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IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.PAS-98, No.5 Sept/Oct 1979
Abstract - Useful mitigation techniques are presented for the reduction of voltages induced on gas
transmission pipelines by 60 Hz ac power transmission
lines sharing a joint right-of-way. Part I describes
how a joint pipeline/power line corridor can be designed to minimize inductive coupling. This allows
installation of the utilities with significantly reduced requirements for pipeline voltage mitigation
using grounding techniques.
INTRODUCTION
2. Cathodic protection devices, communications equipment, and other types of electronic equipment associated
with monitoring the pipeline behavior can be upset by
high levels of induced ac voltage.
3. A pipeline worker accidentally grounding the pipe
through his body faces the hazard of electric shock due
to steady current flow, if contact with the pipe is not
broken. Injury or death can result if the current is
large enough.
186-8.
A paper recommended and approved by the
Transmission and Distribution Committee of the
Power Engineering Society for presentation at the
PES Winter Meeting, New York, NY, February 4-9,
1979. Manuscript submitted August 29, 1978; made
available for printing November 16, 1978.
F 79
IEEE
IEEE
IEEE
2.
3.
4.
Design Goals
As demonstrated in Reference 1, distinct voltage
peaks on a buried pipeline due to inductive coupling
should appear at widely spaced electrical or physical
discontinuities of the pipeline, and at abrupt changes
of the longitudinal driving electric fieldatthe pipeline location. The pipeline discontinuities include
insulatorsand junctions, transitions between long burial runs in low and high resistivity soil, and transitions between long burial runswithlow and high resistivity pipe coatings. The field discontinuities include
magnitude and phase changes occurring over long runs
due to ei ther changes i n separation between the pi pel i ne
and the power line, phase transpositions of the power
line, or the entrance of additional power lines into
the joint corridor. It is concluded that, to prevent
0018-9510/79/0900-1806$00.75D 1979
IEEE
1807
6. Use power line phase sequencing yielding the lowest value of longitudinal driving electric field.
The latter design goal is more fully developed in the
section on electric field reduction within the rightof-way.
Case History:
1,
2.
3.
4.
5.
tion);
sec-
The pipeline voltages at these mileposts were predicted by applying Equation 28 of Reference 1. The
predicted and measured voltage peaks are summarized in
Table 1.
Table I
Mojave Desert Pipeline Voltage Peaks
Mi l epost
101.7
89
78
68
54
47
Predicted Voltage
(volts)
46.3
54.0
31.1
54.8
11.4
31.2
Measured
Voltage
(volts)
46
53
34
54
11
25
Figure lb plots both the measured ac voltage profile of the Mojave pipeline and the predicted voltage
peaks . The solid curve represents voltages measured
during the field test; the dashed curve is a set of
data (normalized to 700 amperes power line current)
obtained by a Southern California Gas Company survey.
From this figure, it is apparent that the pipeline voltage peaks did occur at the points of discontinuity of
the joint right-of-way, and did have the predicted amplitudes. This agreement with the analysis confirms
the right-of-way design goals of this section in optimizing a given joint-use corridor for minimum inductive
coupling.
REDUCTION OF THE LONGITUDINAL DRIVING ELECTRIC FIELD
WITHIN A JOINT-USE RIGHT-OF-WAY
For purposes of inductive coupling mitigation, a
power line would ideally be designed to generate only
a minimal, but constant, longitudinal driving electric
field at the location of the adjacent pipeline. (This
field results from current flow through the power line
conductors, and is not the same as the electrostatic
field, which resultsTrom the potential of the power
line conductors with respect to ground.) To strengthen this concept, computer analyses were performed to
investigate the effect of power line conductor phasing
and shielding upon the driving electric field profile.
This section summarizes the results of these analyses.
1808
300
200
Line
/i s _\ ~~~~~~~~Power
Transposition
Sl~ ~ ~ ~Mle 68
<
Powr
525 kV AC
Line
34 Diameter Pipeline
Mile
Mile
89
0
"I
(a)
SeparationAndBetween
Power Line
Pipeline
(Not To Scale)
70
60
50
>
50
"
40_
LEGEND
7-
Mile
Mile
Mile
54_0
300'
3500'
20
10~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
100
Pipeline Milepost
6
070
(b) Pipeline Induced-Voltage
Profile
04
65
44
.6 _
LEFT
I-1
,'1
--ol,
Y 40' Sq.
RIGHT
1809
0O
+1200
phase, and
cw sequences
ccw sequences
ABC
BCA
CAB
ACB
CBA
BAC
"C" denote
I
1
2
IE
ccw
IElW
(feet)
(V/km)
(V/kmn)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
2.25
5.21
4.90
3.68
2.87
2.32
1.95
1.67
1.46
1.29
1.15
2.25
5.02
4.72
3.51
2.71
2.18
1.81
1.55
1.34
1.18
1.05
Mitigation Advantage
of CW Sequence
(percent)
0.0
3.6
3.9
4.6
5.6
6.0
7.2
7.2
8.2
8.5
8.7
From the table, it is seen that the driving electric field exposure levelscan be reduced by as much as
9 percentsimply by choosing the proper phase sequence.
Since the voltage induced on the pipeline is directly
proportional to the electric field, it, too, can be reduced by this same percentage. However, if the sky
wires are not continuous and periodically grounded as
assumed in the above analysis, then there is no significant advantage of one phase sequence over another.
The Single Vertical Circuit. The second geometry
considered s that shown in Figure 3, the single vertical circuit with two multiple-grounded lightning shield
wires. Similar to the single horizontal circuit, this
configuration has six possible phase combinations separable into the cw and ccw sequences. Referring to the
phase conductors from top to bottom in Figure 3, the
phase combinations ABC, BCA and CAB are again defined
as clockwise, while ACB, CBA and BAC are defined as
counterclockwise.
15
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Mitigation Advantage
I E cW I
IElW
(V/kmn)
(V/kmn)
of CCW Sequence
(-percent)
4.61
2.20
1.14
0.80
0.64
0.55
0.48
0.43
0.39
0.36
0.33
4.83
2.41
1.32
0.95
0.76
0.64
0.56
0.50
0.45
0.41
0.38
4.6
8.7
13.6
15.8
15.8
14.1
14.3
14.0
13.3
12.2
13.2
1810
Table IV
Possible Phase Sequences for a Double Vertical Circuit
1.
Center-Point Symnetric
A
c/C
B><B
A/A
C''B
B A
C A
2
3
Full Roll
A wB
AE
C>A
B>C
BC
B C
C>A
A) B
B >C
CX A
A
LEFT
AB
A
C
CXA
B -B
BXA
C-C
B
C
C><B
A-A
C -C
B-B
A ,C
C<B
AX B
C/XA
BA
A-A
B-B
C-C
A-A
C-C
B -B
C -C
B-B
C-C
A-A
RIGHT
C -C
A-A
B-B
C-C
B- B
A-A
For example, Table V lists values of the longitudinal electric field computed to the right of the power
line of Figure 4, assuming an earth resistivity of
33.3 Om, and equal phase currents of 100 amperes per
conductor. From the table, it is seen that the electric
field levels, and thus, induced pipeline voltages, can
be reduced by as much as 60 to 90% over the right-ofway by choosing the center point symmetric phasing instead of anyof the others. This reduction is significant when it is realized that it is solely a result of
power line phasing. No special or unorthodox procedures or equipment are required of either the electric
power or gas utility to achieve this reduction. It is
a consequence of the physical interactionof the induced
electric field from all of the power line conductors.
Table V
Choice of Phase Sequence for the Balanced Double Vertical Circuit of Figure 4
Distance From
Center Line
(feet)
Center Point
Full-Roll
Symmetric
Mitigation Advantage
of Center-point
Symmetric Phasing
0.7
4.3
8.0
7.35
9.1
85
90%
100
0.3
0.9
1.9
2.2
2.5
65
90%
200
0.2
0.5
1.0
1.25
1.4
65
85%
300
0.15
0.4
0.75
0.9
1.0
60
85%
400
0.15
0.35
0.6
0.75
0.85
60
85%
500
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.65
0.7
60
85%
Best
Phas i ng+
Worst
Phasing
1811
the presence of the auxiliary shield wire, it was possible to evaluate the effectiveness of this mitigation
technique. This procedure was then repeated for each
power line geometry and conductor phasing examined.
The Single Horizontal Circuit. The first geometry
considered is that shown in Figure 2, the single horizontal circuit with two multiple-grounded lightning
shield wires. (The optimum phasing of this circuit was
discussed previously.) A single, auxiliary grounded
shield wire was assumed to exist in various vertical
planes defined within the bounds of the tower structure. The wire was then assumed to be located at different heights within each plane. A comparison of the
original longitudinal electric field to the field with
the auxiliary wire present could then be made.
1.8
1.6
0
o !_
1.4
lD
c5
U.c
1.0
iw
1.2
-t
0.8
0.6
0.4
a aE
0.2
0
2o
1.8
1.6
IU0CP
I4
,-SC
1.2
.7
1.0
0.8
..L
_ 39
C
0.6
04
0.2
0
10
20
h,pt 30
40
50
60
VERTICAL CONFIGURATION
2.0
40
60
hopt
80
1812
100 c4
Left Side
Of
Power Line
80
.'60
'A
60
40 20
0 40
500 FT
20
200
(a)
-100
0
tO
15
5
% Unbalance
10C
Left Side
Of
Power Line
810 _
41
K5
Field
Observed At
._-
0~~~~~~
6C
4C
Right Side
Of
Power Line
(b)
10
i; 20
100
Unbolonce
15
500
FT
Field
Observed At
._2
200
)01~ o
500 FT
200
100
0
100 -
Field
Observed At
15
10
Unbalance
cx
Field
Observed At
60
Right Side
Of
Power Line
10
200
15
500 FT
% Unbalance
Phase Currents
100
100
100
100
100
100)
105
105
100
100
95
95
95
95
100
100
105
105
95
105
100
100
105
95
105
95
100
100
95
105
68
Nominal
Currents
>
95
85
70
-14
(increase)
74
17
17
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented a new mitigation approach
for the voltages induced on gas transmission pipelines
by 60 Hz ac power lines sharing a joint right-of-way.
This mitigation approach involves the optimum design of
a joint right-of-way forminimum inductive coupling, and
is based upon the distributed-source analysis of ReferIt is concluded that, to prevent pipeline
ence 1.
voltage peaks, a joint-use right-of-way should be designed to: avoid any changes of separation between
individual utilities; avoid pipeline insulating joints;
avoid changes in pipeline coating quality; avoid the
use of power line phase transpositions; and avoid any
1813
other geometric or electrical discontinuities of utilities sharing the right-of-way. This mitigation approach is most easily applied during the design stage
of a joint-use corridor when the exact positions and
features of each utility are somewhat flexible.
[3]
[1]
[4]
[5]
see
page1822
1814
Ve
Z+ Zw (1 +
INTRODUCTION
Even if a joint power line/pipeline right-of-way
is designed using the approach of Part I of this paper,
induced voltage peaks can appear on the pipeline at unavoidable discontinuities such as entry and exit points
to the right- of - way. Part II discusses methods for
mitigating these remaining voltage peaks using pipeline
grounding methods optimized according to the distributed source analysis of References 1 and 2. These mitigation methods allow highly predictable and useful pipeline voltage reductions.
PIPELINE GROUNDING
Exposed
Appurtenance
2 ohms
100 (1
(la)
-M )
Pipeline
Worker
Buried Pipeline
REQU_IREMENTS
% reduction
Z-)
The most effective location for a grounding installationon a buried pipeline is at a point where the
induced voltage is maximum. A good ground established
at such a point serves to null the local exponential
voltage distribution. However, the mitigating effects
of this ground installation are negligible at an adjacent voltage peak located more than 2/Real(y) m away,
where y is the propagation constant of a buried pipeline. Therefore, a ground should be established at
each induced voltage maximum.
(2)
(lb)
z9 zo
v9
0018-9510/79/0900-1814$00.75 C
Zm
zw;
lw
1815
N.,
Vs
Distribut ed
/
Multiple - Connected
Horizontal
Ground
Independent
Ground Bed
Conductor
Anodes
Vertical Anodes
(3)
v/iTl"o(a + jwc) m
0.0154-(1
Z Orod
j)/W
mi1,
at
60
Hz
= 22,ff
/ 10
-2.4410~
[(1+j)Inl
12J+
0-a (1 j)
av v
inI51.6
I-,a v'a
r(1+j)
+ (1-j)
lr
ohms
a
(4)
'-
J60Hz
The ac grounding impedance of a single, electrically short vertical ground rod of radius,a, andlength,
L, is given by5
rod
Yrod
rodcoth
0.159
aL
(YrodL) -
ZOrod/yrodL
i7Z
(5.6|
LheIar5 e
[ln
ohms
(5)
ohms at 60 Hz
where
a << L << 6
/2
m = soil electrical
64.9
g (Jp
skin depth
(6)
[ln
(IL)
11
ohms
(7)
1816
Ym
(8a)
% reduction
100 (1-
100 (1
|Y
YMn
(8b)
This
Ground Wire Perpendicular to the Pipeline.
ground wire configuration, denoted as A in Figure 3, is
the simplest to analyze because the perpendicular configuration serves to minimize inductive and conductive
coupling between the wire, pipeline, and power line.
In this configuration,thewire acts only as the grounding impedance, Zwire, for the pipeline, as shown in
Figure 4b. The overall mitigation effect is computed
in three steps.
1. Determine the propagation constant, Y ire' and
characteristic impedance, Zoyir ,of te ground
wire. This may be done simply 8y applying the
TI-59 calculator program "WIRE" which is documented in Reference 2. This program is suitable for wires of arbitrary electrical conductivity and permeability, and diameters up to
one inch, for the full range of possible earth
resistivities. The program achieves this degree of generality by solving Sunde's propagation-constant transcendental equation4 for the
case
Y.
(9a)
00
and
1
+ j 81
(a)2
)
m
depth
(7rcfv)-1/2.
the differenttypesof mitigation wires considered here were developed from field
tests made in December 1977 on the Southern California
Gas Company Line 235 extending from Needles to Newberry, California.
Equation 8b indicates that appreciable mitigation is obtained for this case only if the net
mitigating admittance per km is much greater
than Y, which is of the order of 0.1 mhos/km
for a typical, moderately well insulated, buried pipeline.
Horizontal Conductors
A horizontal ground wire and its surrounding earth
form a lossy transmission line characterized by the
propagation factor, Ywire, and the characteristic impedance, Zo ire. The ac grounding impedance, Zwire,s
is simply tre -nput impedance of this lossy transmission line. It is incorrect to assumethat Zwre is
equal to the dc grounding resistance, RWire. As wil1
be shown below, the transmission line characteristics
of a horizontal grounding wire significantly affect its
performance.
Further, horizontal ground conductors can be subject to the same longitudinal driving electric field
generated by the adjacent power line as the pipeline is
exposed to. Therefore, ground wires can develop appreciable terminal voltages which must be accounted for
(9b)
ohms/meter
11
/1 +
Pipeline
1817
Z pipe
Zwire This may be done by applying the calcu aMor program "THEVENIN", which is documented in Reference 2, to the data obtained in
Step 1. This program is suitable for wires of
arbitrary length and having arbitrary far-end
impedance loads.
The program achieves this
degree of generality by solving the impedancetransformation equation of an electrical transmission line (Equation llc of Reference 1).
of
3. Determine the unknown node voltage,
Figure 4b. This may be done by applying the
calculator program "NODE", which is documented
in Reference 2, to the data Zwir, Vi pe' and
This program allows computation of the
Zpipe.
common-node voltage and loop currents for up
to three Thevenin equivalent circuits connected at a common node. Vmit is the value
of the pipeline voltage after connection of
the horizontal ground wire.
Figure 5 illustrates the importance of accounting
for the transmission line properties of a ground wire
when determining its mitigation effectiveness. Here,
the straight line plots the dc resistance of an experimental wire installed at the Mojave test site, as computed using the most common grounding formula,
V pipe
VmPits
Vmit
Z wire
pipe
'A'
-2j(l n
1) ohms
(10)
where
a =
Vmit
Z wire
Vpipe
V wire
Vmit
Z
wireft
left
100
Zwire
) \/wright
pipe
_Vwire
Vwire
.right
left
Calculated
By
A-C
aUne Formula
Transmission
I0
(d)
Mitigation wire
With
'C'
Z pipe
V mit
1
17
Z wire
left
Vwire
left
(e)
~~~~~Caculated
By
Z wire
right
pipe
V wire
right
0D'
.01
0.1
1.0
Wire Length-KM
10
1818
Zpipe.
For best results with this ground wire configuration, the phase of Vwire should equal that of Vpipe +
1800 in order to achieve a voltage cancellation effect
at Vmit . This is i'llustrated in Figure 4c by the
choice of signs of the Vwire and Vpipe voltage sources.
In the ideal case, Vwire/Zwre = - vipe/Zpi e' so that
Vmit = 0. The wire impedance an olt g properties
can be adjusted by choosing the wire length and separation from the power line. However, this usually does
not give enough adjustment range to attain the ideal
case. Additional adjustment can be realized by either
a continuous or lumped inductive loading of the ground
wire to alter its transmission line characteristics.
Program "WIRE" is structured to permit data input of
hgan
The mitigation effect of this ground wire configuration can be computed simply by applying program "WIRE"
to determine Ywire and Zo,wire; then applying "THEVENIN"
to determine Zwire,left and Zwire right; and finally
In applying hODE", the
voltage
applying "NODE".
known
sources Vwire leftand Vwire,right need not be
specifically because of their self-cancelling effect,
so that a value of zero volts can be assumed for both.
Thus, in many respects, calculation of the mitigation
effectiveness of a center -connected parallel ground
wire is the same as for the perpendicular ground wire.
1819
tinuities along the right-of-way, a pipeline will develop a number of induced voltage peaks. Installation of
a single mitigation wire may reduce the local pipeline
voltagesbutleave the other peaks unaffected. In fact,
slight increases of the pipeline voltage may be caused
a few miles from the grounding point due to the discontinui ty of the corri dor geometry i ntroduced by the ground
wire itself. However, as discussed below, experimental
results showthat complete pipeline mitigation is possibleby mitigating sijccessive voltage peaks individually.
An assessment of the possibility of complete pipeline mitigation, obtained by direct measurements at the
Mojave test site, is summarized in Figure 6. Figure 6a
shows the mitigation obtained by installing a 2.25 km
(7400 ft) total length, back-to-back parallel ground
wire at Milepost 101.7. The wire was stranded aluminum, 9.4 mm (0.37 in.) diameter, and buried at a depth
of 30 cm (1 ft) along two paths parallel to the power
line and 18.3 m (60 ft) to either side of the power
line center phase. From the figure, it is seen that
the original voltage peak at Milepost 101.7 of nearly
50 volts was reduced by about 90% by installing this
ground wire, representing a virtually complete mitigation. In fact, some mitigation was recorded at Milepost 89. However, although not necessarily serious, an
increase in the induced voltage was measured in the
region between the two peaks. This is reminiscent of
the bal l oon effect -- i . e., "squeeze" the pipel i ne vol tage at one point and it enlarges somewhat atother points.
r-
60
50s
A
%
40
I'
I
30
20
4
10
I
I
F-
\1/
V
90
80
70
100
Milepost
System Installed At Milepost 101.7
Pipeline
(a)
Back-To-Back
60 r-
Unmitigoted
~~~~~I
A
0
4
40k~
CP
ca
0-
r Mitigated
sop
30
20
\II
I
I
lo
0
\ /\
/
/ \
I
//
\/\l
\V
I_
100
_II
90
80
I
70
Pipeline Milepost
(b) Additional Center-Connected System Installed
At Milepost 89
above 1000 volts for representative values of earth resistivity and fault current magnitude. This high voltage can be applied to the entirety of an above-ground
pipeline connected to a tower footing,
endangering
pipeline workers or other personnel contacting the pipe
metal during the fault. The resulting hazards can be
mitigated only by providing ground mats, as discussed
in the following subsection, at each location of possible human contact with the pipeline.
-Unmitigated
-Mitigated
Ground Mats. Mitigation of earth current and inductive coupling to a pipeline under construction can
be realized easily and effectively by installing ground
mats at all worker locations. These mats, bonded to
the pipe, serve to reduce touch and step voltages in
areas where persons can come in contact with the pipe.
These mats can be portable steel mesh grids laid on the
ground at welding positions, and connected with a cable
to the pipe. At permanent exposed pipeline appurtenances, such as valves, metallic vents, and corrosion
control test points, ground mats can be constructed of
strip galvanic anode material buried in a spiral pattern just below the surface and connected to the pipeline electrically. (By using galvanic anode material,
such mats reinforce any cathodic protection systems on
the pipeline rather than contributeto the pipeline corrosion problem, as would be the case if copper ground-
ing
were
used.)
1820
additional advantage of providing protection from insulator flashover during fault conditions of the power
line. Additional insulator protection can be provided
by installing lightning arrestors with a threshold of
no more than 150 volts across each insulator-polarization cell parallel combination.
Pipeline Extensions
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
[4]
E.D. Sunde. Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems. New York, NY: Dover Publications,
1968.
[5]
E. F. Vance. DNA Handbook Revision, Chapter 11 Coupling to Cables. Menlo Park, CA: Stanford Research Institute, December 1974. Report to Department of the Army under Contract DAAG39-74-C-0086.
[6]
Klinger, Jr., editor. "Pipeline News 25th Annual Corrosion Symposium." Pipe Line News. Vol.
47, No. 2, March 1975, pp. 10-42.
[7]
0.
1821
He isaSeniorEngineerwith IIT Research Institute,
Chicago, Illinois, and presently is the project engineer
fora program concerned with the evaluation and mitigation
of the effects of induced ac vol tages on natural gas transmission pipelines.
1822
Combined Discussionl, 2
Reference
2.
3.
4.
sion line?
J. E. Drakos and A. Akhtar (British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority, Vancouver, B.C.): Referring to the section "Bonding to Tower
Footings", we agree with the authors in not recommending direct connections between the pipeline and power line tower. However, simply
avoiding any such direct connections may not be enough to prevent
energization of the pipeline or damage to the pipeline coating or the
pipeline steel itself. B. C. Hydro has recently completed a research
project entitled "Study of Problems Associated with Pipelines Occupying Joint-Use Corridors with AC Transmission Lines" under contract
with the Canadian Electrical Association. One part of this study involved
field tests in which fault current was injected into the ground near test
sections of pipe. The field tests indicated that substantial current could
flow from a tower footing to a nearby pipeline because of partial or
total electrical breakdown of the soil. In some cases this current flow
resulted in damage to the pipeline coating and to the pipeline steel. We
concluded that the damage to the coating was inconsequential as the
area of damage was small and would require an insignificant amount of
additional cathodic protection current. However, the damage to the
steel consisted of small craters surrounded by a heat affected zone. The
nature of this damage is such that cracks can form and in some cases
were observed in the heat affected zone. The cracks can propagate only
under very extreme conditions of high fault current, small separation
distance between pipeline and tower and a pipeline of steel of low fracture toughness. Low fracture toughness usually occurs only at very low
temperatures. Bum-through of the pipe can occur if the fault current
is sufficiently high and separation distance between the tower and the
pipeline is small. There are recorded cases of bum through.
Due to 60 Hz AC Inductive Coupling,
issue pp. 1806-1813,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1823
Allen Taflove and John Dabkowski: The authors wish to express their
appreciation to the discussors for their attentive review and suggestions.
The following remarks are directed toward specific comments of the
discussors.
Discussion of R. E. Aker. The discussor has suggested a possible
procedure for selecting an efficient and economical wire size for a particular mitigation configuration. Step No. 2 of his procedure is somewhat
misleading, however. The choice of a ground wire length, R, equal to
l/Re(ywire), does not insure that the minimum grounding impedance
has been realized. As shown in Fig. 5 of Part II of the paper, the minimum grounding impedance is realized only for wire lengths in excess of
l/Re(ywire), where the grounding impedance curve levels off at Zowire'
All that can be said is that a choice of 2 = l/Re(ywire) represents an
optimum length for the best mitigation efficiency/cost ratio for
ground wires perpendicular to the ac power line. However, greater
lengths may possibly be of use for ground wires parallel to the ac transmission line. Here, the increased voltage pickup due to greater length of
the ground wire can be used to buck out some of the pipeline voltage at
the desired connection point. The wire placement for maximum voltage
pickup will be at a location where the longitudinal electric field is a
maximum.
It should be emphasized that a number of ground wire parameters
(that can be selected by the user) interact in varying degrees to determine overall mitigation effectiveness. These parameters include ground
wire length, diameter, conductivity, permeability, orientation and
distance from the power line, and burial depth. Thus, it is strongly
advised to perform multiple iterations of the Thevenin analysis discussed in this paper to arrive at the most cost-effective ground wire
configuration for a particular pipeline.
Discussion of L. Yu. Comments Nos. 1 and 2 by the discussor indicate that some clarification of Equations 1 a and lb of Part II is needed.
First, the authors do not suggest that Zm 2 ohms is sufficient for
mitigation of the shock current, Iw' through a pipeline worker. Indeed,
it is clearly stated in the sentence after Equation 2 that: "Mitigation of
iw requires values of Zm significantly less than Z0." This statement is
the intent of Equation 1 a, which, in addition, specifies the usual range
of Zo, the pipeline Thevenin source impedance, as in the order of 2
ohms.
Equation l b is valid for this desirable grounding condition, namely,
IZml < IZ4I, and based on the definition