Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
l
hy study rocks? You have already learned that some rocks and minerals have great economic value. In addition, all Earth processes depend in some way on the properties of these
basic Earth materials. Events such as volcanic eruptions, mountain building, weathering,
erosion, and even earthquakes involve rocks and minerals. Consequently, a basic knowledge of Earth
materials is essential to understanding most geologic phenomena.
Every rock contains clues about the environment in which it formed. For example, some rocks are
composed entirely of small shell fragments. This tells Earth scientists that the rock likely originated in a
shallow marine environment. Other rocks contain clues that indicate they formed from a volcanic
eruption or deep in the Earth during mountain building (; " .1 = v ). Thus, rocks contain a wealth of
information about events that have occurred over 'Earths long history.
"'F\.'.
-.. __
.
'\\
'*
"'9;:1_-'.3-1'
,_.-15
:*3S'q.,"-;-__-,.
kg;?,_____
2305"
-Ah 155.31-,
p
l
FOCUS om CONCEPTS
To assist you in learning the important concepts in this chapter, focus on the following questions:
0 What is the rock cycle and why is it important?
re What are the three groups of rocks and the geologic processes involved in the formation of each?
How does magma differ from lava?
What two criteria are used to classify igneous rocks?
How does the rate of cooling inuence the crystal size of minerals in igneous rocks?
ifs What are the names and environments of formation for some common detrital and chemical sedimentary rocks?
ti; What processes change sediment into sedimentary rock?
What are two characteristics of sedimentary rocks?
What are metamorphic rocks, and how do they form?
ii; What are the agents of metamorphism?
(T) What are the names, textures, and environments of formation for some common metamorphic rocks?
Earth as a System:
The Rock Cycle
U!
95-?"":uZ-1OI.
Earth Materials
B The Rock Cycle
I'l"'|
the rock cycle. The rock cycle allows us to see many of the
We begin our discussion of the rock cycle with molten rock, called
magma, which forms by melting that occurs primarily within
often rises toward the surface because it is less dense than the
surrounding rock. Occasionally magma reaches Earths surface
involved in the dynamics of mountain building, it will be subjected to great pressures and intense heat. The sedimentary rock
53
/ =.t.J
i=IGiJ'.i'iE
Rocks contain information about the processes that produce them. This large exposure of igneous rocks, located in the Sierra
Nevada of California, was once a molten mass found deep within Earth. (Photo by Brian Bailey/Getty Images)
Alternative Paths
Rocks do not necessarily go through the cycle in the order that
was just described. Other paths are also possible. For example,
igneous rocks, rather than being exposed to weathering
and erosion at Earth's surface, may remain deeply buried.
Eventually, these masses may be subjected to the strong
compressional forces and high temperature associated with
mountain building. When this occurs, they are transformed
directly into metamorphic rocks.
Vllhat drives the rock cycle? Earths internal heat is responsible for the processes that form igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Weathering and the transport ofweathered material are external
processes, powered by energy from the Sun. External processes
produce sedimentary rocks.
54
pg
ROCK CYCLE
Lava
Igneous
Rock
- -:_< Lt?-1*
=3 'iZ'?_l.><
Magma
Weathering breaks
down rock that is
transported and
deposited as
sediment.
beneath Earth's
surface.
Metamorphic
Rock
0v
Wea
Sedhnent
.\,5<<\
4.
I
Q(\
\\Fe\'amO
fr
aw*wn
$0
6'
i-1
5 -1 -1 -
- _
.
""<\_': =__-J: 2 __
.._. -_ .
r-lvxd,=,_cq_
$3
Q0
egg
~09//;
W
\_
/._.
-..-t
When sedimentary
rock is buried deep
in the crust, heat and
pressure (stress) cause it
to become metamorphic rock.
#3
Sediment is
compacted and cemented
=-Q
Sedimentary
Rock
FIGURE 3.2 The rock cycle. Viewed over long spans, rocks are constantly forming, changing, and reforming. The rock cycle helps
us understand the origin of the three basic rock groups. Arrows represent processes that link each group to the others.
f-<i.
"
Igneous Rocks:
Formed by F1re"
55
it
;$..;_w'
"Q
gm "'21Z-1n:i: fl"!
I
.
'=-Qif-'
Earth Materials
9 Igneous Rocks
---
I:"="
-. .
ijiiiiieti
Fluid basaltic lava emitted from Hawaii's Kilauea Volcano. (Photo by Joe
Carini/Photolibrary)
peuringe efleve
Igneous reeks that form when molten reek solidies at the
surface are classified as extrusive or volcanic (after the Roman
re god Vulcan). Extrusive igneous rocks are abundant in western
portions of the Americas, including the volcanic cones of the Cascade Range and the extensive lava ows ofthe Columbia Plateau.
In addition, many oceanic islands, including the Hawaiian
Islands, are composed almost entirely of volcanic igneous rocks.
Most magma, however, loses its mobility before
'
-r
56
FIGURE1 3.5 Igneous rock textures. A. During a volcanic eruption in which silica-rich lava is ejected into the atmosphere, a frothy
glass called pumice may form. B. Igneous rocks that form at or near Earths surface cool quickly and often exhibit a fine-grained
texture. C. A porphyritic texture results when magma that already contains some large crystals migrates to a new location where the
rate of cooling increases. The resulting rock consists of large crystals embedded within a matrix of smaller crystals. D. Coarse-grained
igneous rocks form when magma slowly crystallizes at depth. (Photos courtesy of E. J. Tarbuck)
f
i"'yPL _.
'5 Q Ar 7 -"- "
'..
____
Extrusive <
igneous
activity
'
;'#~I;-1* war. r
= 1;?
1 '
__
__
: _
7\_
- ;:;:=,_=. ,1 -~~:e~::'___;_
gllge-;::..~;*.:
ml
,,_,/
~
.~f-=."1~1: i1<
Kr
1.354
.
*-tr:
Q1:-1
<.
< ii;
ti; 5;
~=:;*-.
f:I1Z ;--,.:r;;;:=:.r.~1;;.*=
'.:= ' rx->3,
Si-
';-'5i:~*_-ii;
~re.?,~ fat_ -*15%?
1 22* *-' a" 1-. wt-'.;*1;1>f=<_:;;.='
"T='t1:=>';e;@
i.-.:.r:1l=4;;_-55:;-4
. ;~'z_: '7.-=-:5?
5: ail,
= _:_ is.-_=~._ ;___; '*-'_*,f ifl;Et" TI 2; f-I1;-1; :3 ~;-.-_.;;;-___ _ 53
:>|
_
.
,._
>-v-_.\>
= \ \..
I.
\__
'.
LA
,
._.
,1 r_/4/,?,w
I'3,.._..-''P.v_,__H_|
HI
/I.--"
.,_.vI
|'
,_.."
"WPl
.-"F
'\-f_\
',,.
,-
.-
-1;
.;
.l_-K
'
'
,-
_ Wll
r=
.
,.'
\_
__
;
I '-II
_-.
'.'_
-
-'.-I
'__.--'
f.
r.'
"~
"I
Q
' -,.
~ ~ " e- S
-I
.
J
P ' -If
."'
,|_--
1"3:;
J_,.~
K
I\
-\__J_"
1"-
--
' -'_..-'
_,_'___\
"
\\.
',
~..'
\. .
'
J .--L:-*
,1
'-,
, -"-".-w
/ff
~.'- _.
fl
J
'-l_w"/-' _-.=-,A-_r,...,_. .-_'' _/ll
I1|.
r...1
._
. .*
If
:1 -~,;.
l'\
-1"".1 "
- '* i/'
- '
' L/"
: t____1 ;_.__.-- ',
- ~
-- I *"
~ 7 1
'
'
1' ,~
'
-"1
J
_
""
!-
_l ,
|_
r'_._
~' - .<
" '-\ -~
-~ .
.2 1-
I,,
->
1l/"'---
,= ii:
..""'
iii
-_ ?i;_7_a
._-____ ~ 3 "-2
V" H
.1 pl???
Z,
-"
:1; 3', -v
,_,,_....----~
-. - .. -- .-.-at
_ .
-=-:PI}?5'F[fIG-=-L&)EfUQ_;==
-.-.._.=;~1,3"-"
_; .
. q
.
.."-
-~
__
t--
ii
7 5*
..
3-
-.-1 e =.--'3'
-..r=lii*i-.=-
--=-.>-.-;~_-.-e_r:=>_-_.;.;.-;_-.-:-;=- ----.=*-sc.=-_-,1-:==_-==~ ~- -1
..
.- 1.
-_
.'-.-'--- - -ii
; =,':i x::_.._.:,
_L:__l_>:;5_i_
:2 1"E'_,;;_ ~;_,;;' _ =
_"_'. 7;.-E.
' -1:- -Y1 ~: -F= .;.=-l
=
~.
-'
.j-
'-l~i*.'*5-if = 4- IE1.-i
'}_
E25:-*'.-'-i;E---""3'4'
=i-T:1;>=*i--._+--213,E-/"" *--a.=~\;-r-i-=;-.';_.>:~.-=<"
-=~ '-'11 1-?-==-%e-,1'I!~..:=_.-'s--"- ~-=%Z:a=
~'*" .-:-_==I .;:" -"';_-9:-3-==
'==;-<t=-__-=P;._'i:;-;:'_.~
"L-..
_::_-==?=-an
-;1__~;
:.:,.._
-. -, __._.
=:=;;:-_!'~
-;;'._~
E: 5:.==-. ,_~~- ;:->_~.-.
~
.-e- .. . ,_.._.-_.
__.:.,._..,
_
. 5;,=
..=;s=
_ -:il
,
'5;-, , __",_. '
:"f.5 '=i;s=.r.-5si;-;;.-_~.;_;5:1,;
A
.. '
;1,=5=
-ft-1-;-Elia;{':'=~i.._..-_ ,%>"='-_=_. -.-=;;-.;:='=
- _ if-_i_:
_-
_
T.
*9 2 " 15*.-
.-."-!E'.=-_~"?'
D. 'l 1; ,7 -!. -:3, _. 1,-=i?; ;e:- *_.,.i._~_ __,.:_,', .-_-_'f._-_._=
' 1 ,-3'). 1
'= I ._;?
-_,q= 1- g ;[
'~ .
5".=
.=;*...s:- ziI?'~4.
_: *--.5;
5 - -,7. -=1 ~ Q
_r' -
?%*i-a**"
'41
-J-. .-. < -if-=1? '1.-:2-'* J-T'":'# .
-1-.
_..;
-i?%_.dL"'_':'- _"
_
' "= . -. '.n -:2 . Y-.. -: =
Q 5
.11.
if. .22"-'.1-f
' 4; 5'
?="{i!4-T-7
\-ta
13-1,-1
0".-'--.1.-,;-
l~.* 1* 4
-'={.'=.:_:,=.'
; /Ir"--1
~.
_=f--.,
_ .-w-..-._>-_ . -1'1-5'
-4. . --1' . - u'-.P='
~._= . ,_ . - -Q
_;_n_-!=_?__-..-.;
5%;
_''_,-.-_
3, :_:=
>~=i ;
. .
-_ ' -->-. -'
_~ I"? .,
LE,
it-
K -"
- *3 " " ." '
7 _. J,.,-____
' |__\=_' _:
v I 1 -" -t
- -'
I -- 3 r
_-
_-4
1?
~
1-5]
)~.
-"-'
I "'
-f "
_
>0);-'=_.'
_2 -gi.*,Q_|_,_!
5.1
g -Q9 3_:'_
zf;__*-'
~,#"
.
=2 ll .1" '
-'17=}_"_;
~. jl-;:".
9
_.* !. ..a._
sage
'- - _
.1 =,,.
_4__ _ - . e_;_
_(.7
;;
.; _ u -=.e..
_
J
1
=.
-.*:_ _; -:-*_ ; -: .=~:_ -2 1.
,
w
'
=._,_ ' 7:
.-=;
.. -1
/1
- F 3- =
_ - Q.
-J 1-?
.-"V
_
r
___:
7
\."
-
~-..-;_.:-
5.
,
I
z"."_I_.Jj. ____,-.~
K.
. J
,- _
or .~>
a,4--'
s.._\
'J
(T
z_-'--
'
t is h
. ;"=c*';'1 .1.;;_-__ ' --', "
,__-,,_
no
I \/ P- ii
"1" A ./.1 1' .5
7 <-.
L1 - '7' -'F-3.:
-; ' rt-. ;I r-'
1- I - '*_~>/'1
; -.1!
I 1 - . -In}!
i
' 1- -'/ ;
I
- ~ =7 _- 53 - |
A '7-_.1 _
L
L_r f ,_ 5' lfrzrd
3
, _'->
pr
' ,
-- - 1
- Y;
1,, -1
'
..
g.
<.
-,_.
.,_,;
*on,
*-I
Li"-ifiq,-. MW
.'l
--l" ' 1-...
"'- -.4
_'k
'
'-.-. ;;':.4.q.i
-I-'_.
F|fa
---..1___
_.
=~ _.'
._
i
/.
.5 A;
. . ,-= -"1-I
- ,_f-.~;=-.1 =5 _-;,.\-~>
-_ 2 *-=,,;..:
--1, _-'i -=3,
1,1; ..
=__ _-. 5-. _-
-. -'-~=-=;
=3::.i.'1T
1e-I;1--t set. T-""--'
-,;_.-zsfi .,e:-.3-.1?_:_
fl.
-='.l;>>' a " .j=.!....\";- .
__-""_'* __
artz.-21-2 -2---...=t'=.'?;-'1-."_.'*_,_
_I~_";;=1
_=;__e5___ 8;;-f;=__4-_gE
=-:?a-5;?-_ e 1-1
: -.:_,__
I- E1; its-T.-'3'. --g'I._2I;'E';I_=-:2;:._;' Pi;-",'Jl'_ _ =.',';-.1 .>.P{5
. _ .___._._.-___-
- - :._.
.,__ .
_.. .
_, .__ ___ ,.
-=
,__ -.=._
_--
'1; - E-=' -
"1 ;-2*
.__-_ i _-_=;;
.-.':_2f2.
T":"_"l";
ET=;.i:,'?:..=;51-
57
,.-:11!
individual minerals can be identified with the unaided eye. Granite is a classic example (Figure 3.5D).
Igneous Compositions
Igneous rocks are composed mainly of silicate minerals. Chemical
analysis shows that silicon and oxygen-usually expressed as the
silica (SiO2) content of a magmaare by far the most abundant
58
is
.5);
1.1 --1.,
. .3
'
J.
,.
,"--'~
. <70.
~_;
mu
~i'~.
ii-if;
".'-if
-1
-:'fa-1.;-e . 3
-}'_"1.-.__
it"~;..ii;;
.5
. ,
"'_
iiifii
fit: Pumice, a glassy rock, is very lightweight because it
contains numerous vesicles. (Photo by E. J. Tarbuck; inset photo by Chip Clark)
i?jiiIiiii.%i 3.53 Classification of the major groups of igneous rocks based on their mineral composition and texture. Coarse-grained rocks are
plutonic, solidifying deep underground. Fine-grained rocks are volcanic, or solidify as shallow, thin plutons. Ultramafic rocks are dark, dense
rocks, composed almost entirely of minerals containing iron and magnesium. Although relatively rare on Earths surface, these rocks are
believed to be major constituents of the upper mantle.
, . . tr-~ _-.-..__
:-..j- "5513
I iailltlf :;=Z:3::;?1':
.
. T5?"
- E --.__-_..
,_
< '54 :_j>_;':_ii_-5; ;-';_;_j.\J;*;.;;_.~;;.:::@:;;2:j::.'.;. 113
*1
E%?5:ii.: l;:Z?_)T1 :5 ;-5$:~:.- = i ti?-' 4~*i1F 1-1=:i?>'@T:?".'
'::"*~:
"< *"*~=l*"}".;"~'.
'11; rs
E, e
lij=..i;=;?:z
:, ' 1.5.-=r;>=.
ti ?s_:;l5;;,_:;-.;:
Chemical
Composition
Granitic
(Folsio)
11*-ta i 2. _
_ . 4
I-fei'i1T?lit
. _- --.~__:w~i..1I.r;;_' :
er;-..;
_i;:%?. .-_'<._- ; ~':5.;;s<~:~;s.=-t'.;_;...\-=-;3;:,:";
Sodium.-rich
._
il- $.11-ear:-2~;i
=1-1.--l-4+-:1
,%-iii;-l;@;;:i
P-YI*:=;;u=;.=.=I-'.F._*::;s-;zi;3i:?;::..$==?- :;'\.==:e.e;
ii
it {L
Quartz.
Potassium feldspar
Dominant
Minerals
._.
-: Fitz; -
zig = =2.>*.=-
i
li
i ix-1.;"P
i->3sIggi,.oolam$lEispaoee
. . . ._. . ,.
~ J\.\1- ,.
.
_....P.[?9'.lase le.dP?f
=:::':=::;=:
i??=;%??,;;.>---?T'=<-lilriiig
;I~ -,;;gt~=r'ii.-3 7-,<<_;;}i
.-.-_e-:-_..-_.~n-.-A-_e;~"-.
,-;.:.-5;. 5-. _
1* -.-- --A-.2-f:ILr.\-4--=-"'_i-=-t' --J
i -1 _*>*-T>2i':2:=:
..
_.
'
"
.;
'
.2
=~ i:;;>;E1?~?:?=::e:
11=:-:%;**-*-.'
,-1-?-fti:-Z.:f-.e1-is-.=;_-s
, _<-\__ . P ->=""?*e=.-; 4>::?C;>:
r::.x;=_$.:s__
>.._=- Jtf
E *
H ,
<-
_ , ,_
-l><lTll
ii1
.,
v _i_____r
-2
Gl'3l.'ll_te
__ _;_.._; -.
"
li
,\
7*
\-_
~.
_..
>,
.-n-V
_:_
.l,=.-.'.-iii-a';_-:-
=5 ."z._ 1. - -2r: {'!<:.:~:;5;-1?.';_..
';z'-- a >1 ,-1;. -s
4-F,-:;;:.-, ..'=?_-.
-
to '_
?>
___,_...
-_._._,
T.;'
. . ,.. - - 9; _,_
-1 )-Na 1Q
"'-
_,_
'
"
:1 .?-,
,7 . _
*~?___
.0 F Cd.
E <P15 - t.s.:.,;-;: .
inI at . 1
- .1=
.. F .
'
L -
'
j;
i:
.,
=i2
.
1
. F???-EZ=-Z/;{;e~?'Efiiv5%i.;.f;3.1e*e-1-22%;,
3,:l-If};-_;it:?-t,?%.-*E @::%;ie;;, :.:;_.__;.5~-;
.~ .
' -' - .1:
.-
.;_~,<__._.,__._c:=-1
ll ;.;;_;-;;;;?
ii
7*
5--_-t-c-.-5
,;
it *" -ttr. rt
__;2;,_-
.__
: .
-5;-;%z;?;;_=
;3.:s=;;e=...mee-.,:=ss>e:1,=g-iefegxefi-,
,-,;-;s;5;F_%
1:: =._ ..= e-=;=;_.*;__,=.__.=,*~=
.f_-ire
.,
i \<K>".-=~
;-.;.s.:e;*?.,<-rs -ts,
L,-i_-=:='-rwz-e-=::;:->4;
_~;:*-if-E
$1.-J-2 r-tat: ??,.-.,.=.-=5"...-:t' "Jo-.5
---.-=:-P >::'=. 2%
._ _ .-_
.523
__i 4:1-:_-;=;;=~=e (-.:.~.-
=.;.-.:.i;:.,-_-1...-g
____g__-_____,___
"
1'
i:
1.
; -> .
at
_.
l *3: .*_;-:a..@
E '- F555-1 Z_~._.'*%'.=_=-s:s'-3='F5
"
*_
Por h "r
is
"Q f-:;'-:_
._",'i
i_i
_"
.f;Z_l?=;I<'-&5~=~=~_<if3i-;;_i.;;;:::1t-;5?;?el_%:=; =
;f;Rf;.??-L3-_x j ?_T_r:;r>;f';:_t;_ ;';:;E;;:-:11: :;:_.:;z~;~_:;;_<.;=
._:.Z; if'==l1';Zi:-Eiitr==:;%f;>i-;:I_;'f;-21 :;;_::/".?'TF;l_
:;;f;?3i
== ::_z:i;:2'
*-;i>::;
-_.=|.
-~- 2.-:-_'_;_.>.:s;:--_f~'-"3-e=:>*=*-#3
-w-=:=~;-=;~ -~*- . , m_,1.:_-.L:s..
_-.$.-.~S3 /_-=-=3;-.;.i=;-.;_ _;_;
.,-a-_ =5.;.\j:~ -n-_};=;r_;.-2
i ;F;;5=;=>:g;1?;
- 1
1;-age-s.
.-_.;_<_.,.i,
.--.=I-.\ =;
>: r
}j<~_'; _ _,
it. "1r,,'=*f%>I=-1-:~?I:.1i;e;.e1?>'32;'
.i:-.s".==,-=51, t
. - ,='.." '?_.= .. .-e--l-F1:-P 5-ii.-. ' i-_' -.:5 i-; -"-tin-"= .=-#5 .<.=.'E;7:lI'1. T-31?=1;"'
=1713'{;:;s?{;l::;:.l'3.:5;[}7;-5.i:7*-
l'l1JJC
_-_ 3
Fine-9rained
ii
in.
F: _;i?.
iit
1i;1.
to-fa_..*a2<-T.&.__
'=.'.i:-1.3@.=e.s.-5.1%.,res
Coarse-grained
"
.i
.i
1;
it
1.ii1
.1
'
_'_
'
ii
lll
1,!
ii
1;
it
I
l
is
ii
i
l
_......_
.,,_
_..
__
_..
..
_.<,_
.77
__
__
.__;-
Glassy
I
,
'
it
RockColor
(based on % of dark minerals)
'
25% to 45%
__
0% to 25%
_
~ _
- - .
'
0 1
II
45% to 85%
- i
.
85% to 100%
i.=ti}Uli ii. .5 iii Half Dome and the surrounding rock in Cahfornias Yosemite National Park IS granite The rock formed from
magma that crystallized deep beneath the surface
iiiiii-iii: - i
Texture
Composition
_m
ctr
ram IO
(Felsic)
___m
n_
?-
-. J
-__|I.
JIIl-
" =-=;._s
~ ~ ..--e ...=>
%*~- =*
"3 3 ==~=-= _
'"/9
xii;
n1-
F;
Course
grained
(1
vi.
9'
itAxv-..,
.0 \-"
~(
-.
"'-a
'--
Eaj
1-
-(_
-.?
--s_
___
\.*=*4
"r_.,.....,.
l3"
Hr
5:5
so /=4,,-
I;~-_;_
_.._~
"er Q3*2t*s* 5*
QA
L ta Q at
In
)1: T?we -S *-
""=L
.___s,
[.4 C
_ _._J-nun
<-ed.
\-b:!'
grained
1|
in- ,
M if
iii
_~
Gabbro
- \
.-
it:
Granite
(Extrusive)
__
0-;
1 oi E
ti!
-a%1?;-rtr
"7&'
dirt
3%? '-1-f
5f
;\;
1:
..i
,7
- .sa~%?" tr -fer
iii?
it
-_;"j%
*5
r.l,:
~
(Intrusive)
__,.
-_
\>
if I
_
n
-.
4 ~._*"_$;15:*%%>.i
-f _,-___.._..&_
r 1%
:5-35%: eegage iii?-eig iii
- -..
..-< I]- A1: - .3I 31%;;-we
- -sai
go
.,,_r,o
is
=~
:=;a
" '*
__r" _ -<2
if Rhyolite K ' 8 I
-.-_,
______
Andesite
60
...E\ .
..-,:_
.n
.__. .
_-3 .,(
_ .
_-_ _,
ofbasalt (Fiijilift
Ftuthermore, the upper layers ofthe oceanic
crust consist of basalt. In the United States, large portions of central Oregon and Washington were the sites of extensive basaltic
outpourings.
The coarse-grained, intrusive equivalent of basalt is gabbro
(Figure 3.11). Although gabbro is not commonly exposed at the
surface, it makes up a significant percentage ofthe oceanic crust.
_: J
1 I-2s;
:4.
'
-'
;
r
Q.
'5
._|
s
9..
How Different
Igneous Rocks Form
Because a large variety of igneous
rocks exist, it is logical to assume that
an equally large variety of magmas
also exist. However, geologists have
observed that a single volcano may
extrude lavas exhibiting quite different compositions. Data of this type
led them to examine the possibility
that magma might change (evolve)
and thus become the parent to a
variety of igneous rocks. To explore
this idea, a pioneering investigation
into the crystallization of magma
was carried out by N. L. Bowen in the
rst quarter of the 20th century.
Temperature
Regimes
- Series
Bowen's Reaction
61
A
.1,
c,,%';",ff-$2?
r
. . . .-wq,-.
High temperature I
(~1200C)
31
if
fi
Dar
Us
1
\.
it
i:5
se
li
i'"i*'i,__
*3?-iirlrii-1.~=f-1"-:3
T2 TI *,.
v_ \--\-\->-<_s.
49.9/O
Coo
ngmagma
52>?-=--
='~.=;'1.~;;= :::.:>_ .12
' =1 .
5 ii
;i";Yi1?'ii.-=;z.=~-r-z"~.:~?1.:2=:=~.~:: :1:-a':;:':I _.
1
i=;_;:;I'- -1 1;: I ~ Q3-3 *; rt-. -1 ;.;.=-':;=;. - _
ii
_ =;.>.=z-_";*;'l-=12-it-*:?f.;? '4-5;3;3; -1;-.
i-12:5: _ :31: 1
5:5-<-5 .13-_: -;;_;_:;?:'_; 22:3 ;;_:5_-_.,_.;-_ _ __:-.515.-_ 4:-:_
ll
-:~~
>:;
_'_
111
Inm-
Potassium feldspar
5. ..;
-5
_ r -as-
Muscovle mica
fl--'_:_=;"-r, .-.'_.-1-1-6--i-i-a--k.t;i--;-1-:;1- - -;
Granitic
(granite/rhyolite)
-.
m-amm--an-a-w
noq unlbiul
>
r
7
.
r 7
1,
Bowen's reaction series shows the sequence in which minerals crystallize from a magma. Compare this figure to the
mineral composition of the rock groups in Figure 3.9. Note that each rock group consists of minerals that crystallize in the same
temperature range.
62
43*
"
""~_.
-2
Magma
body
1/ is
Eg - '
. -Host? -J
--'9-k
-;a.4_<rI=
T
>
1
.
C-
Crystallization
and crystal settling
..
A
.\
-is
'g i _
*
a .;'
Crystallization
i and crystal settling
Sedimentary Rocks:
Compacted and Cemented
Sediment
at ->"'2Z-\nu: I'I'I
Earth Materials
D Sedimentary Rocks
Recall the rock cycle, which shows the origin ofsedimentary rocks.
Weathering begins the process. Next, gravity and erosional agents
(running water, wind, waves, and glacial ice) remove the products
of weathering and carry them to a new location where they are
deposited. Usually, the particles are broken down further during
this transport phase. Following deposition, this sediment may
become lithied, or turned to rock. Commonly, compaction and
cementation transform the sediment into solid sedimentary rock.
The word sedimentary indicates the nature ofthese rocks, for
it is derived from the Latin sedimentum, which means settling,
a reference to a solid material settling out of a uid. Most sediment is deposited in this fashion. Weathered debris is constantly
being swept from bedrock and carried away by water, ice, or wind.
Eventually, the material is deposited in lakes, river valleys, seas,
and countless other places. The particles in a desert sand dune,
the mud on the oor of a swamp, the gravels in a streambed, and
63
transport. Furthermore, it is sedimentary rocks that contain fossils, which are vital evidence in the study of the geologic past.
Finally, many sedimentary rocks are important economically.
Coal, which is burned to provide a signicant portion ofU.S. elec-
_Fftft;'; 3.'1.ii Sedimentary rocks exposed in Utah's Canyonlands National Park. Sedimentary rocks occur in layers called strata. About '75 percent
of all rock exposures on continents are sedimentary rocks. (Photo by Jeff Gnass)
64
ll
ClasticTexture
( artide size)
.
Sedlment Name
,5
Rock Name
$4-5
(Angular particles)
I :;,'.:_ Q C; 03 g! ,1
l>IJ"0
0! -5-"'
l '0'-luv
'-1I|"-'
g-'9-#.,',a
_m.
Q-' _
J {Q
m-
,1,
: 1
21
__
Clastic: Visible
shells and shell
'
fragments loosely
cemented
;
Camite, Caco
l?
ii
Travertine
|
I
|
i
9!
Crystalline
Limestone
crystalline
s d
"-inF .as-Lil0;-iftr?
Sandstone
-e_E;l (If abundant feldspar
*"
gig? is present the rock I
3,3
is called Arkose) :..E 1
1-i.on'.;,-;".'0'!-I
r~
7
mas.
Nonclastic:
Fine to coarse
:>
Rock Name
Breccia
.__ .-
.5 __ . I
Q
ll|;."'1\,)1:Q|j*:t*0ue'
Texture
:~
.itr
Q Gravel
C
i.Q' (Rounded particles) l -congwmerate ti
____________ ~
a
~
- ~ ~ o1 J Gravel
Coarse
(over 2 mm)
(1/1|\g(j;g';nI1_|m)
Composition
:
. E
:I
K :
.
oquma
:1
1"
Fine
1:
r.rule
~.-E
Q
..tE
lat"
.-','
2.
'"0Q
at I.1 :;Iw.a
v:.'O
J
'''-,
Very fine
(less than
1/256 mm)
r. 9 =
it
'90:
ll,
5
3:
0
r=:.;a..*i=.>F..aa-:*.ra
1/256 mm)
Clasticzvarious size
l.
Shells and Shell i t Fossiliferous
1",
l.
Q
C.
'7}
l
l'?c.'\;.
?g:'1.I
'u0-0b*" 1:b7"1
_C.t .:-~.'
-1-Q
'
il *""5-.'_=8
'-i.
-l
=.It
7"-'-a3''.-:1o7\'u
.. mla,;i,aul.".:n@
0 vi
3"-
Siltstone
..
Clastic: Microscopic t
shells and clay
i.
,
Mud
I
I
___
0?;
_.= ;
Identification of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary
rocks are divided into two major groups, detrital and chemical,
based on their source of sediment. The main criterion for naming
detrital rocks is particle size, whereas the primary basis for
distinguishing among chemical rocks is their mineral composition.
Gypsum
CaSO,,~2H2O
____
____
_..,
___.__
._
ll
l
Rock Gypsum
-
l1
1
l
i1
RcckSalt
Nonclastic:
Fine-grained
. matter
organlc
ll
Halite,NaCl i N"'aSFl"?l
coarse c|y_s_talllne ,
___i
.=
-w -a wt- ._.
Altered
plant
ragments
l
l
l
, Chert(Iight colored)il
Nonclastic:Fineto
coarse crystalline *
Nonclastic: Very
fine crystalline
Qa"Z' Slog Il
_.l
__
DO
ii'
CD
Chalk
-__._m
I,
.l;
r.
..-itl
I
Bituminous Coal
lAl\-Al.IA_I.l~
are called detritus, and the sedimentary rocks that they form are
called detrital sedimentary rocks
._%i~).
The second major source of sediment is soluble material produced largely by chemical weathering. Vllhen these dissolved sub-
and quartz dominate. As you learned earlier, clay minerals are the
most abundant product of the chemical weathering of silicate
minerals, especially the feldspars. Quartz, on the other hand, is
very far from their source prior to deposition and so have not had
corners and rough edges abraded. Sandstone is the name given
rocks when sand-size grains prevail
Shale, the most
common sedimentary rock, is made ofvery ne-grained sediment
ii).
Siltstone, another rather ne-grained rock, is sometimes difcult to differentiate from rocks such as shale, which are
composed of even smaller clay-size sediment.
'
~:${", . -
\i'3.-
65
lit -
ta: ,, iflT
-
9-.-_
*-Q
H .
"vital?
"-5
-':.r.3\
11"-""":
FIGURE 3.19 Shale is a fine-grained detrital rock that is, by far, the
most abundant of all sedimentary rocks. Dark shales containing plant
remains are relatively common. (Photo courtesy of E. J. Tarbuck)
B.
_ M???
- ;?f".:( .
)_
-Q0
' ..
Q"u
".5? _
.
3
_/
IE
"T7
;./9?;-l
.-'~_*. 'r
I;_
. W,.
_
I
-..,,...|
d,_'
1,
1
lip
..,. u
-
f,
~-tl:'-_.-,,..1.~*'~.-" 1'.
",l, .,,,.w'.
-ll.
--.-"(.1 l,PU\l._.o-H,
l-1.:
1i. w l,u
I,-..
WU.~"I'Iv
;
_-3*
l/'""-'l1,
ll
"1.-"'
1--'.-. _,
Mgr
Ib<
''-.i.,.; 'm%
vs1-1?--..~,*
*"
II
"1.:k.,.r_*
M,-*.-1;v~
115%-.j:t-.1 __,;
4
\
J_
|\.
N- Y:
_ rI3
jw
Close up
._ _H_.|_
I
,1:
'!'
I
__
__Hs" "1-_-.
".
:3.
; -.7
ans
Kg;-'*
a=~-
I 5
66
jasper (red), and agate (banded). These chemical sedimentary rocks may have either an
inorganic or biochemical origin, but the
,
mode of origin is usually difficult to
1'
determine.
Very often, evaporation causes
.
minerals to precipitate from water.
Such minerals include halite, the
chief component of rock salt, and
zl-W
-a.,',,
gypsum, the main ingredient of
it
rock gypsum. Both materials have
r
significant commercial importance.
Halite is familiar to everyone as the
common salt used in cooking and seaB
soning foods. Of course, it has many other
uses and has been considered important
enough that people have sought, traded, and
fought over it for much of human history.
Gypsum is the basic ingredient of plaster of Paris. This
material is used most extensively in the construction industry
for drywall and plaster.
In the geologic past, many areas that are now dry land were
covered by shallow arms of the sea that had only narrow
hi
x
5.:-''..'$'*
IF.
pl
Q-5.!-a
..-__,-:_;'.'."v'
.'-:PJ__/i i--'_':"*_
I-ypm
iv u--7
"
'
1
jflJ
"\-\-'-
,9-n.
-L".l"~n.
7'.-
- liar
< is ;
$0-'
I ' 1"
_,
-_.-t rlzangt-I
15.; t
ll x F.
v>
,._,___;.
:2?
V 1;:5;
ten"
"\-.4
Q:
1 .1
'7''.
"Zia.:"-A-1
Qgxxk
2 \
ll
FIGURE 3.22 Chert is a name used for a number of dense, hard rocks
made of microcrystalline quartz. Three examples are shown here.
A. Agate is the banded variety. (Photo by Jeffrey A. Scovil) B. The dark
color of int results from organic matter. (Photo by E. J. Tarbuck) C. The
red variety, called jasper, gets its color from iron oxide. (Photo by E. J.
Tarbuck) D. Native Americans frequently made arrowheads and sharp
tools from chert. (Photo by LA VENTA/CORBIS/SYGMA)
A.
N
3Q;
FIGURE
Chalk is a soft, porous limestone consisting mainly of
hard parts of microscopic organisms. A. White Chalk Cliffs, East Sussex,
England. Thick deposits of chalk are formed in scattered sites in much
of western Europe, and were deposited in a marine environment during
the Cretacous period. (Photo by Prisms/Superstock) B. The majority of fossil
debris comprising chalk deposits consists of microscopic plates, called
coccoliths, that are mainly dispersed following the death of singlecelled algae. (Steve Gschmeissner/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
,___ _,_~_?
J
.1.
_.
__
I-'.?j."""-'~. $5. l
-5 r:
.;>_Z-i_
g
ff?
_
-:;____
ft g
1 '2 '
;E_'1
A. Ag ate
(Figtrre
B. Flint
C. Jasper
D. Arrowhead
67
SWAMP ENVIRONMENT
r _ s"_s _.
PH, ",_r",'
,|'--.-=.".'.
ii I-'="..-fl
.\
_1._\ =-
.~;*' \"-
1'i
1 .-.;
_ -F
}|:1"i\i;>*!_-'1.l
.1
_,. ,5
= Xi '~'
'
,'_.
'
11 1
1.
- - "- -= . -'?'-
:1 1
.1:
ii
=___._
< .
---I,-,,
|.
.
ll1|I- - . -:.F
1 .->1.
Yr i. .
i
(T.
all
Ell
'|
PEAT
(Partially altered plant
material)
A
1
1 Compaction 1
.- _
._.._ _ ---gr-.,-,,
_.
. . " ~- - _: _- - H--; _-~ . ._ ~|
._ _ -____ g
_
;.
.
_~ .-.
1 ' - _ ..- III
. --_< 1%-.1-'-=*=.1_-'41"-%=1%<".=-=' _=;""';.!'i 71: ',;?I.;1;:::='*:, rag;
..I
p
Grea . =Eburial
,r-_
I
LIGNITE
(Soft, brown coal)
-l
_?|
l Compaction 1
1 .57
_
. ii
@_ .
- ' t
"e*==.E
.> 3*i?'=
BITUMINOUS
(Soft, black coal)
r,,,.....if
METAN/l|3-HISM
-'
.'-"7 .'
.
1-<
.r=_- --" "5
f.
A ET"?
,.~*.,~. ,
' . 5.1"-.1.
. . lr-__<
j
l
" .
i
;:1
=:_. -7 _ Z)
Q
ii;"-~I..*~.~
~
.@~.~.-i>--
lll.
lfllt.
..
-
,__\'_J
Stress
_* _ -_;~
1 ' :_-
_
- .,__
ANTHRACITE
(Hard, black coal)
E'l':_
I_\r_-
_;~";_"._f 1'
~.__._.,
Hi
;_.;;f:i'-%.sT=rf<r-?"-:;,_._ma---~'~-
:5
v:---
_.'
- - -..,
;--'5 .~- =. - .
s--*--.-.4
_---1
. _.:,>__
_...
.*- .
_ :
.~
-.i
T __n
I7
'
i
-
:- _ .-- ~
_ ..- =
._ - 1==.
~ .~.
___.__-k}Na_.'f__-_ 3:
-.=*-_",;
-_'~
- 4. . 1-_-__3-.,i.3
;_. , _
Mt i J. _
-K-__-{.1
-_
It
*1'~,',:t "
'T3_
:12:?-_~_;$_\_;-5%._;;;_i.;,- 5.1,:-
- '2-;v_-."..=..'-.5.
,1-~,-'. 1"- ._-=
.._
_ '.
.>:-T-=:-Q. -.>*1~.a5'-"=__-;_.
-z.
-'
V"
68
Lithication of Sediment
Lithification refers to the processes by which sediments are
transformed into solid sedimentary rocks. One of the most
common processes is compaction. As sediments accumulate
through time, the weight of overlying material compresses the
deeper sediments. As the grains are pressed closer and closer,
pore space is greatly reduced. For example, when clays are
buried beneath several thousand meters of material, the
volume of the clay may be reduced as much as 40 percent.
Compaction is most significant in fine-grained sedimentary
rocks such as shale because sand and other coarse sediments
compress little.
Cernentation is another important means by which sediments
are converted to sedimentary rock. The cementing materials are
carried in a solution by water percolating through the pore spaces
between particles. Over time, the cement precipitates onto the
sediment grains, lls the open spaces, and joins the particles. Calcite, silica, and iron oxide are the most common cements. Identication of the cementing material is simple. Calcite cement will
effervesce (zz) with dilute hydrochloric acid. Silica is the hardest cement and thus produces the hardest sedimentary rocks.
When a sedimentary rock has an orange or red
color, this usually means iron oxide is present.
i5itT%'tIi-*i1;:
Sedimentary environments. A. Ripple marks preserved
in sedimentary rocks may indicate a beach or stream channel
environment. (Photo by Ken Hamblin) B. Mud cracks form when wet mud
or clay dries and shrinks, perhaps signifying a tidal at or desert
X
v_ '~ ~ ;:9r
' er" \'
a" T; " ,
-* '_
5 ' _ \..*'
(J _, P
:,
=
_
.
J,
J
'44
,1
'
a _.
it.:9
s...
yfli
-_,1?"'_'J *_.
g
j
g >
.a
re
.r.-'**___t
..
'-
'\-.
\.___
....:s"'
"Ms.
.
*i.
'- 1
-_ __
. J . _-
_>
-r"'-
"-\-
\-
._:
s%
.-. g
-/"
'h_- -.-.:.-._.-,.. }
.-
.____--
Box 3.1
E
?,_,
.F
,r
,'1\
!.
_|
if
Pl
.,1 . __i
'
lg_
li_.,.
.1 .
'
.
=~
._'
.|
_F
1.1
-.i
>
'..
_ .w
_|
|_._:
5:
;
~'~._
I
g
F!
f_ (7 7?)
_.
___/'
_..
>
___
is.-
_
-_
.; \, 1
-_
:.
if
._ .;=.-
. .,_-31'1" "'- .
.>>>u]j'-
Q-\_-in-
pumped from a well) and burned to run factories and fuel our transportation system. One
result of fossil-fuel combustion is the release of
huge quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere.
Certainly one of the most active parts of the
carbon cycle is the movement of CO2 from the
atmosphere to the biosphere and back again.
Carbon also moves from the geosphere
and hydrosphere to the atmosphere and
back again. For example, volcanic activity
early in Earths history is thought to be the
source of much of the carbon dioxide found
in the atmosphere. One way that carbon
dioxide makes its way back to the hydrosphere and then to the solid Earth is by first
combining with water to form carbonic acid
(HZCO3), which then attacks the rocks that
compose the geosphere. One product of this
chemical weathering of solid rock is the soluble bicarbonate ion (2 HCO3'), which is carried by groundwater and streams to the
ocean. Here water-dwelling organisms
extract this dissolved material to produce
Volcanic
Weathering
vity Weatgfeng
of carbonate
;=@-.
granite
Photosynthesis
-_ FOCK
by vegitation
_ __
E
1
_
1; 7,.
4, ; J
,, ~
".1i;;.-xi
Burning and
decay of
biomass j"V
'7
'
0M|'J-ii:
* *
"':.
J4<1-. .._1-j:-*$n]-r*l3r'~
' "
Mt
ii
_,.K
.-IQ-
Burial of
_ biomass
Burning
' -
"/
Respiration
- by land
_ Organisms
$2 -:
{Ill
E {I :5
fr- *.~*i-i -r
___*: '_.*$_{}f*,;;.
offossil
fue s
5
-
*.~>~'-
Eh.
05'
<
R
;~.'{,f.:~.
jl
/
Photosynthesis
and respiration
of marine
.
li ..iJ'
" : I
-\-_,
-"'ta-.'_.d,
- -
"Ii
2%
n.
3*
1.. -H;
-1
7-7
' -: '
~ ' if
14*
;"'
"-"1
iii
-'
.-
i-
_
Deposition
of carbonate
-
'
lv
"-A
1-i-fr
*.
-.-.',3
_
O2
"'3-....'._.o .
'1.9-Q-\:.L'
"
;{3~_,:*}v .
>' .
X1
'-_.-.'1.(-,-1j:
T
~_
W
.,9
'_
_'~* .
o-W4
fil -11$_d"'
.-'.
' \':-:.M:.,-,,'.' ._~,":~._.3
-.""\.~"3.
rvgla
-r--s~.o3%?'.","\?-n,,i"""-#""T2,-' i'?~.,-_T"* %_'1r-,'_..-:7_w,_;-_,_v._-\*.~_ *-I"i;'~+'"~* '-IY ?-'.<~.ir'-.
"P~o-" r-i.-*4t-.--.dW
/
i I, "F '
2_
*f_
it+'-_-_
'-l"~;=r+;..'E-7',~*-. ,
\
-- it
/
/ ~u:hosnhereI
'-I.f~_. -i"\I-
>
_
-ax
vim
__'_
,.l;_;*'-.
1;-:'.~-..=-\-
\-.
.dlSsl"eS
n Seawat er
7'
i...,
._ H
\31"
;;,'3<.
-\'l',r
-.';"'*
\;..
_. H .5.
IL-*5
F
"~,\_,nr'M
t&.l'
k__'';. .H_-.':='_._i
if .
--so
to
FIGURE 3.A Simplified diagram of the carbon cycle, with emphasis on the ow of carbon
between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere. The colored
arrows show whether the ow of carbon is into or out of the atmosphere
Metamorphic Rocks:
New Rock from Old
gm ->""2:Z-l OI I11
69
Earth Materials
P Metamorphic Rocks
70
changes (low-grade metarnorphisrn) to substantial changes (highgrade rnetamorphism). For example, under low-grade metamorphism, the common sedimentary rock shale becomes the more
compact metamorphic rock called slate. Hand samples of these
rocks are sometimes difficult to distinguish, illustrating that the
transition from sedimentary to metamorphic rock is often gradual and the changes can be subtle.
In more extreme environments, metamorphism causes a
transformation so complete that the identity of the parent rock
cannot be determined. In high-grade metamorphism, such features as bedding planes, fossils, and vesicles that may have existed
in the parent rock are obliterated. Furthermore, when rocks deep
in the crust (where temperatures are high) are subjected to
directed pressure, the entire mass may deform, producing largescale structures such as folds (:i.igr.i:@_*a fr.:l?.o),
In the most extreme metamorphic environments, the
temperatures approach those at which rocks melt. However,
daring metamorphism the rock must remain essentially solid,
for if complete melting occurs, we have entered the realm of
igneous activity.
Fit.-iliitiii i't.2l?i Folded and metamorphosed rocks in Anza Borrego Desert State Park, California. (Photo by A. P. Trujillo/APT Photos)
-<-r
*7}.-"f
L-4+,
-5
\&
1
no
sue-1,;
&fI?T:
'1?
\_r~
_>
'
._
5'\
_.
_
43-,
*1
3;
.:~
/Did
\i
\\1
-'
\.-.-
In-"E
tii,
\>
i_f;_-';
ta
'--.
'
ag _
_-_;:'_ _.___-_.-_;_ \
.
, _/_;
_
___
.>\1\\ _<J.~ ,
. " *-. 1 '
:."-. 7*.
-I_**
._l.o._;-~-"i
_\
_..
.,-'-
_<
l
-"_
1:3
5n'_->1
-2-me I.
-_ __
; '
- -.5
n.-
--4--*-~""{..
.
-:3,
7_,7_;;;:_r_____H
|>
\
.--.1.
E;
"""r"_fl.
'
- -
--
_.
. _ H-;
.---, ..
-....-- _
0u-
'A|
i
if-at "
%-\
_:>
g v
-I
'
._
-,;> _.
..
1,
. - .
. -
\_
,
r
\\- ,-
1.
ad,
'
__
'
-~
"Q
>_.
i_',_
--1..
'
"*a
st . F
L.
-r
""\
,'\_
;_7'.
-g
~__ '
_|
.-
tr
F
~u=~3-i;="=i.>,
;
--.--I--~5*
.: __
-.4aw:
g _
,-
;_._'
.. "_
-_.4,r. . ..-I-~ .
;;~..;:,"
g _
_-;
_
'1-s{' 7;.%_
.' -, 1.-'\\'i_i
I ___
H -
,
_,
.
__
K
~' ~~\
I
~- 4;
ll
\
~- H;
.
Q
' '_ -'7_
-.__-ff _ tr
A
'
-5-_ '
I - '
i:-1;.-tr
___.
__
iv
E.-'
_ '
lgrg
5!;
_ __ _,
4_
-~ ---_..,"
-. __=-.__;,k_
F-7:.
-,
I ._ ,_ -+ ;_
'
>'
- _-
-*2,--.;_i_.
.
I
-1.
fln
.
,,.,._
.
,.
---
_~. ---i.
3, ,----
,'
__ _
> a .u__
.= -
_~--)________(___!,
--
-"-"7"
t
_ _
_>_ "-_;
3_ r/___
_
_.
,r'l
" '____a;-.7
-_
,,-,.-3-?@If ,1
.
'
:_ _
""'
Hr '-.-
'7
_\
_.<~u.
---_,.<
;~
_':___-
_ ./-
E
|__"
'
_
iFv'~?%__
.
;lJ,:
__
"----...-,.~.s.a=.t=,,-
.
\
. zzi. jg-;;:_T.2;;
-Hi
- .4.
I.-'"%:
.-_1-?-$"
_,$
1-
.F
..-if
rt
_.
" __ ' 7. 3 *
.,
,.
\4
\
.
xi -
-'K*-*
\
. =1--_ mg-.
; "e--_,_ \- .-"~'\
-
._
\
~':<'--...-<r:-1--1
- . _I .
.,
-.-.
_ _
R
,_ '_ \,.
'-<
~ .-r
'
-31".;-
-.__.-.-.4\_____.-.., _
'-
. \I. ~I .
--v,,-_-_:-
_.._)
_
L1 u.\L";" '.
'1
'
If
.-
{1
'
a
~11--~'.
I _'
'1-_{f,
_7g-1.::|\
-- ;t?~--4.;
-
'-.3,-+15",
/':
't\_,__k-is..
of
F 1-H4F
. 1'-'--Q5
-4
*..-v-a--
.
.~= ~_.
;.< -;*-.-
"
1.1; _-1?-..*"+"
.- ~__,~_:_""=_"'*-__-__..-"' v
.L-.
i.i="i - (Q
'
;_,,. '~.
._
,_ I
1;! _r-,5:
\ ._\\
.
'
.,.--.~:_*~- .
.i -e -I ~r*?
21'"
*_
..
,
.
-_-=>.,-
l-_
3.:
2"!-I-r\'\4-,
6
___
/.,~-____ J-7.
___
g _
._ _ ._--_
_.- --A-~
'
-
W}
_-?:_!_ Kt.) 1
'
___\.-Q.
_-_
',
(kl
I _-- >
- ;'__,..._
.
~'-_ -"*185- _.-"
_-.
"
--I .- ,. ___. _- -,_I5_ i,i L
'2-_
_
- _- -Qisrfi
r .
I i.
L
.
J l_.
Q - _
-'
' '
- .'
' _ -
'
-f-.j.-
'_'
1'-4
.-K I
Z -_-if
-*. go.-.-\._,,_
-.1-+5,-._=}-"l./*7. x
1'
'*-,Ht7_'
'*
It
-\'
'>..' 3
_
I _
'j_
' -1
_ Q
we i~.Y.l}Q - .-E.
l!.g>Jg '___
1-3}
!__ 7
.- .
1 j> :.
H -_ .
' ,'.--11, -.
,
1--."f,;,i---'-.*:
-'
_
ll-s
. :9
_.;_%g\l "r: ~ ___*--. -.\,.
'- -I
>21 F:
-3,-ta,
" 1
4 1'
l 1'
_i
4
..
,
'..
5_
1,
n '\'.'"'-u=.
_| F. -I?-_
_.. J_\ -*
\-
no
~.
(=5-.3, gl*?'3\.:"
xx,-"
S-1?-"
\-*'
-1 1 -
(I
. \_ - _
*'
I\jr"~/fir
r71
-__--\
\-_:
iiiti.iEE
Pressure (stress) as a metamorphic agent. A. In a depositional environment, as confining pressure increases, rocks deform by decreasing in volume. B. During
mountain building, rocks subjected to differential stress are shortened in the direction
that pressure is applied, and lengthened in the direction perpendicular to that force.
it
,,__.; -\,_
--
..
_
i
ll', ll *
L I
<=..
I7 __;
J-1-.?-g--..7,"f-.*
r:-.'
=~-i7
~e
iriis ,,
-.---L-i-J--a
. .
'
'""'"9
confining
'\:--. --'-.
'_
-.c ..
n-.117 ._;;j;;_.._ _7
,,
._
ii 77777
.-..
-' _-
1
_
_,> ti L 1
+ ."
_- . __:=
==%:e'__;;,;.7777
7
"'
-- -
W _ j*1g".
-.7
*'o.mA-3-;;;:-\.>_
A. Confining pressure
7
in.'kw
--
I--1;?-f;E
,.
-.,_i.
3.-?>7:=~
- -1-
-_=~:-=>=.-
.-.
1',"
-i_*--1-:-.;>=ii-4"<r=*>?r
I-Y 2- 7- -;,*~r.,=-
.7
1.
"i
-_
---._.-.;..;-.- --
-'
.
.
-l
_ P
=2 ,,:=.___
..
.
:7
.4}
27
g _
,4
,.
.7
- , g I J. .
.,;. _.
_.;
l
f77F'*\ to
\..~i
iii
3.-.._;__?_77'' '7i--t.7.'_...
i I-.-771;.
I7777-Qi''1|.'
~77l-,-._7'
'l-.'1_,,_'!"7|'|1._'_v-'I
;\.I
-__
7,.|
V,.|.
'v,_;~l
I'-.rt-i-_-~_ 1?
_-4
7
-_.
7777777
7"":
-
7''(
I-."l-7
,..'
'
_
--||_|
l>---it
up777'
77.
L7lMl"
'7,
'4l-'..,77''*-:1,
4.7,
>_---.orn.-..
7:"''"._'
7-77
7h77?'
- is.-=
i'
;,__;j"v-*.~ 727777777777
~'"=1
'-"-'
I-4
-4.._.7="'."'7'"u-17-v-:'.;7 -_' 7-.i-._
7I
v._U
s,-.h
..|
B. Differential stress
.
7
7.
. "
._
7 ' >7
fix
1:kl;;;
'
7-
.7
'\'
7771;.-7 -_
7
n:.7
*1?
''
- -
'\
'-T,
-_
__ _
77 __
,\.
'
/.
if
>
_
__
- -.
-
-. _--. .- :2.
7 7_
7
.._
-{_
______.(
:77
' '
::3.:_(_
"
_
-7 77
7 g
__
<-'
.___
_ Q.-.
7_7
_
1-
!:i'..
I
:
. J7
.-__
' ~- *_=?E::.:..
r'
" \-- -3 -
'=
,- _- :_;
= ..=:1.
=.1'
r
-. _=
2-; -. F"
" -"
'
7
-.
'5
_~"'.*:i==;*_I-._ J I
".' .
.-..;-..;.,';-2:.
~
i l . - " .57?
Y:g
-
-E '_c_
_- g
_-.2 it
77
---.
'
'
. .. . --I
7"
.
l.
'".37. Z7777
'-.
-r-.,
-,
1'
\_:_
1~<-_
,'
-W,
.J
"_i,.,__-1
..,
w;l_.
' .-W:
- _ '-'7 3; _ 7 _
.
' - l='- ..
>
'
1%
<.
-'
'
'
_
,5
-,;.
"-.-._...-_.ma.
ii.771:57
7Pi
.
--T
"".'||..;
:7v:,_||il,:''",,
U'.".'
'I77
'~- .-., ;
=1:
t '
_.
I
i!!.t:_!;.=.i.L.'ll1.!.ls1P.
. "
.,_ '
5
i
-:-77'77 7 '7 :.
7r
' ._-HQ.
I
7\
'._'.'
7I
lv|
-
C-.'
- 5-7?_*.=.-5:-;-'
,
. -
3' Z_ L3; . if
-1.-=4.
E I-___ , _
_,
.1
;=-_,_
_ _..!
," .-
-7-
g_
$7 - AE
"__ 7'
..
'.
_ -
77 7 * 7
__
71
,
1:-
',"
.___'j::'
' |
'
:s
72
Metamorphic Textures
The degree of metamorphism is reected in the rocks texture and
mineralogy. (Recall that the term texture is used to describe the size,
shape, and arrangement of grains within a rock.) I/Vhen rocks are
subjected to low-grade metamorphism, they become more compact
and thus denser. A common example is the metamorphic rock slate,
ii;
i-%%.v:ti Deformed metamorphic rocks exposed in a road cut in
the Eastern Highland of Connecticut. Imagine the tremendous force
required to fold rock in this manner. (Photo by Phil Dombrowski)
Under more extreme conditions, stress causes certain minerals to recrystallize. In general, recrystallization encourages the
growth oflarger crystals. Consequently, many metamorphic rocks
consist ofvisible crystals, much like coarse-grained igneous rocks.
Foliation The term foliation refers to any planer (nearly at)
arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within a
r0Cl<
Although foliation may occur in some
sedimentary and even a few types of igneous rocks, it is a
fundamental characteristic of regionally metamorphosed
rocks-that is, rock units that have been strongly deformed,
mainly by folding. In metamorphic environments, foliation is
ultimately driven by compressional stresses that shorten rock
units, causing mineral grains in preexisting rocks to develop
parallel, or nearly parallel, alignments. Examples of foliation
include the parallel alignment of platy minerals such as the
micas; the parallel alignment of attened pebbles;
compositional banding in which dark and light minerals
separate generating a layered appearance; and rock cleavage
in which rocks can be easily split into tabular slabs.
Nonfoliated Textures Not all metamorphic rocks exhibit a
foliated texture. Those that do not are referred to as nonfoliated,
and typically develop in environments where deformation is
minimal and the parent rocks are composed of minerals that
exhibit equidimensional crystals, such as quartz or calcite. For
example, when a fine-grained limestone (made of calcite) is
metamorphosed by the intrusion of a hot magma body, the small
calcite grains recrystallize to form larger interlocking crystals. The
resulting rock, marble, exhibits large, equidimensional grains that
are randomly oriented, similar to those in a coarse-grained
igneous rock.
To review, metamorphic processes cause many changes in
existing rocks, including increased density, growth of larger crystals, foliation (reorientation of the mineral grains into a layered or
banded appearance), and the transformation of low-temperature
minerals into high-temperature minerals. Furthermore, the introduction of ions generates new minerals, some ofwhich are economically important.
liZ,?3IC__-Z';?j_-'EI"_,T1
t-it
-"-;'.-;rr:-s. '==
ll
I
_*\.
or
Ll
Pli 1. "\lXII".
at -_,,-'.;"~'!I5'00
,-{:
,9...
I HI_.._
_.--5 '
AI
_:
.
')?-gllli
"<
.-
W.\.'.-
H.
.
I1.-;'i._
',
.."i
*L.
.99
..
_KH
I-1?-l'{:%~_
JI,
a?';%iF*'i~"".15-_;g,'-F-"-l
ii ~
'
ri*":.i'!- -. '
if'1'
.iI
~i-' is _;g.;f%:
M
J.
A
Tr
B. After metamorphism
(Dmerentia| stress)
at.i
CT
#1
"4v
>
.|'_'_.Ff1
A
..-
sir
in~.!_.
-,1
,.I
-V-.
W .
'..
~u
' ,__i"-c.
kl,
Q
.r,F
_,_3'
.-4
\. lite,
'v
. Ti
.-""'l
i A,
*1- '
'_
_-
Q;2
_,-T
.;~,In-.I
F::i.h
.,
"'L,-.J
I
\_
y _
If-'
V.
if
.
2-
.yQ
1'-1
~
,_
yr '1.";7-7,
?*\
i.-.
ify if
-.
/\ I \|
I
I /
F\"
as
I'..
I I \\
.I
"-Q
-_,
r
4ri
Q F
'- -i-..r.- w
\| \ I
mnm0@#4m
ii:
-4?
__
'
Q.
:1;-:. r<+.*;_.l:). Slate is usually generated by the lowgrade metamorphism of shale. Less frequently, it is
;- .
--$131
i--_
=-"'*='
-="-*-
-~-_.
._..
,if
-A .' _g. . ~
Ix
I ll \
I
\
73
- '
-i_
-
ithwy.
-qt._
,__.,.___,,.
' __4/.'
%Q :.
Q
n
4_|:.a_,- -vi7
I _-U,-Q-:.'."1_r
\I i-0--
a-,3!
.,
J F
ll
by
7.
;. :-.i.".---
3?--l
'f':'---_
it
>.
..i
. . -5,5Y
"'7-4~ii-E
1*.~.'-'i~.:'5.~:--'*57--1;-r.3-.1.v.
. ~a...i. .
Slates color is variable Black slate contains organic
"*'~'. .~.-fl._
r"*1
~
,'-= -=3:-t,
~.
y
I
.
?
'
i
*
%
;
,
_.
,
rii
ii-"-ti.
material; red slate gets its color from iron oxide; and
;_r.._,,,
;-':-~.-~'*." "wi'- 5"
f .:4
,"5"-If
W
Iii
green slate 1S usually composed of chlorite, a greenish if; ,.
;_; L
.i" ~"
*-.-- *1 "Y?
5;
mlcallke- mlneral
;
ll 5- I> -~i~i;=f1
1'"-Iv-,-."-;"1-;~."="'. .'-e'-if - 1
'.
.-i'-*-"-L '5.-" - 3;?
Schzsts are strongly foliated
rocks formed by * ' i.{;j-5,"' C
ie
~
i;;*.=
s ional metamor P hism ( F1 s ure 3 ~ 31 )- The Y are
platy and can be readily split into thin akes or slabs. Many
iii
Under the pressures of metamorphism, some mineral
schists, like slates, originate from shale parent rock. However,
grains become reoriented and aligned at right angles to the stress. The
schist forms under more extreme metamorphic conditions. The
resulting orientation of mineral grains gives the rock a foliated (layered)
term schist describes the texture of a rock regardless of compositexture. If the coarse-grained igneous rock (granite) on the left
tion. For example, schists composed primarily of muscovite and
underwent intense metamorphism, it could end up closely resembling
the metamorphic rock on the right (gneiss). (Photos by E. J. Tarbuck)
biotite are called mica schists.
~|
iii!-
.. 1
"V"
I:
*2
3;?
-i"'i_\'~A
':-.;--., .-5'
WV:-*\_r_
I-2
p-'_0:.
\'~'
~_
IL
I" [1731
'."-
.i
T"
(.1-f
l -W
._\
_"..
II
\-;\.\:J-i
I
' Ev
__
'.
1 :i .
i
1
Iv
*3
.1 i
-I 0--0
" < i
Rock Name
rt
-".'#"'-".1
:='-
'_
I
4
J\4"I
Slate
_ 7
_~
'
.
A AMAMM
O'Tl
IZ <-
_7
_,_
.-
,.
';__'_,;_-...,.'._~_i..--l"__J*-'4"
:1::
i:
_. 1.
" 1. " . ' @=~'-._;~_i
1;
ii .;'-~'!@*=--=;"'_ "\'
.",-_
.i -+1?-2':-e
.. _ ... >-,_.~~
.__
3|...
1
.:_=_-;_;-'a=.;=~=s-3:.':*;:-.~:-.
t-,/-;_
Schist
.._____~_*_______,.
"
'=
--(DQJCD"1
.-~m>-+- -.Mi~w.w-
;
.
5:*Q3o3
' -.-=_~@-:;-<11"-=
1::-: =-=2
~.-5;:_"""'
"'~
-5
_;-~
-L
-i-Q)
-
wwiu-ximwi uwmw ml
:
if-'-L; *'~=-.*-'-'-f;l?.*'f
-.'>- -*~=-
Q.CD
Bf/3-:1"
1
1-""'
(Marble
H1"- F .
x
_"l""
.'
l \
.1 _,_//.
:soZ
l'f"\.
1.
-.
" Ll\.__,,."r.
"Ni
il
--yu
_..
JI*i'
j U?
;ll
"ii"
,._ '1,.""|f"*
N/"1
'
it
ale;
is i - , .Qr;Si|ptStOpnieg.pp-..
Micaceous
minerals
.
. .
dominate,
scaly foliation
11.. ,mud,stone,..
S-haste;as I
'
Compositional banding
due to segregation of
__
minerals
a i -sr;i't'%i9'1s,..-%i
._
.-~
A -or;-volcantic-A-to '
. .m,._ M._~ .,
'-.
/--1"
1,
l,";"\\_
ii
." i-
_ _r
..
i. _
l.{i
- .- Q
..
1
\.
Medium
to
Oarse
r;"_.-f;-1;-->
___,
db
,
*5-I,
.-@.<aI*'
wt
Quartzite
"9-,,,- '~.
Very fine YE
Medium
iii
'
ii-O
=-F =- '}:'mi:="?
i ll -.' C oarse
Y--_
1K-1.75-. :11. _.
Medium
to
;: . , .~- 1,, \\
*- . . . d. .-.
i
":~
it..\
coarse
i" i-41*
Medium
z .__._3;71?.
_ _ i gill
(DIS
-I
Original
Parent Rock
Comments
E --_..
1 __.__..>-__.__-__,__ia
' .- .1 >1r".
i*TT*T*T_ t
i
f I
O13- r=
=
i
I Grain Size
Texture
i-O
-i
Cpqgrse
_.h
_..._-.0
Interlocking calcite
or dolomite grains
il
:r_1.:,'_
'
. . .t -. .
Ml-hh
on
Anthracite
Fine
i
O_D'-FQJ
ii
1!
ii
1!
o-ooai
.
74
banded texture. While still deep below the surface Where temperatures and pressures are great, banded gneisses can be
deformed into intricate folds.
Z
i
I
i
:
i
ii
ii
iE
f
Slate
1
Ii
ii
iiij
it ti:vi
"~
x
- 8 a. T
5;
Te.-
-r J
.-;_.-,.{
_-1 . . .
-I,{t3!'-gr:
_
-;gS',:;:;_ _.
1' ' _
"i id?
ii
-"'35-
"73".
ll; FT"
at-
-$4; 3
t -
-"_ *;f_
7'
_. ,5
-19*-:;r
__:
1-'4:
__
'>_-iv-..
'-'-
- -. _
1.
g;?;_)____
'
. ._
->
Ir. .
=':-=~
'
I 2!
. -,:.
._-2
- * .
"
52.4 ,.!iili=@ _ = 4-
(ii
7.
;
1:;
FT!
1
=2:
~:1 '-'
..
.u
_-,5
Q:
.- 1-
_._-
55:
_.
.,:,_.=,/.
_:-- .1:
~-=~_;:
:---._:_
.1
___:;
~=.
-in-
_
_7_
"
_ -,.::s"
_*_',
:1;
ii
.. .
_,
.,_
-iiittrlaiiidliaized iii:;ii2.iiii:ir,eJiilc
_:-:~
-.2;
si-
,-=
'--ii-mi
'1:
I:-= _-,h;~
'
___, .
__-
__7 _
. - -
-_,. ,.
-F *
Iz iv_>.~_'_,.
"-'~3;" '-97 , - , I __
1;
g '-. 1__
_Z ;,__;' > -
il:
__:_:1-'
rig
,1;
'~'.
-if
' -:';'_
"~- "**
~;:-
,1} ;<s,_
._
li
- F.-.-2-_,
,;r
3. i B -~;
r ~. _'._";;_}'_
;s=.*- _->._-'
. '5_~_'
;-11.1%.,
-. " 1
__.
3_
~ .. 1":i'.:=r-=,-,~ i
'
"'?"..'al
Z i
- : -1_;*- _- v
.
~,-* 111; ' =1?
' r-. ._
;7f-.4,_._
" '
*-..--2:-2?:
._..
-F hr 1
. ; -'
- ,4-
-Q J *
r._-*"._
. -:
."-=a'=~i7 ,.
- _:.
1.l
_ _
==:;::.:.;:z::--r-=*-"
3'-Y
'
- 8 -*in? *2
x:_?3&__z=;i
E
51/ *1
<i."'.-'"?: -9'15:
.f_'7-i-*~
4"
:
_>---_W_~_
l
Vi}
;'i="5."} :1 I1}-..; _
-5 :3}. ;:-.1,-gfai:.:;_34.;3:,?~:._
_
.
schist
_
:g;a_y_=;__,_1___
,..9
-v - .- _
a ,+_ii .}i$_,_g=_A
- '..-.-_._ , 1 I.-<=-.
ii
.1;
~_
-,5
.ir_.-
- - :
' __
_.__
_~--_-<;_;
_-1'
,2
i
i.li11i'i.ii?ii_i .Ei.il..E1 Because slate breaks into at slabs, it has many uses.
The larger image shows a quarry near Alta, Norway. (Photo by Fred
Bruemmer/Photolibrary). In the inset photo, slate is used to roof a house
ili
I
-'
_
ll(H
.
' 0
Marble
l2;*<s.5j7""i"l'.,_f7T?!;-.T%3f.%5:"T'7
1;; 1.
-_
4- *
'
.i
_I
_, ,1, -
-'
'
..i.
' -
.
' 7-
.- ,-_
_ =_
<_
- V .
1 - '
115:;
,.\,7-I . ",5."
ii;
;._;-=-
-*}-
-a
il"~
\ ""
i -.s~.~*. ;1'.i~:.
-it
. :. ife 1 - X-1
V.
3'5
._
'
_.
be .?lrf '
ii
' 7_
-.5 ==~.--~.-_.
.,,,-ii.-'. 1"
.:.
1 - I
'
i
i
2) qii
if ' :
"*5;-=_
j:i
i,
i
l
'
.
_
'
,~-:1. ; --
,.--J-,=:_T_-,='r
' ---". ..__
_._,,_ __-,
--_
_;-.-
-_ .-_.- -.;<.-.
---3...
i.
I
i
ii
1,
gmmo-umzg;
lli
li
_ '~".\ -: ?_--35--.-g,
ii;-';,'-T,-. -*.- -_ ;_s=I-'.;;; ;_;- .
_-_
gr; -- .- --__;,:__'-}__J_;21._I;__ f,_j-._;l ._,,,
;,-'5-'_' *- ,2-,, -',\'--vi" -_,_. -1 ,,,- --rs:-=..~ ;
'-:2-_.___ - _-" I
--
'
'f I
- Y 7-_ ' n_
. ~_",;'_-__'.'?'-"'-"\;.
-._..
\._
I '- '7-:1
4.1?-'*"7-I.- "=15
'?/7'."
-ii-.1 1.:
7'
_F;,\'\
-. - __
.;I_,
J-_;-3\i " . -31.!"
._ -;l>".i*l:\':::i_"::V;l_ 3: Q. -;,_ 5 :_:_ ._: 1,:-5! _:Li;;._ 2- _ .1
>* - "' "5 T 4;--=l 1 ~ -'@ -:"*3!{'
-. \ ;." 1}-" -1
-t-1-.
er?"
.-.-e\___-5-F
-B. .; -r..,~.- T;--.1-'=
1
LE9
-ii?! $4!=;:$=-..:._
:__ -1,. ___;___1.'\1__L.
_\_--:;.,_
fa |rI1->Lg=I-_.g_- :!.%~:)i
; '_{E: 3 Z}? 7 ;, 1
ii-
*.-'==,_-.--
T5:-'I,;.,
,_ _-__'_
*-f
qkq
L. FY: i _-1:5.
1i
=y'l 1 11.
p,;_.,;-..{*Ea'a3fa"3-+13-'1,:-.-~-_
1I -r-.-r.--;'.=' vii-..a;-*:i'zf'..*:-'.F'*!
T-;,-F, .--:-'-i'-'r=;.*- .'_4- .,, i
7
|_:>-_ J"_-_~=_-\.'\ _-.r'_)'__'I _',__.
=-_*..i.;j='~"
-_3 :.z:;,---151,-"5,-_"-g.
'.l. -if!-~ .-Q";"?:<' 11"1'
--T_ !
__>
-'
.-~_
., ta -,,-i.__l:. ---.:."
g
?;- p. , V-1
4". _-%='>i -ii
".,. rQ '51.-:1,-11- ' I.:1-_-':"7_1
:15";
'*'*L=:1
l 1 _
_:,ET;
\1-=___
ii.
__._'ff;
x.:_ _' ~* __ il
-:. _\3?__T;___.;
_~_'1;_ E .';_: r__1.'_:
Jr gl,:_'f;;'g_'>___:.3f_qy,:Fy:~g{:.*__|
'-
-'
'1' -.;
. .. -'
<-
.
_
>
'-1 ~
'...-r:-.-=
= .1. -_
_.
-~
:;"J'_""i-:T<l':
'
-*
_ -
,4: - .
1-'>i'-: 2 : r. '
'
":3 - =_
Q;
'- .1 f
;,=-1;i;:._;_,l?=!Ti:!='
=1;
""< ~l1;*--*I"
-'
_\-if
1- -1' _
'
1
i
l
(F
,1
l
1'--_
75
i=?.ii%i;I.i%E
Marble, because of its workability, is a widely used building stone. A. The white exterior of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington,
D.C., is constructed mainly of marble that was quarried in Marble, Colorado. Inside, pink Tennessee marble was used for the oors, Alabama
marble for the ceilings, and Georgia marble for Lincolns statue. (Photo by Daniel Grill/iStockphoto) B. The exterior of Indias Taj Mahal is constructed
primarily of the metamorphic rock marble. (Photo by Holger Mette/Shutterstock)
ll
if
'
--'
"-~"- W
i
i
71.5
3.
"
;E1;.1?" .-1%
- :_ .' ?E ' -
---~
~.
_ j;
,,_
.-
..'>
~_ ;
~ .-~.:~::
; '-; ;
" f-T~':l1;-;_,.'. ._ t
..
'
ii
l
T rhiiiij
if Fri
. 7"*?i*=*h.r~ -
S-L: i
iii; *t.tii
_ MiNMMQMM
,:""i;1f-1;!Jfl.\i 7? .
iiigi l;;:3t|:-5 '-
_ _
t ~r
In
p
-sa...,
at
may
1""
.
S;
aiitf
1,1
|..4__.
i*.f~"~':"
if-UT
#9-.
" an-1
1-w
awry;
B.
,__
<-=-1---p-_-=-@
,_
76
ore Mineral
Aluminum
Bauxite
Chromium
__>_U__g____ Chromite
Copper
7'79
ii .-'1 ~'
i _ __w___ _
Bornite
u_., I 1,
Ix
Chalcocite
Gold
__
$2
* *5;
Chalcopyrite
Iron
p Native gold
_
0.,
Hematite
Limonite
Lead
Galena
Magnesium
Magnesite
${-..:f"'
-' Al'-~"$_
=""."
. Q
Magnetite
W- I
7 i
jg
*~'1'r'5'-&hs-.};."'
- 4
.,_-Q,
ea.
rw}
0_.
:5-i.
'.Twp?-
4.
If.$9.;7!-.Il"._7 .i5.
I3
-Q:-
Dolomite
Manganese
Pyrolusite
Mercury
Molybdenum
Nickel
Molybdenite
Bentlandite A
Platinum
ilver
Cimiabar
Native platinum
j
if i
Native silver
Argentite
Cassiterite
Titanium
Ilmenite
Rutile
Tungsten
Wolframite
Scheelite
Uranium
Ilraniniteipitchblende)
Zinc
Sphalerite
if
- Ir.-.1-%--;;._~..-:..".,i'
x'_;':.;T'?"*r"-:_;.
as
w.-7
I.
.
,_- '|I
--In-')'
- _,--.-|- .1
'1". '_v'.T'i .-I l_, _.>-
I
MP1
_. '
__
..
z -4
-"*1
rai-2-I
.1-:;r 1+1-.
i-'.;'S-41-
_-.-"--> . ._=.- _.,\__;,;;-'
L;
__.'.\_.);_;;-
\;. _---,--_*-._,-_,"\~.'-,'._'\-,...;-.,._'~.
-.
-w
77
Uses
Apatite
Phosphorous fertilizers
Asbestos (chrysotile)
Incombustible fibers
Calcite
Clay minera_ls_(l<aolinite)
p Ceramics; china
Corundum
Gemstones abrasives
Diamond
Gemstones; abrasives
Fluorite
Garnet
Abrasives; gemstones
Graphite
Gypsum
Halite
Muscovite
Quartz
Sulfur
Sylvite
Potassium fertilizers
Talc
min
j f
Raymond Forbes/Photolibrary)
MWIM
K
asuqs
-_
~- -3-5'3
il
l
-In
5/.'Z'f
wt... 4%
"""*;;U-"
Q5i
..
ss___;;%;
78
for plaster and wallboard, clay for tile and bricks, and cement,
which is made from limestone and shale. Cement and aggregate go into the making of concrete, a material that is essential
to practically all construction.
Many and various nonmetallic resources are classified as
industrial minerals. People often do not realize the importance
GIVE IT SOME
1. Refer to Figure 3.2. How does the rock cycle diagram, in particular the labeled arrows, support the
fact that sedimentary rocks are the most abundant rock type on Earths surface?
2. Would you expect all of the crystals in an intrusive igneous rock to be the same size? Explain why
or why not.
3. Apply your understanding of igneous rock textures to describe the cooling history of each of the
igneous rocks pictured here.
as
;~ ~;";.,_ 3
1 ~~.~'*-_ 1-,_
'-(Q
-- _-Y.
1' .1 '
.-Kai
_1|';;:__' J?
"
If;
Li?
g;
*.\*~;n
"'4'_:-\.
*..
*-"-
i
7
71;?
__-'
cl
* _ . _ *1
.~f'i"r..;
f
1,
.>
'-sf
ii3%.
B.
*9 a
rI1+.
L"Ir..-."\-'-it
&r
A
tr atI
331$?"
(W ' ~13
z-r,
is
Iq
. 1-
i\-I-Ix
Q?-W
. 1,.
r.
if I
rsi~%-i ;
a
T
'5.
1
4-. t
I
M
ml
xi!
iv
*-.L_
all
I
: is '
- it-'=
' u-'*_
__
it 7
ah
-"l\II
:'
A
':v
;"?_;:l-'-
I-._
"
.5? -3%
*;'_Jr
1'? . _
-_ I
J
a; )
I
g5_ "
- ~-'~;"
.r S . i>_'::~s%i
-nI';9.?L-5
5
_-4,--~
-';-_-gag];
iy - . . ,-T3,
nil? ,5?
;- '<=-'=
' 1-;;@.:I
l_a
1'
Q5
.5<\
Q ..
'
3 __
Q14-is; :3
4.4
IQ,"
V-\".-In
1Q
-I
I H.
Yl
p -
1-
-IA-.1f
. 1%,
r._,,
ii T Pi ._.
=-
1 ..:?
ii"ii
;-
ii-+
ff.,_;F->9,\
._..'. , 1I _.'
,,__,-F; '-
-,__'
<.
- -I
if
- Ii?-1'
; v:--.V_,.
"
. ' P...
..;>?i er-$1 I -;,/N.
>2
?""t
: In ..
- --Q
1;;
-41 l T".*'_kg-_ E) J:
0frF R
?i;,..-$5,_ 1 .._
_ . ."3
~\T.
wd';:'\\
1.1. _.
1*
1%
F; 4:,-...f!j:_
o.
4. ls it possible for two igneous rocks to have the same mineral composition but be different rocks? Use
an example to explain your answer.
5. Use your understanding of Bowens reaction series (Figure 3.13) and the process of magmatic differentiation to explain how partial melting can generate magmas with different compositions.
6. Dust collecting on furniture is an everyday example of a sedimentary process. Provide another
example of a sedimentary process that might be observed in or around where you live.
7. Describe two reasons why sedimentary rocks are more likely to contain fossils than igneous rocks.
8. If you hiked to a mountain peak and found limestone at the top, what would that indicate about the
Chapter Summary
9. The accompanying photos each illustrate either a typical igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic
rock body. Which do you think is a metamorphic rock? Explain why you ruled out the other rock
bodies.
A.
8.
C.
10. Examine the accompanying photos, which show the geology of the Grand Canyon. Notice that
most of the canyon consists of layers of sedimentary rocks, but if you were to hike down into the
inner gorge you would encounter the Vishnu schist, a metamorphic rock.
a. What process might have been responsible for the formation of the Vishnu schist? I-low does
this process differ from the processes that formed the sedimentary rocks that are atop the
Vishnu schist?
b. What does the Vishnu schist tell you about the history of the Grand Canyon prior to the formation of the canyon itself?
c. Why is the Vishnu schist visible at Earths surface?
d. Is it likely that rocks similar to the Vishnu schist exist elsewhere but are not exposed at Earths
surface? Explain.
ck?
& ._i iv
A. Grand Canyon
B. Close up ofvishnu
Schist (dark color)
I
80
Key Terms
andesitic (intermediate) composition
(p. 60)
basaltic composition (p. 60)
Bowens reaction series (p. 61)
chemical sedimentary rock (p. 64)
coarse-grained texture (p. 56)
contact (thermal) metamorphism (p. 70)
crystal settling (p. 61)
detrital sedimentary rock (p. 64)
disseminated deposit (p. 77)
evaporite deposit (p. 67)
extrusive (volcanic) (p. 55)
felsic (p. 58)
fine-grained texture (p. 56)
Mastering Geology
81
Mastering Geology
.-;
ii -,-J
it s
.-
Q
-.-
2'
i' -
TM
GEOLGY
t
>~
-.
Looking for additional review and test prep materials? Visit the