7.mechanical Properties

9/26/2008
MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials
Mechanical Properties
Why mechanical properties?
Reading: Chapter 7
Need to design materials that can withstand applied load

e.g. materials used in
building bridges that can
hold up automobiles,
pedestrians
materials for
skyscrapers
in the Windy
City
NASA
materials for
space
exploration
materials for and designing
MEMs and NEMs
Space elevators?
2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois
MSE280
Issues to address
Stress and strain
Elastic behavior
Plastic behavior
Strength, ductility, resilience, toughness,
hardness
Mechanical behavior of different classes
of materials
Design/safety factors
2
MSE280
9/26/2008
Stress and Strain

Stress: Pressure due to applied load.
tension, compression, shear, torsion, and
combination.
stress = =
force
area
Strain: response of the material to stress (i.e. physical

deformation such as elongation due to tension).
Tension
Shear
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Compression
Torsion
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9/26/2008
COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Simple tension: cable
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
Ao
Ski lift
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

From Callister 6e resource CD.
MSE280

Simple compression:
Ao
Canyon
y Bridge,
g Los Alamos, NM
Balanced Rock, Arches

National Park
F
Ao
Note: compressive
structure member
( < 0 here).
MSE280
9/26/2008

Hydrostatic compression:
Fish under water
<
h 0
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
MSE280
Tension and Compression

Tension
Engineering stress = =
F
Ao
Engineering strain = =
li lo l
=
lo
lo
Ao = original cross sectional area

li = instantaneous length
lo = original length
Note: strain is unitless
unitless.
Compression
Same as tension but in the opposite direction (stress and strain defined
in the same manner).
8
By convention, stress and strain are negative for compression.
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9/26/2008
Shear
Pure shear stress = =
F
Ao
Pure shear strain = = tan
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Elastic Deformation
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
Elastic means reversible!

Linearelastic
Non-Linearelastic
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MSE280
9/26/2008
Plastic Deformation
1. Initial
2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
3. Unload
p lanes
still
sheared
plastic
elastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
plastic
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MSE280
Stress-strain test
tensile stress,
Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
engineering strain,
p lastic strain
Figure 6.3 Callister
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9/26/2008
Elastic Deformation
-a non-permanent deformation where the material completely
recovers to its original state upon release of the applied stress.
= E
Hookes Law:
strain
stress
Modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus)
Measure of materials resistance

to elastic deformation (stiffness).
E = slope in the linear region
For metals, typically E ~ 45 400 GPa
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MSE280
Recall back to bonding Energy vs. r curve

E
Steeper slope near ro leads to larger
Elastic modulus.
r
Bond
B
d
energy
tension
compression
Equilibrium bond length = ro
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MSE280
9/26/2008
S co (s
Silicon
(single
g e ccrystal)
ysta )
Glass (pyrex)
SiC (fused or sintered)
Graphite (molded)
High modulus C-fiber
Carbon Nanotubes
120
0 - 190
90 (depe
(depends
ds o
on ccrystallographic
ysta og ap c d
direction)
ect o )
70
207 - 483
~12
If we normalize to density: ~20 times
400
that of steel wire.
~1000
Density normalized strength is ~56X
15
that of steel wire.
MSE280
Elastic deformation: example problem
100 inches
1 inch
Steel car hanger: How many

VW Beetles must we hang
from a 100 inch long bar of
steel in order to stretch it by
1%?
Ao = 1 in2
E = 30 x 106 psi
MATSE 101 Materials in Todays World

Tim Spila, 2002
I. Robertson, Ken Bratland 1999, 2000
Will this be an elastic deformation?

16
MSE280
9/26/2008
Poisson Ratio
So far, weve considered stress only along one dimension
Along
g z: tension
z =
l
lo
Along x: compression
z
x
do
x =
lo
lo+l
Isotropic x and y: =
y
x
do+d
Poisson ratio =
Compression
d
do
y
x
=
z
z
Elongation
Relation between elastic and shear moduli: E = 2G(1+)

17
MSE280
Poisson Ratio
Poisson Ratio has a range 1 1/2
Look at extremes w /w = l /l
No change in aspect ratio:
w /w
=
= 1
l /l
Volume (V = AL) remains constant: V =0 or lA = - A l

Hence, V = (l A+A l) = 0.
In terms of width, A = w2,
and A = w2 - ((w+w))2 = 2w w + w2
then
A/A = 2 w/w + w2/w2
in the limit of small changes,
w / w
( 1 l / l)
A/A = 2 w/w
=
= 2
= 1/ 2
then
l / l
l / l
2 w/w = -l/l
18
MSE280
9/26/2008
Poisson Ratio: materials specific

Metals: Ir
W
0.26
Ni
0.29
Cu
0.31
Al
0.34
Ag
0.34
Au
0.38
0.42
generic value ~ 1/3
Solid Argon: 0.25

Covalent Solids:
Ionic Solids:
Si
0.27
MgO
Ge
0.28
Al2O3
0.23
TiC
0.19
generic value ~ 1/4
0.19
Silica Glass: 0.20

Polymers: Network (Bakelite) 0.49
Elastomer:
Chain (PE) 0.40
Hard Rubber (Ebonite) 0.39
(Natural) 0.49
19
MSE280
Poisson Ratio: Example problem

Calculate the force necessary to produce change
of - 2.5 x 10-3 mm in diameter of a 10mm diameter
brass rod
rod.
z
x
do=10 mm
d = -2.5 x 10-3 mm
20
MSE280
10
9/26/2008
Plastic Deformation
Simple tension test:
Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress
tensile stress,
stress
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
engineering strain,
p lastic strain
A permanent deformation (usually considered for T<Tm/3).

Atoms break bonds and form new ones.
In metals, plastic deformation occurs typically at strain 0.005.
21
MSE280
Tensile properties
A. Yield strength (y): the strength required to produce
a very slight yet specified amount of plastic deformation.
Whatt iis th
Wh
the specified
ifi d amountt off strain?
t i ?
Strain offset method
1. Start at 0.002 strain (for most metals).
2. Draw a line parallel to the linear region.
3. y = where the dotted line crosses
the stress-strain curve.
P = proportional limit (beginning of

deviation from linear behavior.
behavior
Mixed elastic-plastic behavior
0.002
Elastic region
For materials with nonlinear elastic region:

y is defined as stress required to produce
specific amount of strain (e.g. ~0.005 for
22
most metals).
MSE280
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9/26/2008
Tensile properties
Yield point phenomenon occurs when elastic-plastic
transition is well-defined and abrupt.
p
No offset methods required here.
23
Fig. 6.10 Callister
MSE280
Yield strengths of different materials

Metals/
Alloys
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Composites/
fibers
Polymers
20 00
300
Yield strenggth,
200
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr
100
70
60
50
40
Al (6061) a
30
20
Tin (pure)
dry
PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
humid
PVC
PP
HDPE
Harrd to measure,
700
600
500
400
LDPE
10 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

2007, 2008
in ceramic matrix and ep

poxy matrix composites, since
in tension, fracture u
usually occurs before yield.
10 00
Hard
d to measure ,
since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
y (MPa))
Steel (4140) qt
y(ceramics)
>>y(
y(metals))
>> y(polymers)
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
24
MSE280
12
9/26/2008
Tensile Properties
B. Tensile Strength (TS): stress at the maximum of
stress-strain curve.
TS
P = proportional limit
y = yield strength
TS = tensile strength
M = max. stress
F = fracture point
0.002
Elastic region
Note: For most engineering materials, strength should be

specified by yield strength (not tensile strength). Why? 25
MSE280
Necking
engineering
stress
TS
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

Callister 6e.
6e
Typical response of a metal
strain
Necking: at maximum stress, a small constriction (a neck)
appears.
Subsequent deformation is confined to this neck.
26
MSE280
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9/26/2008
True stress and strain

engineering
g
stress
TS
Notice that past maximum stress

point, decreases.
Does this mean that the
material is becoming weaker?
Necking leads to smaller cross

sectional area!
strain
Recall: Engineering Stress = =

True Stress = T =
F
Ai
True Strain = T = ln
li
lo
F
Ao
Original cross sectional area!
Ai = instantaneous area
li = instantaneous length
If no net volume change (i.e. Ai li = Ao lo)
T = (1 + )
T = ln(1 + )
Only true at the onset of

27
necking
MSE280
Example problem
Calculate/determine the
following for a brass
specimen
i
th
thatt exhibits
hibit
stress-strain behavior
shown on the left.
1) Modulus of elasticity.
2) Yield strength.
3) Maximum load for a
cylindrical specimen
with d = 12.8mm.
4) Change in length at
345MPa if the initial
length is 250mm.
28
MSE280
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9/26/2008
Tensile properties
C. Ductility: measure of degree of plastic deformation that
has been sustained at fracture.
Ductile materials can undergo significant plastic
deformation before fracture.
Brittle materials can tolerate only very small plastic
deformation.
29
MSE280
Measure of ductility
% elongation =
% reduction in area =
l f lo
lo
100%
Ao A f
Ao
Lo
Ao
Af
Lf
100%
Ao and lo are initial.
Af and lf are at
fracture.
N
Note:
t %AR and
d %EL are often
ft comparable.
bl
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
Typically, materials are considered: brittle if %EL < 5%
ductile if %EL > 5%
30
MSE280
15
9/26/2008
Example Problem: ductility & true stress
engineering
stress
TS
Steel specimen with

do = 12.8 mm
Fracture at f = 460 MPa
Cross sectional diameter at
fracture = 10.7 mm
strain
A) Calculate ductility in terms of percent reduction in area.

B) The true stress at fracture.
Example problem 6.4 Callister 6e
31
MSE280
Note: most metals are ductile at RT, but can become

brittle at low T
Ductile failure
Brittle failure
32
MSE280
16
9/26/2008
Tensile properties
D. Resilience: the capacity to absorb energy when
deformed elastically and to have the absorbed energy
recovered upon unloading.
Modulus of Resilience =U
= d
0
Ur =
y2
2E
Resilient materials have large

yield strength and small elastic
modulus.
Ur = area under
the elastic region
y
If the elastic region

is perfectly linear
(i.e. E is
independent of ):
E. Toughness: the ability of a material to absorb energy

up to its fracture point.
33
MSE280
Elastic recovery after plastic deformation
This behavior is exploited

to increase yield strengths
of metals: strain
hardening (also called
cold working).
34
MSE280
17
9/26/2008
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to p
plastic deformation or cracking
g in
compression.
--better wear properties.
e.g.,
10mm sphere
apply known force

(1 to 1000g)
measure size
of indent after
removing load
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
Indentation will depend not only on the material being

tested but also indenter composition and geometry.
35
MSE280
Hardness scales
Indentation with
diamond pyramid tip
Indentation with
spherical hardened
steel and conical
diamond (for
hardest materials)
Indentation with spherical

hardened steel or tungsten
carbide tip.
36
Qualitative scale
MSE280
18
9/26/2008
Correlation between hardness and tensile strength
Both tensile strength and

hardness indicate a
materials resistance to
plastic deformation.
these two properties are
37
roughly proportional.
MSE280
Mechanical properties - Ceramics

Recall tensile tests for stress-strain behavior
Most ceramics (brittle):

need to apply large stress
(but very little strain till
fracture)
Most metals: can
get elastic
modulus, yield
strength tensile
strength,
strength etc
In fact, if the testing apparatus is mainly made of metal, how do we

test for ceramics with larger fracture strength?
38
MSE280
19
9/26/2008
3-point bend test
This is similar to tensile test. Why?

Look at point of max stress (where is it?).
39
MSE280
3-point bend test

b
Elastic modulus is proportional to F/
F L3
4bd 3
F L3
=
4R 4
Erectt . =
Ecirc.
Flexural strength: strength at fracture

Sl
Slope
= F/
fs = 2
fs =
3F f L
4bd 2
Ff L
R 3
Rectangular
Circular
Ff = force at fracture
40
MSE280
20
9/26/2008
Example 1: 3pt bend test

F
Glass specimen
5 mm
10 mm
45 mm
a)) Calculate
C l l t fl
flexurall strength
t
th if th
the lload
d att ffracture
t
iis 290 N
N.
b) Calculate the maximum deflection at F = 266 N
41
MSE280
Example 2: 3pt bend test

F
Sample A
A
R2 = d2
L
F
Sample B
L
Compare the ratio of flexural strengths
42
MSE280
21
9/26/2008
Polymer stress-strain behavior

Brittle
Plastic
Highly elastic
Plastic polymers
43
MSE280

Modulus of elasticity ~7MPa to 4GPa.
Tensile strength up to ~100MPa.
Plastic elongation can be >100%.
Typically highly T sensitive mechanical properties.
44
MSE280
22
9/26/2008

Metal (Iron)
Polymer (PMMA)
As T increases:
E decreases
TS decreases
Ductility increases
45
MSE280
Semicrystalline polymer
Upper
yyield p
pt
Neck formation
(chains become
aligned in the neck)
Elongation via neck propagation

lower yield pt
Elastic region
Compare to metals where

neck forms and
subsequent deformation is
at the neck.
46
MSE280
23
9/26/2008
Viscoelastic deformation
Amorphous polymers may act like:
- Glass at low T (T < Tg Glass transition temperature).
- Rubbery solid (Tm > T > Tg).
- Viscous
Vi
liliquid
id (T > Tm).
)
Viscoelasticity: mechanical characteristics exhibiting both viscous
flow and elastic deformation (rubbery solid).
Elastic
Instantaneous
response w/
complete
recovery.
y
Delayed
response.
Viscous Not reversible.
Viscoelastic
47
MSE280
Viscoelastic relaxation modulus

Recall Elastic Modulus:
= E
The modulus can be both time and temperature dependent.

(t)
1. At a constant T, apply small stress () to
achieve initial strain (o).
2. Adjust to maintain o.
3. Repeat at different T.
(t)
For each T: Relaxation Modulus
E r (t ) =
(t )
o
48
MSE280
24
9/26/2008

Plot as a
function
of T at a
fixed t.
Polystyrene (t = 10s)
3 orders of magnitude
change
Glass transition
Fig. 15.6 Callister
Fig. 15.7 Callister
49
MSE280

Glassy region:
Initially independent of T.
Rigid & brittle (molecular chains
f
frozen
in
i place).
l
)
Glass transition region:
Time-dependent deformation.
Incomplete recovery upon release
of load.
Rubbery region:
Both viscous and elastic.
elastic
Low relaxation modulus -> easy
to deform.
Viscous flow region:
High viscosity liquid.
Completely viscous deformation.
50
MSE280
25
9/26/2008

Molecular structure effect
Polystyrene
Crystalline isotactic PS
Highly crosslinked PS
Amorphous PS
51
MSE280
Viscoelastic creep
Time dependent deformation when stress is kept
constant (as opposed to constant strain for viscoelastic
rela ation)
relaxation).
Creep modulus:
E c (t ) =
o
(t )
Similar to relaxation modulus, creep modulus is

dependent on T and structure.
In general: Ec(t) decreases with increasing T
Ec(t) increases with increasing crystallinity.
52
MSE280
26
9/26/2008
Example problem
crystalline
crosslinked
amorphous
Which behavior will polystyrene exhibit if it is:

1) amorphous and deformed at 120oC?
2) amorphous and deformed at 180oC?
3) crystalline and deformed at 70oC?
4) crosslinked and deformed at 180oC?
53
MSE280
Concepts to remember
Tensile, compressive, shear, and torsional stress. Strain.

Elastic vs. Plastic deformation.
Modulus of elasticity.
Yield and tensile strengths.
Poisson ratio.
True vs. Engineering stress and strain.
Necking.
Ductility, Resilience, Toughness, Hardness.
Polymer stress-strain behavior.
Viscoelastic relaxation and creep.
54
MSE280
27

7.mechanical Properties

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9/26/2008

MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

Need to design materials that can withstand applied load

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Stress and Strain

Strain: response of the material to stress (i.e. physical

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Balanced Rock, Arches

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Fish under water

From Callister 6e resource CD.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Tension and Compression

Ao = original cross sectional area

Pure shear stress = =

Pure shear strain = = tan

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Elastic means reversible!

From Callister 6e resource CD.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

From Callister 6e resource CD.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus)

Measure of materials resistance

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Recall back to bonding Energy vs. r curve

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Elastic deformation: example problem

Steel car hanger: How many

MATSE 101 Materials in Todays World

I. Robertson, Ken Bratland 1999, 2000

Will this be an elastic deformation?

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Relation between elastic and shear moduli: E = 2G(1+)

Volume (V = AL) remains constant: V =0 or lA = - A l

Poisson Ratio: materials specific

generic value ~ 1/3

Solid Argon: 0.25

generic value ~ 1/4

Silica Glass: 0.20

Chain (PE) 0.40

Hard Rubber (Ebonite) 0.39

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Poisson Ratio: Example problem

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

From Callister 6e resource CD.

A permanent deformation (usually considered for T<Tm/3).

P = proportional limit (beginning of

For materials with nonlinear elastic region:

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

No offset methods required here.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Yield strengths of different materials

10 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

in ceramic matrix and ep

From Callister 6e resource CD.