Extrusion

For the process that creates volcanic rock, see Extrusive 1 History
(geology).
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a xed In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the rst extrusion process for making pipe out of soft metals. It involved preheating the metal and then forcing it through a die via a
hand-driven plunger. In 1820 Thomas Burr implemented
that process for lead pipe, with a hydraulic press (also invented by Joseph Bramah). At that time the process was
called squirting. In 1894, Alexander Dick expanded
the extrusion process to copper and brass alloys.[2]

2 Process

Extruded aluminium with several hollow cavities; T slots allow

bars to be joined with special connectors.

cross-sectional prole. A material is pushed through a die

of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages
of this process over other manufacturing processes are
its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to
work materials that are brittle, because the material only
encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms
parts with an excellent surface nish.[1]
Drawing is a similar process, which uses the tensile
strength of the material to pull it through the die. This
limits the amount of change which can be performed in
one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and multiple
stages are usually needed. Drawing is the main way to
produce wire. Metal bar and tube are also often drawn.
Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indenitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing
many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with
the material hot or cold. Commonly extruded materials
include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, play dough,
and foodstus. The products of extrusion are generally
called extrudates.
Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple at extrusion die, because there
would be no way to support the centre barrier of the die.
Instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth,
beginning rst with a shape prole that supports the center section. The die shape then internally changes along
its length into the nal shape, with the suspended center
pieces supported from the back of the die. The material
ows around the supports and fuses together to create the Extrusion of a round blank through a die.
desired closed shape.
The extrusion process in metals may also increase the The process begins by heating the stock material (for hot
or warm extrusion). It is then loaded into the container in
strength of the material.
1

2 PROCESS

the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the Examples of products produced by this process are: colram then presses on the material to push it out of the die. lapsible tubes, re extinguisher cases, shock absorber
Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten cylinders and gear blanks.
it. If better properties are required then it may be heat
treated or cold worked.[2]

2.3 Warm extrusion

The extrusion ratio is dened as the starting crosssectional area divided by the cross-sectional area of the
Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but benal extrusion. One of the main advantages of the extrulow the recrystallization temperature of the material the
sion process is that this ratio can be very large while still
temperatures ranges from 800 to 1800 F (424 to 975
producing quality parts.
C). It is usually used to achieve the proper balance of required forces, ductility and nal extrusion properties.[3]

2.1

Hot extrusion

Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it

is done above the materials recrystallization temperature
to keep the material from work hardening and to make
it easier to push the material through the die. Most hot
extrusions are done on horizontal hydraulic presses that
range from 230 to 11,000 metric tons (250 to 12,130
short tons). Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400
to 101,500 psi), therefore lubrication is required, which
can be oil or graphite for lower temperature extrusions,
or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The
biggest disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep.[1]
The extrusion process is generally economical when producing between several kilograms (pounds) and many
tons, depending on the material being extruded. There
is a crossover point where roll forming becomes more
economical. For instance, some steels become more economical to roll if producing more than 20,000 kg (50,000
lb).[2]
Aluminium hot extrusion die
Front side of a four family die. For reference, the
die is 228 mm (9.0 in) in diameter.
Close up of the shape cut into the die. Notice that
the walls are drafted and that the back wall thickness
varies.
Back side of die. The wall thickness of the extrusion
is 3 mm (0.12 in).

2.2

Cold extrusion

Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room

temperature. The advantages of this over hot extrusion
are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold
working, closer tolerances, better surface nish, and fast
extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness.[1]
Materials that are commonly cold extruded include:
lead, tin, aluminum, copper, zirconium, titanium,
molybdenum, beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel.

2.4 Microextrusion
Main article: Microextrusion
Microextrusion is a microforming extrusion process performed at the submillimeter range. Like extrusion, metal
is pushed through a die orice, but the resulting products cross section can t through a 1mm square. Several
microextrusion processes have been developed since microforming was envisioned in 1990.[4][5][6] Forward (ram
and billet move in the same direction) and backward (ram
and billet move in the opposite direction) microextrusion
were rst introduced, with forward rod-backward cup and
double cup extrusion methods developing later.[5][7] Regardless of method, one of the greatest challenges of creating a successful microextrusion machine is the manufacture of the die and ram. The small size of the die and
ram, along with the stringent accuracy requirement, needs
suitable manufacturing processes.[5] Additionally, as Fu
and Chan pointed out in a 2013 state-of-the-art technology review, several issues must still be resolved before microextrusion and other microforming technologies
can be implemented more widely, including deformation
load and defects, forming system stability, mechanical
properties, and other size-related eects on the crystallite
(grain) structure and boundaries.[5][6]

2.5 Extrusion defects

Surface cracking occurs when the surface of an extrusion splits. This is often caused by the extrusion
temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can
also happen at lower temperatures if the extruded
product temporarily sticks to the die.
Pipe A ow pattern that draws the surface oxides
and impurities to the center of the product. Such a
pattern is often caused by high friction or cooling of
the outer regions of the billet.
Internal cracking When the center of the extrusion develops cracks or voids. These cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the
centerline in the deformation zone in the die. (A

3.1

Forming internal cavities

similar situation to the necked region in a tensile

stress specimen)
Surface lines When there are lines visible on the
surface of the extruded prole. This depends heavily
on the quality of the die production and how well the
die is maintained, as some residues of the material
extruded can stick to the die surface and produce the
embossed lines.

Equipment

Two-piece aluminum extrusion die set (parts shown separated.)

The male part (at right) is for forming the internal cavity in the
resulting round tube extrusion.

3.1 Forming internal cavities

A horizontal hydraulic press for hot aluminum extrusion (loose

dies and scrap visible in foreground)

There are many dierent variations of extrusion equipment. They vary by four major characteristics:[1]

There are several methods for forming internal cavities

in extrusions. One way is to use a hollow billet and then
use a xed or oating mandrel. A xed mandrel, also
known as a German type, means it is integrated into the
dummy block and stem. A oating mandrel, also known
as a French type, oats in slots in the dummy block and
aligns itself in the die when extruding. If a solid billet
is used as the feed material then it must rst be pierced
by the mandrel before extruding through the die. A special press is used in order to control the mandrel independently from the ram.[1] The solid billet could also be
used with a spider die, porthole die or bridge die. All of
these types of dies incorporate the mandrel in the die and
have legs that hold the mandrel in place. During extrusion the metal divides, ows around the legs, then merges,
leaving weld lines in the nal product.[8]

3.2 Direct extrusion

1. Movement of the extrusion with relation to the ram.
If the die is held stationary and the ram moves towards it then it is called direct extrusion. If the
ram is held stationary and the die moves towards the
ram it is called indirect extrusion.
2. The position of the press, either vertical or horizontal.
3. The type of drive, either hydraulic or mechanical.
4. The type of load applied, either conventional (variable) or hydrostatic.
A single or twin screw auger, powered by an electric motor, or a ram, driven by hydraulic pressure (often used for
steel and titanium alloys), oil pressure (for aluminium), Plot of forces required by various extrusion processes.
or in other specialized processes such as rollers inside a
perforated drum for the production of many simultaneous Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the
streams of material.
most common extrusion process. It works by placing the
Typical extrusion presses cost more than $100,000, billet in a heavy walled container. The billet is pushed
through the die by a ram or screw. There is a reusable
whereas dies can cost up to $2000.

3 EQUIPMENT

dummy block between the ram and the billet to keep them
1. Constant-rate extrusion: A ram or plunger is used to
separated. The major disadvantage of this process is that
pressurize the uid inside the container.
the force required to extrude the billet is greater than that
2. Constant-pressure extrusion: A pump is used, possineeded in the indirect extrusion process because of the
bly with a pressure intensier, to pressurize the uid,
frictional forces introduced by the need for the billet to
which is then pumped to the container.
travel the entire length of the container. Because of this
the greatest force required is at the beginning of process
and slowly decreases as the billet is used up. At the end The advantages of this process include:[10]
of the billet the force greatly increases because the billet
is thin and the material must ow radially to exit the die.
No friction between the container and the billet reThe end of the billet (called the butt end) is not used for
duces force requirements. This ultimately allows for
this reason.[9]
faster speeds, higher reduction ratios, and lower billet temperatures.

3.3

Indirect extrusion

In indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion,

the billet and container move together while the die is
stationary. The die is held in place by a stem which
has to be longer than the container length. The maximum length of the extrusion is ultimately dictated by the
column strength of the stem. Because the billet moves
with the container the frictional forces are eliminated.
This leads to the following advantages:[10]
A 25 to 30% reduction of friction, which allows for
extruding larger billets, increasing speed, and an increased ability to extrude smaller cross-sections
There is less of a tendency for extrusions to crack
because there is no heat formed from friction
The container liner will last longer due to less wear
The billet is used more uniformly so extrusion defects and coarse grained peripherals zones are less
likely.
The disadvantages are:[10]

Usually the ductility of the material increases when

high pressures are applied.
An even ow of material.
Large billets and large cross-sections can be extruded.
No billet residue is left on the container walls.
The disadvantages are:[10]
The billets must be prepared by tapering one end to
match the die entry angle. This is needed to form a
seal at the beginning of the cycle. Usually the entire
billet needs to be machined to remove any surface
defects.
Containing the uid under high pressures can be difcult.
A billet remnant or a plug of a tougher material must
be left at the end of the extrusion to prevent a sudden
release of the extrusion uid.

Impurities and defects on the surface of the billet affect the surface of the extrusion. These defects ruin
3.5 Drives
the piece if it needs to be anodized or the aesthetics
are important. In order to get around this the bilMost modern direct or indirect extrusion presses are hylets may be wire brushed, machined or chemically
draulically driven, but there are some small mechanical
cleaned before being used.
presses still used. Of the hydraulic presses there are
This process isn't as versatile as direct extrusions be- two types: direct-drive oil presses and accumulator wacause the cross-sectional area is limited by the max- ter drives.
imum size of the stem.
Direct-drive oil presses are the most common because
they are reliable and robust. They can deliver over
35 MPa (5000 psi). They supply a constant pressure
3.4 Hydrostatic extrusion
throughout the whole billet. The disadvantage is that they
[11]
In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is com- are slow, between 50 and 200 mm/s (28 ips).
pletely surrounded by a pressurized liquid, except where Accumulator water drives are more expensive and larger
the billet contacts the die. This process can be done hot, than direct-drive oil presses, and they lose about 10% of
warm, or cold, however the temperature is limited by the their pressure over the stroke, but they are much faster, up
stability of the uid used. The process must be carried out to 380 mm/s (15 ips). Because of this they are used when
in a sealed cylinder to contain the hydrostatic medium. extruding steel. They are also used on materials that must
The uid can be pressurized two ways:[10]
be heated to very hot temperatures for safety reasons.[11]

5.2

Plastic

Hydrostatic extrusion presses usually use castor oil at

pressure up to 1400 MPa (200 ksi). Castor oil is
used because it has good lubricity and high pressure
properties.[12]

Die design

5
also be used in place of billets on vertical extrusion
presses.
Magnesium (575 to 1100 F (300 to 600 C)) aircraft parts and nuclear industry parts. Magnesium is
about as extrudable as aluminum.
Zinc (400 to 650 F (200 to 350 C)) rods, bar,
tubes, hardware components, tting, and handrails.

The design of an extrusion prole has a large impact on

Steel (1825 to 2375 F (1000 to 1300 C)) rods and
how readily it can be extruded. The maximum size for an
tracks. Usually plain carbon steel is extruded, but
extrusion is determined by nding the smallest circle that
alloy steel and stainless steel can also be extruded.
will t around the cross-section, this is called the circumscribing circle. This diameter, in turn, controls the size of
Titanium (1100 to 1825 F (600 to 1000 C)) airthe die required, which ultimately determines if the part
craft components including seat tracks, engine rings,
will t in a given press. For example, a larger press can
and other structural parts.
handle 60 cm (24 in) diameter circumscribing circles for
aluminium and 55 cm (22 in) diameter circles for steel
Magnesium and aluminium alloys usually have a 0.75 m
and titanium.[1]
(30 in) RMS or better surface nish. Titanium and steel
The complexity of an extruded prole can be roughly can achieve a 3 micrometres (120 in) RMS.[1]
quantied by calculating the shape factor, which is the
amount of surface area generated per unit mass of extru- In 1950, Ugine Sjournet, of France, invented a pro[15]
sion. This aects the cost of tooling as well as the rate of cess which uses glass as a lubricant for extruding steel.
The Ugine-Sejournet, or Sejournet, process is now used
production.[13]
for other materials that have melting temperatures higher
Thicker sections generally need an increased section size. than steel or that require a narrow range of temperatures
In order for the material to ow properly legs should not to extrude, such as the platinum-iridium alloy used to
be more than ten times longer than their thickness. If the make kilogram mass standards.[16] The process starts by
cross-section is asymmetrical, adjacent sections should be heating the materials to the extruding temperature and
as close to the same size as possible. Sharp corners should then rolling it in glass powder. The glass melts and forms
be avoided; for aluminium and magnesium the minimum a thin lm, 20 to 30 mils (0.5 to 0.75 mm), in order to
radius should be 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and for steel corners separate it from chamber walls and allow it to act as a lushould be 0.75 mm (0.030 in) and llets should be 3 mm bricant. A thick solid glass ring that is 0.25 to 0.75 in (6
(0.12 in). The following table lists the minimum cross- to 18 mm) thick is placed in the chamber on the die to
section and thickness for various materials.[1]
lubricate the extrusion as it is forced through the die. A
second advantage of this glass ring is its ability to insulate
the heat of the billet from the die. The extrusion will have
5 Materials
a 1 mil thick layer of glass, which can be easily removed
once it cools.[3]

5.1

Metal

Another breakthrough in lubrication is the use of phosphate coatings. With this process, in conjunction with
Metals that are commonly extruded include:[14]
glass lubrication, steel can be cold extruded. The phosphate coat absorbs the liquid glass to oer even better
[3]
Aluminium is the most commonly extruded mate- lubricating properties.
rial. Aluminium can be hot or cold extruded. If it is
hot extruded it is heated to 575 to 1100 F (300 to
600 C). Examples of products include proles for 5.2 Plastic
tracks, frames, rails, mullions, and heat sinks.
Main article: Plastics extrusion
Brass is used to extrude corrosion free rods, automobile parts, pipe ttings, engineering parts.
Plastics extrusion commonly uses plastic chips or pellets,
Copper (1100 to 1825 F (600 to 1000 C)) pipe, which are usually dried, to drive out moisture, in a hopwire, rods, bars, tubes, and welding electrodes. Of- per before going to the feed screw. The polymer resin is
ten more than 100 ksi (690 MPa) is required to ex- heated to molten state by a combination of heating elements and shear heating from the extrusion screw. The
trude copper.
screw, or screws as the case with twin screw extrusion,
Lead and tin (maximum 575 F (300 C)) pipes, forces the resin through a die, forming the resin into the
wire, tubes, and cable sheathing. Molten lead may desired shape. The extrudate is cooled and solidied as

6 APPLICATIONS

6.1 Food
Main article: Food extrusion
With the advent of industrial manufacturing, extrusion

Sectional view of a plastic extruder showing the components

Elbow macaroni is an extruded hollow pasta.

found application in food processing of instant foods and

snacks, along with its already known uses in plastics and
metal fabrication. Products such as certain pastas, many
breakfast cereals, premade cookie dough, some french
Sectional view of how a caterpillar haul-o provides line tension fries, certain baby foods, dry or semi-moist pet food and
ready-to-eat snacks are mostly manufactured by extrusion. It is also used to produce modied starch, and to
it is pulled through the die or water tank. A caterpillar pelletize animal feed.
haul-o (called a puller in the US) is used to provide
tension on the extrusion line which is essential for over- Generally, high-temperature extrusion is used for the
all quality of the extrudate. Pelletizers can also create manufacture of ready-to-eat snacks, while cold extrusion
this tension while pulling extruded strands in to be cut. is used for the manufacture of pasta and related prodThe caterpillar haul-o must provide a consistent pull; ucts intended for later cooking and consumption. The
otherwise, variation in cut lengths or distorted product processed products have low moisture and hence considwill result. In some cases (such as bre-reinforced tubes) erably higher shelf life, and provide variety and convethe extrudate is pulled through a very long die, in a pro- nience to consumers.
cess called pultrusion. The conguration of the interior
screws are a driving force dependent on the application.
Mixing elements or convey elements are used in various
formations. Extrusion is common in the application of
adding colorant to molten plastic thus creating specic
custom color.
A multitude of polymers are used in the production of
plastic tubing, pipes, rods, rails, seals, and sheets or lms.

5.3

Ceramic

Ceramic can also be formed into shapes via extrusion.

Terracotta extrusion is used to produce pipes. Many
modern bricks are also manufactured using a brick extrusion process.[17] {403 forbidden link 12Jul15}

In the extrusion process, raw materials are rst ground to

the correct particle size. The dry mix is passed through
a pre-conditioner, in which other ingredients may be
added, and steam is injected to start the cooking process. The preconditioned mix is then passed through an
extruder, where it is forced through a die and cut to the
desired length. The cooking process takes place within
the extruder where the product produces its own friction
and heat due to the pressure generated (1020 bar). The
main independent parameters during extrusion cooking
are feed rate, particle size of the raw material, barrel
temperature, screw speed and moisture content. The extruding process can induce both protein denaturation and
starch gelatinization, depending on inputs and parameters. Sometimes, a catalyst is used, for example, when
producing texturised vegetable proteins (TVP).

6.2 Drug carriers

Applications

For use in pharmaceutical products, extrusion through

nano-porous, polymeric lters is being used to produce

8.2

Bibliography

suspensions of lipid vesicles liposomes or transfersomes

with a particular size of a narrow size distribution. The
anti-cancer drug Doxorubicin in liposome delivery system is formulated by extrusion, for example. Hot melt
extrusion is also utilized in pharmaceutical solid oral dose
processing to enable delivery of drugs with poor solubility
and bioavailability. Hot melt extrusion has been shown
to molecularly disperse poorly soluble drugs in a polymer carrier increasing dissolution rates and bioavailability. The process involves the application of heat, pressure and agitation to mix materials together and extrude
them through a die. Twin-screw high shear extruders
blend materials and simultaneously break up particles.
The resulting particle can be blended with compression
aids and compressed into tablets or lled into unit dose
capsules.[18]

6.3

Biomass briquettes

Main article: Biomass briquettes

The extrusion production technology of fuel briquettes is
the process of extrusion screw wastes (straw, sunower
husks, buckwheat, etc.) or nely shredded wood waste
(sawdust) under high pressure when heated from 160 to
350 C. The resulting fuel briquettes do not include any
of the binders, but one natural the lignin contained in
the cells of plant wastes. The temperature during compression causes melting of the surface of bricks, making
it more solid, which is important for the transportation of
briquettes.

See also
Equal channel angular extrusion
Impact extrusion
Extrusion coating
Fused deposition modeling
3D printer extruder

8
8.1

References
Notes

[1] Oberg et al. 2000, pp. 13481349

[2] Backus et al. 1998, pp. 13-1112, Hot extrusion
[3] Avitzur, B. (1987), Metal forming, Encyclopedia of
Physical Science & Technology, 8, San Diego: Academic
Press, Inc., pp. 80109

[4] Engel, U.; Eckstein, R. (2002). Microforming - From

Basic research to its realization. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 125126 (2002): 3544.
doi:10.1016/S0924-0136(02)00415-6.
[5] Dixit, U.S.; Das, R. (2012). Chapter 15: Microextrusion. In Jain, V.K. Micromanufacturing Processes. CRC
Press. pp. 263282. ISBN 9781439852903.
[6] Fu, M.W.; Chan, W.L. (2013). A review on the state-ofthe-art microforming technologies. International Journal
of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 67 (9): 2411
2437. doi:10.1007/s00170-012-4661-7.
[7] Fu, M.W.; Chan, W.L. (2014). Chapter 4: Microforming Processes. Micro-scaled Products Development via
Microforming: Deformation Behaviours, Processes, Tooling and its Realization. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 73130. ISBN 9781447163268. Retrieved 19
March 2016.
[8] Backus et al. 1998, pp. 1321, Hot extrusion: Tooling
[9] Backus et al. 1998, p. 13-13, Hot extrusion: Methods of
extruding: Direct extrusion
[10] Backus et al. 1998, pp. 1314
[11] Backus et al. 1998, pp. 1316
[12] Backus et al. 1998, pp. 1320
[13] Aluminum Extrusion Tooling MakeItFrom
[14] Backus et al. 1998, pp. 131516
[15] Bauser, Martin; Sauer, Gnther; Siegert, Klaus (2006),
Extrusion, ASM International, p. 270, ISBN 0-87170837-X
[16] Quinn, T. J. (1986). New Techniques in the Manufacture
of Platinum-Iridium Mass Standards. Platinum Metals
Review. 30 (2): 7479. The forged billet is then delivered
to the National Physical Laboratory where it is extruded at
1200 C, using glass as the lubricant, to a cylinder about
43 mm in diameter.
[17] Brick manufacturing process
[18] Extrusion Spheronisation. PharmaCMC. Retrieved 27
September 2016.

8.2 Bibliography
Backus, Robert G.; Boshold, R. F.; Johannisson,
Thomas G.; Noble, Paul D.; Pfeer, Jerome B.;
Schiebold, Ted A.; Spearman, J. E. (1998) [1984].
Drawing, extruding, and upsetting. In Wick,
Charles; Benedict, John T.; Veilleux, Raymond F.
Tool and manufacturing engineers handbook. vol. 2
(4th ed.). SME. ISBN 0-87263-135-4.
Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; Horton, Holbrook
L.; Ryel, Henry H. (2000), Machinerys Handbook
(26th ed.), New York: Industrial Press, ISBN 08311-2635-3.

10

See also
Forming (metalworking)

10

External links

eFunda Engineering Fundamentals - Extrusion

Extrusion cross-sectional tolerances (dead link)

EXTERNAL LINKS

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Extrusion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion?oldid=741472903 Contributors: Rjstott, Ubiquity, Michael Hardy, Ike9898,

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11.2

Images

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