new stud- ies do not wish to stray fom the conceptual and theoretical aspects ofthe standard problems, but they also want to address global problems. Isolat- ing trends and analyzing the changing nature of the disordered world has become of primary importance ‘because of urgent problems in the global economy, lobal heath, and the global environment. We ‘need to understand the world’s mutual interests and develop shared solutions to common risks. ‘At one time in ancient Greece the human condi tion was attributed to the gods, wio people believed “created the forces of history and caused societal failures and successes. As the Greeks were jealous of the various deities for their lifestyle and longevity, they created the idea of the Olympics so that man could aspire to a status somewhere between gods and humans. Those who won athletic contests were accorded divine-like characteristies, much as well- known sport figures are today. Today we attribute some progress i achieve some tying up of the threads. These are ‘unusual times: no other period is really compara- ble. And yet we still nee to try to under forces that drive the humén_con¢ of the present situation is how big events such as the 2008-09 worldwide financial meltdown affect everyone from adults in New York to children in Darfur and how small evens like the hijacking of ships by pirates off the east coast of Africa or the ‘occurrence of swine flu in Mexico disrupt lives clsewhere, The broadest term used when discussing these diverse phenomena is globalization, the integration of states and people throuzh increasing contact, communication, and trade that binds the world together. “The globalization issue haunts contemporary analysis of world politics. The widespread financial crisis of 2008-09 affected not only the abstract economy but the lives of millions of people, per- hhaps even the international order. Although pov- erty has always been with us, globalization and the recent economic meltdown have exacerbated the Inequalities of wealth inside states and around the world. Indeed, today the international systems for monitoring the global economy, health, and conflict are now so sensitive that, on occasion,Figure 1.1 Picasso's grophic painting captures the borers of in he towa of Guerica during the Spanish Civil War was a pr they provide forewarnings that are overly sensi- tive and scare people more than they help avert ‘catastrophes. Globalization and global politics ‘The idea thatthe world has become more inter- dependent is commonplace today. Indeed, Jules Verne's book Around the World in Eighty Days, 3 Inascriminate King of noncombatants fom the ae ion of wars to flow. Soure: DACS and Bridgman published in 1873, suggested thatthe world was shrinking in size. Init, Phileas Fogg circurmnavi= igted the globe with unprecedented speed to prove to his wagerers in the Reform Club that “the world In recent years, academics and ‘we see in Ck the prace:s has deep historical Toots, Pattems of trade, finance, migration, intercul= ‘ural influence, and even international systems haveee Figue 1.1 (continued) been developing and undergoing constant change from the beginniag of history. But there is something novel in today’s globali- zation. [Lis conmecting.more.people-and connect- ing ths more.clsely. Current issues concern not ‘only the existence of globalization as a process but also its rapid development and its impact on state power. This new form of globalization has both ‘ities and supparters. Some theorists believe that lobalization has taken on a life of its own ~ that it creates new institutions and problems = while ‘others, more optimistically, think that globaliza- tion is a positive force for good, creating “a world society and culture.” Many issues that in the past ‘mobilized individuals, groups, and states now pos- sess an international dimension, However, glozali= zation and the march toward one global system do ‘not mean that all states and people are affected in a similar manner. The process has, and will continue ‘to have, divergent effects ~ both good and bad ~ in different countries and also on peace and war. Despite important and sometimes biter differences10 Introduction to global politics: ‘over its normative importance, however, there is denying the extensive impact of the march of what {goes on under the loose rubric of globalization (igure 1.2). Globalization means that business, even the mel ae Becoming more closely inter ns that the world growing increa ed in terms of economics, communl- cations, and politic. Globalization has sinficantly increased the volume and velocity of just abou ‘everthing foam goods and services and people {o email, drags, weapons, and even greenhouse ‘gases and viruses, Aan 37456 can now sell thelr “wa in Europe, and Afghan terrorists can com- rmunicate easily with their North American follow crs. Everyore can have an opinion on the wars in _Mali end Sa, the use of drones, or the Kiln of ‘Osama bin Laden. Over time, ths process is having an important impact on sovereignty. Today, no country, including the United States, can be a gated community, There is a maze of facts and opinions bout globalization, but the important thing to note is that its acceleration is without precedent. Even lites, and ‘when private investment and credit slowed éur- ing the 2008-09 economic downturn, the inter national movement of public Funds continued to boom. Keeping abreast of these developmenis and their implications is imperative in the struggle to maintain social order and provide socal justice on ‘a worldwide basis. Technological advances in communications and transportation Fave reace the size of the word in ‘eal terms and revolutionized the patterns of wn between countries and individuals. They have diminated some social and political problems while_ ‘creating others. The revolutions in science and tech nology have also dramatically changed the world. Scientific knowledge more than doubled in each of. the decades following World Warland the pace of technological change has accelerated at a compa- rable rate since then. In shor, the consequence of this enhanced technology speeds up and augments slobalization. ‘The speed of change is best illustrated by a few examples, In 1900 the world was still dominated by colonial empires; today those empires no longer Figure 12 Huge crise ships in the ny harbor of St Kitts and Nevis state both pos and negative as ursts often outnumber ontributng tothe host ‘economy, but often because oftheir cultural== exist OF the powerful monoliths that replaced them as world powers ~ the former Soviet Union and the United States ~ one has disintegrate, leaving a relatively economically impoverished Russia. The United States stands alone as @ superpower. In 1900 the only way to circle the globe - either for travel or for communication ~ was by ship. Today, sea travel has been eclipsed by vast aviation networks. Communications systems have entered the space age, making use of fiber optics, microwaves, and satellites for instant global communication. Its hard to Imagine dally life without cars, radios, televisions, household appliances, computers, fax machines, the Internet, and other modern con veniences, all of which were only science-fiction reams in 1900. Students live ina world of easly accessible data with Wikipedia, social connections with Facebook, instant messaging with Titer, and many more possibilites. Technology has also brought new an _hiallenges to word jeace,jn 1900, ies and ‘cannons were the most dangerous weapons of wat Today there are atomic bombs, computerized fighter els, heat-seeking missiles, Chemical and biologi cal warheads, nuclear submarines, and automated weapons of every description. Pilolless Predator alreraR, used in much of the Middle East and South ‘Asia ae directed and controlled by operctors in Nevada, in the United States. They have killed Aighanis, Pakistanis, Yemeni, and Libyiens. Plans for even more sophisticated and futuristic weapons are on the drawing board. Economic and technological developments have shifed the focus of polis to some extest from the national, regional, and international levels tothe ‘lobal level. The global economy has melied all the cements of wealth creation ~ finance, investment, production, distribution, and marketing, World trade today accounts for approximately one-fifth of the gross world product (GW?), which is the total value of goods and services produced Inthe world. ‘The increasing interdependence of states through contact, communication, and trade is impinging on the domestic affairs of stats, their government, ‘and politics? The world is shrinking in the face of new electronic technologies and the extremely rapid movement of people, goods, capt, information, and ideas. Business corporations and intercorporate networts are increasingly transnational of global activites, ownessip, and Ciro, many companies are becoming “stateless” without domi- ‘nant links to any specific country. Because ofthis, & state's competitive advantage may not be identified ith ts own particular group of companies 35 much 4s it was in 1900 or earlier. Many multinational corporations even exced the economic strength of most states. Today, very few ofthe world's 133, “mestic product (GDP) than the thee largest global_ ~ Finally, another Factor promoting interdepe ence and globalization is that many noneconot ‘cross-border problems are now being {ernationally. Many world issues such as health, the environment, and human rights cannot be handled by single states alone and are increasingly being ‘treated as transnational challenges. Problems such as terorism, environmental pollution, drug traf ficking, and so on require concerted international action, As countries have become Increasingly ine inked and interdependent it has become imperative to study them in a broad international context. ‘As Table 1.1 shows, there are also criticisms ‘of the globalization phenomenon. State sover- ‘ignty stil prevails in many domestic areas but, 2s international variables impinge on the priorities ‘of governments, global forces are quickly affect- Ing how governments act in all fields. Developing countries, particularly the economically weakest, are especially vulnerable and are being undermined. Environmental degradation and health isues affect all states, Human rights that are blatantly ignored in ‘some states become the focus of attention in others. ‘The frontiers of knowledge and development - in > F.Gernt Adams, Giblsion, Tay ondTomora [nblngdn, Oso Reeds, 201)1. development of singe global markt for most dey ase products and financial services 2, buge-scale migrations and diasporas +3. globally organized media 4. sate otros ar ncrensigly soba mila Ty if state regulations and 1 3 icicle cage microprocessor 4 Soom tel ston Criticisms: | 1. uneven distibution of trade benefits ~ countries representing a small proportion of the world’s population account for most of world trade and Income preperity 2. increasing environmental degradation, demographic and health isues 3. human rights concerns weapons systens, communications, economics, and 40 on ~ are now on a global sale ‘Alon with his global togetherness there is another rendJoward smaller groupings, sometimes Called a downvard dif. Many counteles currently ‘om the map owe their existence and shape tothe collapse of larger empires - the Otoman, French, and British empires for example. Recently some of the largest states have broken ay aga, par- “ticularly becaus.of the rise of nationalism and religious fandimentaiss. Examples include the 1891 breakup ofthe Soviet Union and the 1993 collapse of Yugoslavia into several states and war- ring factions. Regional and ethnic challenges to contemporary sales exist on every continent and are growing significantly in many areas, espe- Gilly Cental Asia and North and Central Aca “This has created a growing concern for security everywhere. Security and global politics ‘During the Cold War, security was interpreted as ‘being essentially about the East-West confit, and ‘Wiestem policy was based on protecting interest without aggravating reations with the Soviet Union. The bipolar configuration ofthe Colé Wat period releted the principle that states attempt co Increase their security by enbancing their power and riltary stength and ino doing they make other states Feel less secure. As we se in Chapter 3, rele ists believe each state looks out for itself in terms. of survival and seeury, and this may frighten ‘others. Each state bs encouraged to strengthen its “Bwn military. As power cannot be shared, and is essence zero sum in nature, each state's secu is defined by, and rests o, other states insecurity. The security dilemma means that each state faces dilemma of wheter to increase is military strength and provoke the others or nat. arm and lave itself vulnerable to attack. Today, security also ncudes how states can pro- tect Tiemse ves against transnational challenges Its about how fo ad those states that are weak ail 1, and underdeveloped, because dangers generally arise not from strong states but from those that are divided and disintegrating. Almost all ofthe violent conflicts in the post-Cold War period have been intemal, not international. It was a weak state sat harbored Osama bin Laie, the mastermind ofthe 9j1 attack, nota strong one. A new security dle Terms therefore arises fom the fac that an increase iva countrys mila senth may not provide. ‘corresponding increase ints securiy. Moreover, the stronger sate becomes the more it opens itself up to increased challenges from giballation forces. The state fs under challene and although itis not obsolete and will not dsappear. ts security ean no longer be based entirely on weapons and soldiers. At minimum, strategic and miliary planning is ex- traordinarily dicut ia world with no single clear enemy and many dangers. The new security issues arse from the implications of ubiquitous insecurity ~ violent threats coming fom 8 numberof places andnonstate sources all atthe same time, The idea of a ‘new secuty dilemma to enhance the traditional several chapters, especially 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, and 16. The advent ofthe new security issues indicates that even the mest powerful counties cannot deal ‘with their problems alone. Table 1.2 outlines some characteristics ofthe “traditional” and “new" aspects of contemporary security issues. ‘The current diffu and.unsiable situation to the simultaneous existence of both traditional _Hate challenge, uch as the ones recently posed By _ nor and ihn ey “new challenge, Understan af security is crucial, The isue isnot just about UN legitimacy o US. actions. Those who argue that the United States is now so powerful that its government ts tempted to act alone in international ffs are obviously correct. Where many ers in assuming that because America possesses this power it knows how to use it wisely. Moreover, some countries that are much weaker militarily than the United States se almost equally powerful in economic and social fields. The US. margin of overall superiority fs not tunasszilabe, and American political leaders rel- fae tat, ins turbulent and violent worl, collective action wil be more effective in the long run, acy we el ea Fights, democratic government, and possession of TNE TASC HEEESSTES GT HME SESTTIY has become Tied to wide concepts of democratization ~ societies, [nce eletions, and free markets. Security is seen as a public or collective good and democratic leaders have a necessary and ethical role to vlay in ‘Seeking such goods for their peoples.* Understand “tn Loder an Nel Wate, Ctsing See [Cambie amie University Pree 2007, dentity-based interests: Statebased: tertory, borders, resources, ideological and ideational values (ations, ethnicity, religion}; global causes (uman security, child solders, climate Security dilemma, military confrontation Ubiquitous insecurity, ‘gymmetrical warfare, terror Sa Minimize collateral Violent radicalism, damage (people and revenge, sulide tenors | propery) International | “rules of war Victores and defeats. Noble struggles, fanaticism {ng the new world patter, based on human security and basic rights, requires novel concepts and theo- ries. Our discussion of global polities and interna- tional relations in this text is therefore based on an adjusted vocabulary and an approach appropriate for contemporary circumstances. ‘The advent of the new security issues indicates that even the most powerful count:y In the world ‘fansnational threats include climate change, energy security, disease and poverty, population and demo- graphic distortions, food and water safety, falling states, and organized crime and cybersecurity, to ‘mention only a few outstanding ones.“ ae ee States emain the basi unit of global politics In this book the word state refers tothe politcal unit y, Considerably less than Tper= cent ofthe world's geographic land mass remains outside the state system. n everyday language, the word “stat” synonymous with “county.” Many of today’s states were established after Word, T-when the decolonization socess was ats height In recent years the numberof sats as continued to inrease, though more slowly. In 1945. there were only 65 states; today 193 are represented in the Uni State sovereignty is an important concept that re~ fers to a number of characteristics, such as ieritory, ‘authority, and recognition, It conveys a sense of le _gitimacy, and describes and justifies the notion that states should not intervene in the intemal. affair.of other states (Chapter 4 discusses this topic in detail. In practic, formal equality among states and the “concomitant notion of autonomiy has always been Jo some extent a fiction. States rely on the concept, “of sovereignty to defend their legitimacy and role in_ the international system, but weak states have al- ‘ways been at the mercy of more powerful one. Tiey ‘have never been inviolable as their borders have always been penetrable and penetrate, The concept of statehood, however, continues to be accepted as a doctrine because it establishes formal equality for any governmental organization that achieves thereby the concept provides the necessary founda- tion for international law and order. ‘What is unique today is thatthe world’s state- dominated system is Being undermined by eres ermn lobalzation and also by enhanced concer ft_ d across slates. Stable states have ot only shared intrest but alo shared den- ‘Hes, While there are 193 stats, there are aut "Y0,000 nations or societies spread out around the and lobe. The "Sate" and “nation” and “people” do not coincide in most countries. There are many millions of overseas Chinese, Russians, Hungarians, Romani- ans, and Turks in other peoples’ countries; milions — —— States and global politics of Kurds, Palestinian, Tami, Ibs, Zulu and “Tibetans are without a state; millions of Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs are living in each other's las in ‘Ada, Many do not acknowledge as thelr nation the sts in whieh the find themselves, Such dver- siy also haunts North America and Europe; with the exception ofa very Few counties, most ofthe states of Euro have sable thle mores, nd inside many of them there are even what we would. “gal nations, thats culturally linked groupings of people (3 the atscussion of identity in Chapter 8). There a major difereace between the newly emerging states of recent years and those of cater times. The later, the colonial erstories, vere granted recognition oftheir right to sli- ‘determination Interadonal law recogatzed tir “ght SelF-determination, allowing them to escape extemal domination by a “mother country” that right have been reluctant to let them go. Today, many substate groups agitate for slf-determination ‘to and including secession. They want the right to break away from existing stats ~ the Québec separatist movement, the Basque separatist move- ‘ment, and the former Sr Lanka Tail Tigers are ‘well-known examples. Such substate groups want to emulate nations that hstriealy were forced into states by wor but then succesfully claimed the right to regan thelr Independence. Lithuania Latvia, ard Estonia wee all fored into the Soviet Union fox any years but then regained their status as independent states when the Soviet Union collapsed Especially in the poorer counties ofthe world, eth- nally diverse groups ar increasingly coming into cenilict and even collision with state authorities and diversity and diversity safe forthe world. “The post-Cold War revival of ethnicity threat ns the state system in many parts 0 the world. otalization andthe Wester policies of democra- tion and economi Teralization are exacerbat- ing pro‘lems for weak satex. Malem technolosy 4a the process of globalization are to some extent ‘evolving power away from state insituions in= some cases ths is helping to cause states col- lapse, while in others i giving rise to transna {ional or transovereiga problems af refugees, dis- ease, ethnic conflict, drug smuggling, violence, and civil war. There is also a growing belief that states should not be able to do anything they please-with— “Ghee ctizens, Former Secretary-General ofthe UN Boutros Boutros-Ghali put it starkly: “Sovereignty is no longer absolute... Sovereignty must be kept in its place." Indeed, the growing acceptance of in- {emational intervention in the affais of sovereign aes, albelt for humanitarian purposes, may have reduced the significance of statehood and sover- cignty 25 foundational concepts in international relations. ‘There are many ;uestions about the oder stale, but perhaps the mos sallent one is whe ier, [els being diminished in importance because of idobalization and new security concems. As indl- ‘Viuals we experience the importance ofthe state hen we pay our taxes and line up for security checks at airports It is by far the most powerful force in our lives, bu it certainly is changing with the times. Many new problems related to health, terrorists, and even piracy cannot be handled by individual states, but this does not sean thatthe statis now insignificant In fat, one could argue that modern forms of surveillance, data processing, and information control are actually increasing the power of individual states, Some of the strongest states inthe world are members of the European Union, where the formal surender of some aspects of sovereignty fa requirement of membership, and yet the capacity ofthe Individual states to gover their populations has in many ways been enhanced. The ide thatthe stat isin demise ‘Many of the new problems the world faces are fimeutt vo address because they are inside the pro tective shells of extant states or are transnational in nature and also because existing concepts and nme oe So institutions based on them are structured on ealer state-to-state relations and the East-West confit in general, As the worl becomes more waited - with global economics, global technology, global communication, and global weapons ~ what will nof the notion of soversign!y and isn tion ofa hard-sheled state? Sovereignty i being reduced in importance. Bellin a kind of “limited sovereignty” is developing, leading large numbers of people obelleve i is acceptable for them or for tnternauonal organtzations to ntertere in someone else's state, “The destiny ofthe world may wel be tid to an vital march toward the interdependence of peoples, nations and states, Some globalization the- “orsts even argu that individual states and govern iments have lost control over ther own polices and are being dictated toby the lobal marketplace. It is true that wile states hold on to most Runctlons in the military and security sectors, they are, o some extent, losing out to markets and nonstate organ zations in othr field. But at this time in the 2Ist century the most important polities continue 1 be within and among sovereign states, despite that fact that security and prosperity increasingly depend on international cooperation. The sat is clearly under challenge but i snot obsolete and will not disap ear There are no alteratves with which to replace I ltis adapting States are required to prove security fr their people, Security is arguably the most important pub- lie good as therein higher form of politcal organ- Jzstion tha is accountable othe public it governs. Societies may function adequately if some public {Goods are produced privately, but security is not one of thera ~ transportation or electricity may be run by private ees stats, or international bodes, but if _government does not provide security there wil be ‘one. Collective action i required at he sate level, “and security needs tobe supplied as an international Public good at the global level as well. (For detailed discussions see Chapters 13,14, 15, and 16) NeeConch —S at = Patterns of contemporary ) global politics ‘The study of global politics helps us understand howe the world works identify patterns, and make generalizations about global affairs. Good political science is ‘based on disinterested observation; It fs not nationalistic, polemical, shill harsb, or black and white I stresses the role of knowledge, doubt, and learning to rec- ognize prejudices and preconceived ideas. Debate and argumentation in political science are not mere quarrels. They are about reasoned judgment, not emotional, unsupported outbursts of opinion. In a complex and value-laden field this ean be difficult. There are no right or wrong answers to most of the questions posed, only 2 range of possibilities. It is important to help stimulate rigorous think Ing among students, create informed citizens, and produce future politicians or policymakers. As Informed citizens we need to catalyze intellectual discourse and pragmatic policy discussions on global politics, We want leaders to have a solid ‘understanding of global polities, make informed evaluations and judgments, and pethaps even be involved in public debates on the topic. ‘Students of international relations and global politics have a daunting task in the ‘arly 21st century, The world is in a novel and crucial phase of Its history. In 2013 ‘there are about seven Dillion people on earth ~ a figure that is projected to reach ‘more than eight billion by 2025. Every secondy, the world population grows by more than two human beings. Shock waves from the dramatic finale ofthe Cold War are til reverberating and political issues have been overtaken by a global economic crisis, The sudden disintegration ofthe Soviet Union and the collapse of commu- nism inthe former Soviet territory and Fastern Europe destroyed the infamous Iron Curtain and ended the rigid alignment of the world’s states into two confrontational ‘camps. The inital euphoria that followed those transitional events has evaporated ‘nd the new reality that followed has created uncertainties, problems, and opportu- nities around the world, ‘The wotld is adjusting to having the United States as the lone military super~ power and “policeman” of the world, Global polities pivots around the United States, but countries everywhere are jockeying for increased economic power and Influence on the world stage. They are also coping with economic uncertainty and global terorism, New regional, economic, and military powers are aspit- ing to shape world events. Political actors are forming new alliances to meet the economic, security, and social challenges of a new era, The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is restructuring and redefining its goals, especially with an Intervention on behalf of rebels overthrowing a dictatorship in Libya, and along ‘with a handful of like-minded states is trying to get its troops out of Afghanistan. ‘As a sign of future change, 2 relatively new organization, the Shanghal Coopera- tion Organization, links China and Russia with central Asian states in a relatively ‘weak pact.cme Moms Coocene: S In Europe, France, the United Kingdom, and a united Germany are the foremost players in the powerful European Union. In North America, Canad, the United ‘States, and Mexico are working to expand free trade throughout the Americas. In Central and South America, all countries except Cuba have embraced democracy. ‘Across Africa as well, dictators and military regimes have given way to experiments with democracy, Nearly three-quarters of sub-Saharan African countries now offer thelr clzens some form of political choice. Authoritarian governments are being, ‘overthrown in North Africa. Religion is once more becoming a powerful force for ‘change in parts of the world. In parts of North Africa, the Middle East, and Central ‘Asia Islamic extremists are gaining social and political strength. Violence and geno- ide are taking place throughout much of Central Aftica as Christian furdamentaliss: ‘march north and Muslim edherents move south. In the southern states ofthe former Soviet Union, Islamic fundamentalists are competing with Orthodox Chuistians to replace the discredited dogma of Mandsm. ‘eologies such as communism that were used to suppress ethnic and national- ist assertiveness for most of the last century are now dead or in rapid decline in almost all parts ofthe world, and demands for political rights, independence, and ‘autonomy are rising. The end of the Cold War also triggered a rise in ethnic and nationalist conflicts inside large countries, such asthe former USSR, and within ‘elatively smaller, multiethnic countries, such as Ethiopia, Nigeria, Sudan, and the former Yugoslavia. Darfur replaced Rwanda as a scene of ethnic cleansing and Zimbabwe became a one-party black state. Even when issues seem far away, thelr repercussions reverberate around the world. Refugees from Congo, Ethiopia, Hat, ‘Myanmar, Rwanda, Somalia, Syria, and Sudan are desperately searching for homes in more peaceful and secure areas. And industrialized countries are fncing it rela- tively easy to get sucked into the vortex of armed conflicts half a worlé away, ‘The number of wars fought each year remains feisty constant. Intemational wars have decreased, but regional and civil wars rage unabated, Old fires bum brightly in Afghanistan, Ethiopia, rag, the Middle East. North Africa, Somalia the two Su dans, and corners ofthe Caucasus. Embers smolder dangerously in Colombia, both Congos, Iraq, Kosovo, and Macedonia. Pirates off the east coast of Somalia hijack ships and wreak havoe with international shipping routes and cargo. The world’s foremost international body, the United Nations, is rarely more than a bystander to the turmoil, carnage, and terror. Sophisticated weaponty has allowed conflicts such as civil wars to continue and escalate, India and Pakistan are engaged in an open nuclear rivalry. North Korea has developed nuclear weapons and Iran is close to acquiring them. Terrorists have sporadically attacked the United States, Britain, India, Spain, and other countries, and Washington has responded by attacking ter rorist havens in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Yemen and setting up new governments in wartom countries. Globalization has affected countries everywhere to the extent that many states, can no longer govern their own economies independently. The tension between» slobalization and democracy is profound with widening gaps between what elector. ates are demanding of their governments and what those goveriments can deliver ‘These changing pattems of global politics are vitelly important, fscineling (© observe, and sometimes difficult to understand but impossible to avoid. Some indie ‘vidual states have los their self-sufficiency: economic, socil, and politcal intende- pendence have become the most salient features of modern life. The low of goods, services, technology, capital, and even terorism around the worlé has changed how We live. The interdependence of states is affecting levels of investment, economic. prosperity, and even unemployment levels Despite the 2006-09 world economic collapse and its continuing impact on slowing globalization, Brazil, China, and India continue to flourish as centers of ‘economic strength, helping to change traditional pattems of trade and the disti- bbution of wealth in the world, The United States remains the only superpower but itis heavily indebted to other countres, particularly powerful communist China, Which owns much of America's debt and continues to increase the significance of its military forces. India, too, ison the march with a new-found optimism, Some people believe that the terrorist events of 9/11 “changed everything” while others believe the events represent a return to the typeof state relationships encountered before World War Il and the Cold War. There is ne doubt, however, that radical ihad terrorism has expanded from a base in South Asia and is now found in some {60 countries around the worl. Contemporary thought about world polities is framed by two global events: 5/11 and the responses to it and the financial collapse of 2008-09, While bearing mind the difficulty of having a complete sense of perspective - because we are ‘immersed in our own times - several interwoven trends or strands in fobal politics ‘characterize the new world pattern: * The rise of the United States asa heycma (or empire) and the growing opposi- tion to this inthe rest of the world, symbolized by the rise of powerful states such 15 China and India and the allenation of lage parts of the Muslim community. * Civil wars in Afghanistan, traq, Mali, Sudan, Yemen, and elsewhere in North and (Central Africa; instability throughout the Middle East witha clash of democratic, ‘uthoritrian, and religious values throughout the region. ‘+ The impact of globalization on world politics, leading to the rapid emergence of India and China as major powers. The Elephant and Dragon are changing how ‘the peoples ofthe world interact in new and unexpected ways. The political sig- nificance ofthe European Union and Japan continues alongside newly emerging countries such as Brazil, * Mh of itn emis ops and ote ih vide ots ots tlculatly anti-US. prejudices an a°ions, ana concomitant growth in terrorist ° Charles Kapha, No One's Worl: The Wes, The sing Rest, end the Coming Glebl Ter (Oxford: ‘Oxford Untveay Press 2012,‘Selectbibliography (19 ‘organizations intent on using asymmetrical warfare as a tool of international polities. ‘The rise of global concer for human security and all the ideas associated with ‘his concept, from clean water to reuction of poverty and sustainable devel= ‘opment. Accompanying this fsa growth in acceptance ofthe idea that foreign intervention inthe affairs of weak countries is sometimes justifiable and sover- ‘ignty is considered by some to be expendable. “+ Shifiing and competing pressures, with states challenged from below by seces- ‘ionist and subnational groups, sideways by private actors such as corporations and nongovernmental organizations and even civil society movements, and from above by regional and supranational bodies. ‘Today, political events and crises wthin states can quickly escalate to the ‘regional and global levels. Security isa shared issue, not just the concem of Individual states, in uhe final chapter of thls bouk we will look Lack Uurvugh doe ‘various types of crises thet we have encountered in the fist fifteen chapters and ‘consider how they can be managed for a safer, just Select bibliography Brccrnsk, Zbigniew, Strategic Vision: America andthe ‘Crisis of Global Power (New York: Basic Boks, 2012) ‘lat, L, The Post-Cold War Order: The Spoils of Peace {xTord: Oxford University Pres, 2001). Diawond, Jared, Collapse: How Societies Choos Fail or ‘Succeed (New York: Viking, 2005) Frieden, Jey A, Global Captasm: Its Fall and Rise i ‘the Twentenh Century (New York: Norton, 2008). Friedman, George, The Next Decade (New York: Doubleday, 2011) Friedman, Thomas, The World Is Fat: A Brief History of ‘the Twenty-First Century (New York: Farrar, Stan, ‘and Giroux, 2005). Fukuyama, Francis, Te End of History and the Last Man {New York: Fee Pres, 1992 ‘The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times othe French Revolution (New York: Fara, Straus, and Giroux, 2011. ‘Grand, Edgar and Louis W. Pauly, es, Compler Sovereignty: Reconstiruting Political Authority im the Twenty-First Century (Tororo: University of Toronto Pres, 2007) ‘henbemy,G. John, After Victory: Istutions, Strate [Restrain andthe Rebuy of Order eer Major ‘Wars (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univesity Press, 2000) and more peaceful world. Jackson, Robert and Philp Towle, Temptations of Power: ‘The United Staes tm Global Politics Since 9/11 (London: Palgrave, 2007 Jones, Bruce, Carlos Pascual, and Stephen J Stedman, Tower and Responsibility: Duiding Interctonal Oder ln on Era of TronsnatonalThreets (Washington DC: Brookings, 2008) Kagan, Robert, The World Ameria Made (New York ‘Knopf, 2012) King, Gary, ed, The Future of Politic Science 100 Perspectives (London: Routlege, 2003) 7 EmestR. Richard Roserance, and Zar Steiner, ‘eds, History ond Neoreolism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. ye, Joseph Sy and John D. Donahue, els, Governance ina Globalizing World Washington DC: Brookings, 2000) Prowit, Kenneth, “Pola! Meas and a Polit Sclence for Policy." Annas of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences (200), vel. 0, na. 1, pp. 1-29. SI, Rudra and Peter Katensein, Beyond Parad ‘Analy Eletcism in he Study af Word Politics (Bisingpioke: Palgrave Macullat 2010). ‘Wolf, Manin, Why Globalization Works New Haven, CT: ‘Yale University Press, 2006, M‘The Greek historian Thucides once sald that history philosophy teaching by examples. A recent scholar ‘commented that perhaps Thucydides should have said “tng to each by examples" because often we do rot use history wel. We mis the real point ofits lessons or we follow the wrong precedents. Just think of ely prognostiatrs wo thought that because trilanesflew beter than biplanes future icrat woud end ‘up with twelve wings!" Or think of Thomas Watson, head of IBM, who is alleged to have predicted in 1943, that "think theresa word marke for about five computes”! Prediction is on unpredictable business! ‘One thing that history does do wells deepen our understanding of curent global problems. tan inform us about the word in which we ive, not just the country we inhabit, and in doing so provides an essential foundation forthe study of global pols. History tlls us not only who we are but who oth- ersare (and were) and helps explain our similarities and diferences. Everything happens ina historical context. Contemporary events are constrained by the past but they are not determined by it They reflect continuity wit the past but can also break from it. Although history cannot be used to predict the future Itcan elucidate wy relations between countries and peoples take the shape they do and provide clues to ‘what they might be inthe future. tan reveal the changing configurations of authority and power over time andthe diversity of systems institution, actors, and ideas that have dominated global politics. In this chapter we survey the historical evolution of international politics from the ancient world to the fall of communism and the period after the end of the Cold War in 1989, This synthesis provides a broad overview of our global political heritage that goes far beyond a eurocentrcNoth American bis. ‘The standard approach teaches that Europe emerged as an advanced civilization by 1500, launched ‘an age of exploration and ciscovery, created the moder state system in 1648, then physically and culturally dominated the globe and paved the way for globalization that matured after 1945, While Jmportan, this approach is too narow a perspective for a comprehensive understanding of contemn- porary global politics There i a strong argument that this framework, although accurate is misleading because it tus world history into a moral succes story ofthe rise and triumph of the West. nterna- tional histor is interpreted through European eyes “as if nothing could happen without a European being present, or at his instigation. "* A neva ma by A. rayling Te Hear of Things: Applying Patsophy 1 he 211 Cer Lonon: Phoenix, 2005) 169. * Dutch erin JC Van Lear 1908-2] was oe ofthe ist denbure the end of Iniepeig sary hough Europea eyes a Indonesian Trade and Scie Esp Aslan Sol end Economie Hoy (he Hague, W van Hove, (955.261.Inthe recent past anew global history has emerged inthe search for linkages between diferent pats _ ofthe world, Europe's assumed centrality — - ~ Europe should no longer besten as the pivot of change, or asthe agent acting on pasive cilzations ‘of the non-Western word. the European path to the modern world should no longer be treated as ‘natural or “normal. 2 Indeed, a broader sweep of history reveals that Easter i 3 (including Persians, Arabs Acar “cians, and Chinse| had created a widespread economy and communications network 2s eal asthe "year 500 Their ideas, institutions, and technologies were difused tothe West, contributions that greatly as- “sisted the rise ofthe West about a thousand years later In many respects, Europeans were in fac, latecom- - ets Todays evershinking globe makes it important to understand the historical backgrounds of counties and regions beyond Europe anc Americ, particulary where ideas and relationships ae rooted in signi | cantly ferent historical experiences. ‘Until the 17h century the wr was dominate by rulers who brought large geographical teitories together under the absolute corr of ceiralized governens. The most advanced centers of power were _eutsie of Ewope. especial nthe Middle East and Asi, where powerful political entities flourished well before moder stats began to orm in Europe. coring to one scholar, the “leading Western powers were allinferor economically and poitclly tothe leading Asan powers" until about 1840*Tio centuries ago, ‘China produced about one-thize of the word's wealth and India not much les. nthe Mid Est, Arab _Muslims buit on prior achieverents of Babylonian and Persian clizatons to create a great sac reional ‘empire that lasted unt World War For the most pat, Europe and Asia were relatively isolated by cstance ‘and natural obstacles and had enly sporadic contact. Not unt the 1th century did European counties _become significant global poner as sea routes began to lnk te world. European colonization ofthe word ~ en began to develop a truly gabal economy and eventually single global system of stats. ‘The emphasis of this chapte' is on how and where great powers began and how they evolved over the centuries It examines how and when modern states achieved legitimacy and authoiy and how since | the te wad as wes fem exo pater of state nacional sen The wad today is more than the sum ofits counties an other actors. Over time even the most extensive empires lssolved, paving the way for the great powers that exist today. To varying degres the new powers share some of the characteristics of former empires. As we discuss in Chapter, the current major powers include China India, Japan, Rusia, the United States, and the European Union. In this historical overview we are particulary concerned withthe big picture a comprehensive approach that afford a view othow lal pats of interaction developed and changed overtime. Our aperoach i ecessar- Il selective as we trace patersof historical events to create abroad timeline that icra to an understanding cf the major forces and events tat shaped the modem world Many cca flashpoint or hotspots in intema- fault ines that have never been resoWved 2 Jobe Dancin, Aer Tamron The Rs and Fal of lhl Empires 1400-2000 (London: Bloomsbary Press, 208, 4. “Jone Mc Hoban, The Eaters Oris of Wester Clean (age Cmbrge Univers Pres 2008] p20. 5 Bi Se Chapter, pel the secon on Som Horton, cio Mistory |ey 2 From prehistory to five regional powers massive growth in human population and gave (10,000 BCE-476 CE) ‘rise to relatively stable village communities with ‘We begin our survey of soba history with five of its greatest carly civilizations ~ Persia, China, ina Greece nd Rome, These were arguably the ‘most extensive and powerful cvitations oftheir times. Tracing the history and development of these regional powers fom ancient times through to the beginning of modern European states and their go- tal expansion wit colonial empire, we end with the paramount payers inthe trbulent World Wars and the Cold War powers that dominated 20%h-cen- tury global polities.* In their early histories we find the beginnings ofthe Middle East, China India, and Europe as we know them today. Table 2.1 provides an overview of the chapter Each historia section that follows begins with an overview and summary box before a more de discussion. The summary boxes include “enduring concep” in intemalonal relations aswel 3s “highlights” fom the time fame unde disussion that remain an important part of politcal discourse on global politics. By 10,00 BCE, during the last ofa series of Ice Ages humans had colonized almost all ofthe habitable areas ofthe word as nomic hunters and ‘gatherers.’ Civilizations began to develop based on saicalrre, which allowed permanent settlement 45 well s the development of wring. Around the slobe, populations gradually seed where irrigation made i posible to sustain agriculture and where proximity to iver, lakes, and oceans enabled trade to develop. Evidence of erly permanent sete mens, dating o about $000 BCE, have been found inthe Near East, North Afic, and the southern Up of South America. Agriculture made posible As preparation fo thisourey we gly recomend Nl seep, A History ofthe Worlds 100 Oe (london ‘Aer ane 201) whieh presets fsciotig our of nun sory om Ac wo alon yeas ag tote dave of te Rscenuy. Tyoughou be text we we the BCE fore comer ead CE common eater than OC snd AD. The dts roma te sae in previous age Increasingly complex societies and, eventually, to ‘what we would call urban life? The Asian and European landmasses of the ancient world were populated by increasingly s0- phisticated civilizations. The largest of them were ruled by emperors who extended their teritories to ‘he mits that thelr military abilities, economies, and geography permitted. Like the politcal sys- tems that followed, territory defined their political ent. ruler conquered and Yowned” tertory, and the people on that teritory belonged to him and his clan. We aso see ever more sophisticated pattems of warfare a military technology devel- ‘oped, making wars over larger swaths of territory endemic. ‘Many societies in ancient times were intercon nected in spite of great distances, uncertain geo- sraphical knowledge, competition between clans and empires, and slow and dificult communica- tions. By water and land, far-flung webs of trade al- lowed disparate cultures to reach and influence each othe. Trade laid the foundation forthe exchange of eas, and commerce and finance interacted with polis and strategy? There is considerable archeo- logical evidence of interactions between the ancient ‘Near Eastem and Mediterranean regions a early as the Bronze Age (roughly 2200-00 BCE), Exchanges included not only raw materials but manufactured ‘goods and intellectual and aesthetic influences." However, these ealy pattems of interaction were sporadic and restricted to specific regions ofthe ode as there was as yet no means of tansporta- tion across oceans. “The fist cvlizations to leave written records ‘were inthe fertile areas of Mesopotamia and * lear Overs eT Tice Complete Hist ef he Went (Condon apr Coins, 2007) 36. * vitam Beste Splendid Erchonge: How Tae Shped ‘he ard Mew Yo: Grove Pres, 20080) "tn 190 the lds surviving example a cago ship was ds covered ofthe cas of Trey having sunk aout 1300 BCE paced with agp fom ster Between Nas gy andthe BalaneS OE nf A Alig al ‘Table2.1 World history overview From extensive early empires to contemporary global powers ‘The Ancient World: Evolution to Five Extensive Regional Powers (10,000 BCE-476 CE) Persia: Achaemenlé, Sassanid China: Qin, Han, India: Mauryan Greek cty states; Alexander the Great's Hellenistic Empire Rome ‘A Period of Transition: The Middle Ages to Westphalia (476-1648) ‘Burope: European monarchies, Holy Roman Empire, Byzantium ‘Middle Eas: Arab (2 caliphate}, Ottoman, ‘Asia China ~ Tang, Sung, Mongols, Ming, Qing. Taian subcontinent: Mughals (Origin, Development and Expansion of the Moder State (1648-1800) ‘Europe: European powers and colonial empires? Britain, France, Prusia (Germany), Dutch United Provinces, Portugal, Russia, Austria, Spain Middle East: Otoman ‘Asia: China, Japan ‘The 19th Century, Enhancement ofthe Global System. Europe: Colonial empires Britain, France, Rusia, Austria, Prussia ‘Asa: Chin (divide: invaded by Japan), Japan (invaded China) Indlan subcontinent: India (a Brlsh colony; mutiny) Middle East: Ottoman Empire (declining) [North Americe: United States (consolidating; expanding! ‘Toe 20th Century: Two Bloody World Wars and Two Great Powers Europe: Britain, France, Germany, Italy Eurasia: Soviet Union North America: United States ‘Asia: Ching, Japan. A New Age of Superpowers (1949-89) Soviet Union, United States Coming Full Crce?: Current Great or Global Powers! United States, Chira India, Japan, Russia, European Union The Greek cy states were not an empire but independent ty sates Joined in amin nteradoa! sytem and are inte thr beaut of ther mor ifuence on European polls and pllsopty. The Hellenistic pre which followed was shor lived ut extensive * Meranit. * Some ofthese stats were active globally and, thus, aspired to global siglicanc, while otbes wee paramount nthe regions, What inks them two word Wars. Conover, sone ae, or cou be, classed as empires,;) Exypt from about 3000 BCE." In Mesopotamia {madern-day rq), Hammurai, king of Babylon, produced a code of law inscribed in stone ~ the fst known written laws, Interwoven with the history of Babylon, Assyria, and Sumeria was that of the Semitic Hebrew people who fad sted in Judea, In the 4th and Sth centuries BCE they produced ‘writen literature, history, and the Hebrew bible ‘Their capital city was Jerusalem. Further along the Mediterranean in Egypt the prosperous “old” kingdom in the Nile valley thrived, leaving a legacy of pramids as symbols of thei kings divine power. Eaypt's golden age was from 1550-1070 BCE when the pharaohs created the most powerful empire of its day (Figure 2.1). ‘Throughout the remainder of the ancient period until about 476 AD, Five powers, much more ex- tensive than Egypt and Mesopotamia, set the stage for developments through the Middle Ages and on (othe contemporary world Is here we begin our "Foran excellent history of oy Europe fom is geographic foundations, ncading the peksory prod before wre fen records e Bary Cun, Earpe Been the Oe: '000 BC-AD 1000 World, Chia: Yle Univesity Pres 20m, y — Figure 2.1 The pyramids and arbaeological teases of ancient Egypt are vulnerable today 25 the “Arb Awakening” pays ou, “Tourism has diminished. the economy has collapsed, and security Is oftes inadequate or absent. Source: Shutterstock. study of a number of extensive powers (Box 2.1). Any selection of powerful governments and empires tundoubledly leaves some entities out ofthe discus- sion and may drive experts to complain, but such a summary is needed to show the broad linkages Box 2.1 The ancient world: Extensive regional powers, enduring concepts, and highlights Extensive Powers: Middle East: Europe: Persian Empire Greek city states; Roman Empire ‘Mauryan Empice (in, Han dynasties Enduring Concepts and Highlights: satrapies; regional international system; sphetes of influence; balance of power; he= ‘gemony; democracy; political participation; Hinduism; Buddhism; free trade zone; mono- theism; Confucianism Indian subcontinent: China:ee Persia By the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, Persia dominated he Mediterranean. Its Achaemenid rul= ing family brought together several million people tunder one administration centered in the area later known as Iran, This empire included a patchwork of kingdoms that extended west to Libya in north [Aries and included many Greek cities in Asia Minor, netheast into modern-day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and eastern Europe, and directly cast as far as the Indian subcontinent. The Persians divided their immense domains into geographical parts called satrapies ruled by kings called sarraps ‘under the control ofthe emperor. The satraps then appointed lower level governors to manage smaller districts. Later empires used the same model of ‘seographcally divided rule. The Persian Empire co ‘existed for much of Its existence witha rival Greek vilization to its northwest. Greek city states tothe Hellenic Empie_A peviod afen known as “classical antiquity” began around 1000 BCE It included various civilizations in the area of te Mediterranean Sea. During this period, ‘the Greets created an extensive network of power ‘lations Their 154 ciy states constituted a mini ‘egional international system that is sill exam- ined by scholars for parallels and understandings about inersate relations today. Their influence on the Western world was and remains immense, fom polities and history to culture and ideas (Close Up 2.1). The city states each centered on a single large city that shared a common identity, but they had diferent intemal organizations, with some ruled by aristocracy, others by oligarchy, tyranny, and even democracy. The states varied in wealth and power but al aspired tobe independent. During the 5th ‘From prehistory to five regional powers (10,000 BCE-~476 CE) |_ 2 Sentry BCE two city states = Sparta and Athens ~ ‘bssams.dominant ip. area. nt Grek Nseran Tye “thai between the Greek cites. “Inevitable was the growth of Athenian ower. ime wens aower grew is ‘ance of power between themselves. However, in the second Peloponitesian War, Sparta defeated ‘Athens. When Sparta tried to assert hegemony (military and political preponderance) over the “other city states, shifting coalitions formed, creat “ing ew balances of power that were designed to ‘As Sparta declined, Macedonia, he.norh of Greece. rose. Philip of Macedon ined control of Greece, and he and his son Alexander the Great (who succeeded him in 336 BCE) extended their relatively short-lived Hellenistic Empire s far as the Indian subcontinent, Persia, and Fgypt. Only thirty- five years later, Alexander was dend and what was left of ancient Greece was wracked by bigotry, ‘ethnic division, and wars that lett vulnerable. Power and glory in the Mediterranean region passed to Rome, " Tacydes Hi ofthe Peloponnesian War, wlten Is uaalted by Rika Cavey, vaste ole at Seo example, Sion ‘ides, Vall, Books 5.25-8.109 (Oxon Oxford Univesicy Pre. 2010, ral Kagoe gues that Athens was ot agesive en ha hy ot othe Spartans Tce The Ret enon of History ew York Viking. 210SS ed ss Close Up 2.1 Aristotle Close Up 2.2 Kautilya ‘Te Gresk philosopher Aristotle (284-222 BCE) introduced the concept that the political unit of He.city-state (poli) was the highest legitimate authority, above rules or religions. Each polls “Tad its own laws and system of goverment. “The city state an individual belonged to became significant focus of politcal identity, an early precursor of modern nationalism. The Hea of Aemocracy took root as people saw themselves 1 citizens who could participate in goverament ‘and not as mere subjects of a ruler. Athenian democracy was primitive and limited in who cculd participate, but i was a landmark begin- ning ofthe concept and practice of wicespread Paltal participation in publi ie ‘The nian subcontinent Even before Athens and Sparta ‘were engaged inthe Peloponnesian Wars, the elatively geographically isolated Indian subcontinent also con- tained an international system of independent politcal ‘is. These primitive governments were based om city unis linked by a common culture and shared iden- tity based on the values of Brehmanism, an ancient religion that came to be known as Hinduism. By the 6th century BCE, Hindu ideas competed with thse set Fonh by Buddha, a Nepalese aristocrat whose ideas spread from northern India to Tibet, China, Southeast ‘Asia and Jepan, Alexander the Great rule the western Potton of the subcontinent (present-day Pakistan) fora short time, and after he died, Chandragupta Mau- "ys, alded by his adviser, Keutilya, transformed ‘he muliple-state system into a large, centralized ‘Mouryan Empire; Chandragupta Maurya’ grandson ‘was the last leader ofthe united terstory. When he de, the Mauryan Empire collapsed and India reverted ‘to smal, independent, warring states, Smaller king- sdoms flourished indifferent pars ofthe subcontinent ‘over the following centuries fen Key ain itary en Yorks Greta, 00) Kautilya (250-283 BCE aproximately) was a Hindu statesman and philosopher. His book Arthashastra (authoritative instruction in the art of material possession) descrbes the inde pendent state system and provides a system- atic exploration of statecrat It outlines the international relations and war strategies that ‘made him the man behind the throne - the a chitect of the empire of Chendregupta Maurya, ‘The work has been likened to the writings of Plato and Aristotle, who were near contem- poraries in the Greek ety states. Much later the book won Kautilya the reputation of the “Indian Machiavelli” for his advice and harsh progmatism on topics such asthe duties of 2 King, recovery of debs, and execution with ‘or without torture. However, his writings also ‘demonstrate his compassion for the weakest in society. Its maxims include “Learn from the mistakes of others.-you can't live long enough {to make them all yourself” ‘The Roman Empire. The Roman Empire began as a city state on the traditional Greek model, but by 264 BCE the city of Rome controlled the entre Halian peninsula. Within decades Rome defeated Carthage in the third Punie War (149-146 BCE) and gained control ofthe entire western and cen- tral Mediterranean. Following the internal strug ale between Gaius Julius Caesar and the Senate, which triggered two civil wars, Rome emerged under Augustus as an empire in 27 BCE. From 98 to 180, the empire enjoyed its golden age, corporating at its height about 45 million people (Figure 2.2). Roman culture and organization blanketed Europe from Hadrian's Wall in the north ‘of England to the natural frontier of the Rhine ‘and Danube, and on to the Arab territories of the Middle East and the entire the Mediterranenn. Ex= pansion was often motivated by the need for grainand olives, which had the value of petroleum in today's commerce.!* ‘The empire had no challengers, Power and au~ ‘thority were centralized in the emperor in Rome, but local rulers were allowed considerable local au- tonomy. During its golden years the Roman Empire presided over an enormous Tree trae zane with few barriers to the movement of goods from Britain to ‘Cyprus and beyond. Officials inthe vast area used Latin and Greek languages, govemed with Roman law, used Rome's bronze coins as common currency, ‘nd shaped ideas about international law and the state. Roman merchants traveled the Asian Silk Road to bring back silk and other exotic wares from ‘Asia forthe empire’s lage centers of Alexandria, Rome, and London. Rome even had links with con- ‘temporary empires in India and China, Although it began and endured for several cen- tures asa relatively tolerant political power, by the end Rome was tyrannical. Over time, walls and "Fora dstplon a the Roman Emp at is peak see Thosten Oppe, Hadan: Empire and Cofie(Lando! The Bish beam Pres. 2008)- % Anthony Pages, Peoples ond Empires Landon: Weidenfld Nioion, 2011.2 tory to five regional powers (10,000 6CE-476 CE) |_ 27 Figure 2.2 The runs of the ancient Roman forum ane preserved inthe heart ‘of Rome. The foram ‘was the focal point for clectons, market life tals, and gladiator, matches. ls decay depicts the passage of fortifications could not prevent waves of “barbar- fans” from Europe's poor and rebellious northeast- ‘em regions from migrating into Roman teritory. Subjects Far From the capital grew restive. About 28 BCE in Galilee, Roman administrators executed “Jesus of Nazareth, whose life and crucifixion in~ spired the monotheistic (belief in one God) Chris Church. Christians quickly became a powerful force that helped hasten the empire's decline by spread~ ing its truth of one God throughout the empire. By 395 the once great Roman Empire was permanently split in two between a Latin-speaking west and a Greck-speaking east, Within less than a century there was lite left but an assortment of warring kingdoms in the west and north, while in the east, the Byzantine Empire, based in Constantinople, ‘grew in significance and grandeur. The Mediter- ranean would never again play such a major role in international politics a it did in the ancient world, ‘but Greece and Rome had already shaped much of the intellectual and organizational entity that would become Europe. China During the early years of the Roman Em pire, prior to 221 BCE, what is China today wasap poet Mtory) divided into quarrelsome kingdoms and tribes that existed in constant strife for half a millennium, ‘The periods known as the “Spring and Autumn” (770-476 BCE and “Warring States" (475-221 BCE) etas were, however, extremely productive in terms of intellectual achievements. ll of China’ major schools of philosophy, including Confucian- ‘sm, Taoism, and Legalism, originated in this early period. Confucius, a near contemporary of Bud- ‘tha in India, was one of many itinerant philoso- hers who traveled widely seeking to advise rulers ‘on statecraft and provide moral instructions for ‘managing society. His teachings became orthodox: doctrine and dominated Chinese ethical and polii- cal thought, e:pecially in the north, until about the 20th century. South China was more Taoist, following the teachings of Lao Tse, thereby setting lose Up 2.3 Sun Tau ‘Asan adviser of the Chou Dynasty, Sun Tau (00 BCE-7) wrote the earliest known work on riltary strategy. His emphasis on suprise and deception, among othe principles, brought him Some Fame in 18th century Europe and his work i sill discussed by military svategists talay. His principal advice was Co adapt to cir- ‘cumstances and recognize opportunities, not to sick toa preconceived plan. He counseled that the threat of force is as important a the use of force for gaining concessions and warned that when a war is protracted, the resources of the tate may not be equal o the strain, He alo pointed (othe usefulness of diplomacy: a skill leader subdues the enemy's to0ps ‘without any fighting: he capes their ites ‘without laying siege to them. One of his best ‘known maxims for gaining advantage is “when ‘capable, feign incapacity.” See Sun Te, The Ar af Wa: The Moder ntereeaion (ew Yor: Sterng 2000 = a 4 contrast between the upright, conservative north and a more skeptical, artistic, and lax south that ‘endured for centuries. in the same period, historian ‘Sun Tau became famous for his book, The Art of War, which provided the ruling Chou dynasty with rules for war and peace. The frst emperor ofthe Qin (pronounced “chin,” from which the word China is derived) unified China politically in 221 BC. China was the word's first large, centralized empire." To unify the Kingdom, Emperor Qin suppressed diversity and Philosophical debate, setting a pattern of intl ‘rance and isolationism (Figure 2.3). This unity Set the stage fora highly literate, urbanized, and advanced society, both technologically and cultur- ally. Although the tentory experienced periodic division and anarchy many times in its history, the (in principle that authority stems from a single source of power took rot. An emperor, with an "unquestioned right to issue commands and laws, was accepted as the norm in China throughout the succeeding centuries.” Some skeptics would even say it laid the cultural foundation for contempo- rary communist China Civil war Followed the death of Emperor Qin untit a new Han Dynasty was established in 206 BCE. The an rulers developed what historians have called the best orgenized and most civilized political sys- tem in the world ~ far superior in area and popula- fom to the Roman Empire at its zenith? The Han supported Confucianism with its emphasis on good statesmanship and benevolent rule, They expanded their teritory south as far as presentday Vietnam 1 Today Emperor Qe Sh hangs remeibered parca for ‘he conious 1.500 mllelong Grest Wall Reconsce o ‘cur his advanced cvson fom Inveons an for ‘agifient tom that sl guarded by ecelons of ese termcota waco, area tari Many wal ey ‘xsd andthe emperor te em oper lt Eat Lewis The Eni Chinese Empires Oi and Han (Cambridge MA Harad Univensty Pa 2007) " Jan Ponal ed The Fist Emperor London: The it Miu eum, 2008, p73 1G. Wels A Shor Hoy ofthe Word London: Peng, 2000p 153 Fo population sex JeephM,Clamet, ret Enpts, Small ation (endo: Roald, 200) 7and stared a lange export trade west along the SilkRoad stretching as for as the Roman Empire. owever, even the huge distance and poor commu cations, he two empires remained quite ignorant ofeach other and did not clash militarily. China twas technologically advanced in many areas, Early Chinese discoveries included the magnetic eompass, sil, and paper?" Silk was one of the ist exports from Asa to astound the Romans, who thought it must grow on trees or bushes lke cotton. The Chinese, conversely, were impressed with Western cotton and thought it must come from an animal* ‘With some interruptions, the Han dynasty lasted until 2205 when, weakened by avirulent plague, the empire was divided into three independent kingdoms. Thre followed along period of territorial fragmentation during which China's contact with the ouside world diminished. By the end ofthe ancient period, in Europe the advanced civilizations and great powers of Greece ‘coms was probably invented under he Oi in 22-226 BC ' See atin Thubvon, Shadow 9 he Sik Rod (New York ares Cle, 2007 CO ee Figure 23 Protection fom barbarian honk was the prime motve forthe Gin Dynasty’ 700 ACE, but Emperor Qin was te fst, (ojo them togetter. providing sat ‘and Rome had all but vanished. In Asia, China hnad fragmented but was still the most advanced economic power. The Indian subcontinent also had fragmented, and the rulers struggled with invasions. ‘The Persian Empire centered in present-day Iran ‘was soon to become part of a great Islamic civiliza~ ton, The United States was not even on the horizon, A period of transition: The Middle Ages to Westphalia (476-1648) During this period, governmental institutions reat- {ng to authority and order in society continued to ‘evolve unevenly around the globe with many surges and sags, Borders and boundaries were uid as ‘aggression and wars flourished, The concept of law ‘was limited and applied primarily to butres state ‘control and security. There was not yet any concept of citizenship or consent of the governed. Authori= tarian leadership, war, religion, and economic dom ration were more important than transformative ideas about the rule of the people. The democratic ideal put forward by Aristotle in ancient Greece was dormant. The irreversible transition to modem sites ‘Would not come for some time.