Natural Hazards Amp Disaster Management 44

NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
A Supplementary Textbook in Geography for Class XI on UNIT 11 : Natural Hazards

and Disasters
CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
PREET VIHAR, DELHI - 110092
FIRST EDITION 2006

CBSE, DELHI
Price:
Published By: The Secretary, Central Board of Secondary Education, 2, Community
Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110092 Design, Layout and Illustration By: Chandu Pre
ss, D-97, Shakarpur, Delhi-110092 Printed By: Chandu Press, D-97, Shakarpur, Del
hi-110092
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
y CBSE Advisors: y Shri Ash k Ganguly, Chairman, CBSE. Shri G. Balasubramanian,
Direct r (Academics), CBSE.
Edit r: Shri M.P Sajnani, Advis r Disaster Management & Dy. Nati nal Pr ject Dir
ect r, GOI-UNDP, DRM Pr gramme.
y
Auth rs: Ms. Balaka Dey, Pr gramme Ass ciate, G I UNDP, DRM Pr gramme. Dr. R.B S
ingh, Reader, Dept. f Ge graphy, Delhi Sch l f Ec n mics, University f Delhi
, Delhi 110007.
y
Review Team: Pr f. N r M hammad, Dept. f Ge graphy, Delhi Sch l f Ec n mics,
University f Delhi, Delhi 110007. Shri S.S Rast gi, Retd. Principal, Direct ra
te f Educati n, Delhi
y
C rdinat r: Ms. Sugandh Sharma, Educati n Officer (C mmerce), CBSE
CONTENTS
F rew rd F r Students Chapter 1:
Intr ducti n t Disaster Management Page N s. (i) (ii) 1
Chapter
Natural
res f r
3 30 34
2:
Hazards: causes, distributi n pattern, c nsequences and mitigati n measu
: y y y y y y Earthquake Tsunami Cycl ne Fl d Dr ught Landslide 10 17 2
39
FOREWORD
The recurrent ccurrences f vari us natural and manmade disasters like the Dece
mber 2004 Tsunami, the b mb blasts in the cinema halls f Delhi and many such in
cidences have diverted ur f cus t wards safety f nes wn life. In the previ us
class f VIII, IX and X as students y u must have read ab ut vari us natural an
d manmade hazards their preparedness and mitigati n measures. In class XI, the B
ard had intr duced fr ntline curriculum n Disaster Management in Unit 11 f th
e Ge graphy syllabus. In supplementary textb k n Disaster Management in Ge gra
phy the B ard intends t explain in detail vari us c ncepts used in Disaster Man
agement and discussed ab ut the causes, distributi n pattern, c nsequences and m
itigati n measures f r vari us natural hazards like earthquake, tsunami, fl d,
cycl ne, landslide and dr ught which are a recurrent phen mena in ur c untry. I
h pe this b k will help all students f Ge graphy, wh are the future citizens
, t have a better understanding f the subject s that they are well prepared t
c mbat it. Being seni r students f the sch l I w uld appreciate if all f y
u (including teachers) as resp nsible citizens and as v lunteers take up the ini
tiative f preparing the sch l disaster management plan and als educate the y
unger students f the sch l n vari us safety measures that need t be taken up
f r a better living. I w uld like t thank Ministry f H me Affairs f r their s
upp rt and guidance in the preparati n f the c urse material and helping the B
ard in carrying ut training pr grammes f r the teachers acr ss the c untry. I w
uld als like t extend my sincere thanks t the Ge graphy Department, Universi
ty f Delhi f r the supp rt they have extended t c me up with the c urse utlin
e f r the B ard and als helping in the devel pment f the textb k. My sincere
thanks t the UNDP team wh have c ntributed the m st and have tirelessly put al
l their eff rt in devel pment f the textb k and als carrying ut training pr
grammes f r the teachers and the sch l principals acr ss the c untry with ut wh
se supp rt the initiative w uld have been difficult t c ntinue. I am grateful
t the teachers wh have played a key r le in making the subject s interesting
and demanding. Their understanding and interest have made teachers, students and
ther staff members f the sch l design the sch l disaster management plans w
hich have made the sch ls a better and safer place. Last but n t the least my s
incere thanks and appreciati n t Shri G. Balasubramanian (Direct r, Academics)
wh has always guided the team while devel ping the textb k and intr ducing inn
vative ways t make the subject as a necessary life skill than a mere subject.
Ash k Ganguly Chairman, CBSE (i)
F r the Students
S me f y u must have enc untered ne r the ther natural r manmade hazard whi
ch has caused a huge l ss t life and pr perty and have disrupted the n rmal lif
e f the pe ple. Th se wh have had the pp rtunity t underg certain training
n safety like first aid r search and rescue w uld have helped th se in misery
but then all f y u are n t well equipped with b th the retical and practical kn
wledge. As a y ung resp nsible citizen y u can take up initiatives t prepare t
he c mmunity and make the c mmunity a safer place t live. The B ard in its ende
av r t make the students g d managers and v lunteers and effective carrier f
messages, have intr duced Disaster Management at vari us levels starting fr m St
andard VIII with effect fr m the academic year 2003. The Standard VIII textb k
n T gether T wards a Safer India Part I f cuses n vari us natural and manmade ha
zards and its preparedness measures. Taking it f rward the Standard IX textb k T
gether T wards a Safer India Part II explains explicitly n the mitigati n measu
res that need t be taken up t save lives, livelih d and pr perty. Apart fr m
understanding it as a subject, CBSE has felt the need t understand the subject
as a necessary life skill. Standard X textb k T gether T wards a Safer India Par
t III l ks disaster management fr m a different perspective f making the studen
ts and teachers help in preparati n f Disaster Management Plans f r the sch l
and the c mmunity and als making them understand the vari us First Aid and Sear
ch and Rescue techniques and als
n the r le f g vernment, NGOs and thers in
managing disasters.
Th se wh have had the pp rtunity t read these b ks are by n w better equippe
d but, as a student the B ard d esnt refrain y u fr m gaining kn wledge and have
a basic understanding f the subject. In this textb k we have tried t give s m
e basic understanding ab ut vari us natural hazards fr m the ge graphy p int f
view. Apart fr m vari us c ncepts the chapter tries t analyse vari us hazards p
revalent in ur c untry. Understanding the causes, distributi n pattern, c nsequ
ences and mitigati n measures will help y u t get better prepared.
(ii)
Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Objectives f the chapter:
The main bjective f this chapter is t have a basic understanding f vari us c
ncepts used in Disaster Management. The c ncepts explained here are: Disaster,
Hazard, Vulnerability, Capacity, Risk and Disaster Management Cycle. Apart fr m
the termin l gies, the chapter als tries t explain vari us types f disasters.
In standard VIII, IX and X many f y u have already been intr duced t s me f
these c ncepts. This chapter has been designed t upgrade y ur kn wledge and ski
ll s as t have a better understanding f natural hazards, disasters and their
management. After reading this chapter the students and the teachers will be abl
e t have a basic understanding f the c ncepts and sh uld be able t differenti
ate between them with suitable examples.
Backgr und:
The gl bal c ntext: Disasters are as ld as human hist ry but the dramatic incre
ase and the damage caused by them in the recent past have bec me a cause f nati
nal and internati nal c ncern. Over the past decade, the number f natural and
manmade disasters has climbed inex rably. Fr m 1994 t 1998, rep rted disasters
average was 428 per year but fr m 1999 t 2003, this figure went up t an averag
e f 707 disaster events per year sh wing an increase f ab ut 60 per cent ver
the previ us years. The biggest rise was in c untries f l w human devel pment,
which suffered an increase f 142 per cent. The figure 1.1 sh ws the deadliest d
isasters f the decade (1992 2001). Dr ught and famine have pr ved t be the dea
dliest disasters gl bally, f ll wed by fl d, techn l gical disaster, earthquake
, windst rm, extreme temperature and thers. Gl bal ec n mic l ss related t dis
aster events average ar und US $880 billi n per year.
Fig : 1.1 W rld Scenari : Rep rted Deaths fr m all Disasters (1992-2001)
1

Indian scenari :
The scenari in India is n different fr m the gl bal c ntext. The super cycl ne
f Orissa (1999), the Gujarat earthquake (2001) and the recent Tsunami (2004)
affected milli ns acr ss the c untry leaving behind a trail f heavy l ss f lif
e, pr perty and livelih d. Table 1.1 sh ws a list f s me f the maj r disaster
s that have caused c l ssal impact n the c mmunity.
Table 1.1 Maj r disasters in India since 1970 Sl. N 1 2 3 Disaster Cycl ne 29th
Oct ber 1971, Orissa 19th N vember, 1977, Andhra Pradesh 29th and 30th Oct ber
1999, Orissa Earthquake 20th Oct ber 1991 Uttarkashi 30th September 1993 Latur 2
2 May 1997 Jabalpur 29th March 1997, Cham li 26th January, 2001, Bhuj, Gujarat L
andslide July 1991, Assam August 1993, Nagaland Impact Cycl ne and tidal waves k
illed 10,000 pe ple Cycl ne and tidal waves killed 20,000 pe ple Cycl ne and tid
al waves killed 9,000 and 18 milli n pe ple were affected An earthquake f magni
tude 6.6 killed 723 pe ple Appr ximately 8000 pe ple died and there was a heavy
l ss t infrastructure 39 pe ple dead 100 pe ple dead M re than 10,000 dead and
heavy l ss t infrastructure 300 pe ple killed, heavy l ss t r ads and infrastr
ucture 500 killed and m re than 200 h uses destr yed and ab ut 5kms. R ad damage
d. 210 pe ple killed. Villages were washed away 3,800 pe ple killed and heavy l
ss t pr perty. M re than 2000 pe ple killed and th usands affected
4 5 6 7 8
9 10
11
18th August 1998, Malpa Fl d 1978 Fl ds in N rth East India 1994 Fl ds in Ass
am, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Panjab, Uttar Prades
h, G a, Kerala and Gujarat 2
12 13

While studying ab ut the impact we need t be aware f p tential hazards, h w, w
hen and where they are likely t ccur, and the pr blems which may result f an
event. In India, 59 per cent f the land mass is susceptible t seismic hazard;
5 per cent f the t tal ge graphical area is pr ne t fl ds; 8 per cent f the
t tal landmass is pr ne t cycl nes; 70 per cent f the t tal cultivable area is
vulnerable t dr ught. Apart fr m this the hilly regi ns are vulnerable t aval
anches/ landslides/hailst rms/cl udbursts. Apart fr m the natural hazards, we ne
ed t kn w ab ut the ther manmade hazards which are frequent and cause huge dam
age t life and pr perty. It is theref re imp rtant that we are aware f h w t
c pe with their effects. We have seen the huge l ss t life, pr perty and infras
tructure a disaster can cause but let us understand what is a disaster, what are
the fact rs that lead t it and its impact.
rigin t the French w rd Desastre which is a c mbinati n f tw w rds des meaning b
ad and aster meaning star. Thus the term refers t Bad r Evil star. A disaster can
be defined as A seri us disrupti n in the functi ning f the c mmunity r a s cie
ty causing wide spread material, ec n mic, s cial r envir nmental l sses which
exceed the ability f the affected s ciety t c pe using its wn res urces. A dis
aster is a result fr m the c mbinati n f hazard, vulnerability and insufficient
capacity r measures t reduce the p tential chances f risk. A disaster happen
s when a hazard impacts n the vulnerable p pulati n and causes damage, casualti
es and disrupti n. Fig: 1.2 w uld give a better illustrati n f what a disaster
is. Any hazard fl d, earthquake r cycl ne which is a triggering event al ng wi
th greater vulnerability (inadequate access t res urces, sick and ld pe ple, l
ack f awareness etc) w uld lead t disaster causing greater l ss t life and pr
perty. F r example; an earthquake in an uninhabited desert cann t be c nsidered
a disaster, n matter h w str ng the intensities pr duced.
What is a Disaster ?
Alm st everyday, newspapers, radi and televisi n channels carry rep rts n disa
ster striking several parts f the w rld. But what is a disaster? The term disas
ter wes its
Fig: 1.2
3

An earthquake is disastr us nly when it affects pe ple, their pr perties and ac
tivities. Thus, disaster ccurs nly when hazards and vulnerability meet. But it
is als t be n ted that with greater capacity f the individual/c mmunity and
envir nment t face these disasters, the impact f a hazard reduces. Theref re,
we need t understand the three maj r c mp nents namely hazard, vulnerability an
d capacity with suitable examples t have a basic understanding f disaster mana
gement.
1. Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because f natural phen mena (ha
zards with mete r l gical, ge l gical r even bi l gical rigin). Examples f na
tural hazards are cycl nes, tsunamis, earthquake and v lcanic erupti n which are
exclusively f natural rigin. Landslides, fl ds, dr ught, fires are s ci -nat
ural hazards since their causes are b th natural and man made. F r example fl d
ing may be caused because f heavy rains, landslide r bl cking f drains with h
uman waste. 2. Manmade hazards are hazards which are due t human negligence. Ma
nmade hazards are ass ciated with industries r energy generati n facilities and
include expl si ns, leakage f t xic waste, p lluti n, dam failure, wars r civ
il strife etc.
The list f hazards is very l ng. Many ccur frequently while thers take place
ccasi nally. H wever, n the basis f their genesis, they can be categ rized as
f ll ws:
What is a Hazard ? H w is it classified ?
Hazard may be defined as a danger us c nditi n r event, that threat r have the
p tential f r causing injury t life r damage t pr perty r the envir nment. Th
e w rd hazard wes its rigin t the w rd hasard in ld French and az-zahr in Arabic m
eaning chance r luck. Hazards can be gr uped int tw br ad categ ries namely natur
al and manmade.
Table 1.2: Vari us types f hazards
Types Ge l gical Hazards Hazards 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 1. 2. Earthquake
Tsunami V lcanic erupti n Tr pical Cycl ne T rnad and Hurricane Fl ds Dr ught
Hailst rm Envir nmental p lluti ns Def restati n Human / Animal Epidemics Pest a
ttacks 4 4. Landslide 5. Dam burst 6. Mine Fire 6. Cl udburst 7. Landslide 8. He
at & C ld wave 9. Sn w Avalanche 10. Sea er si n 3. Desertificati n 4. Pest Infe
cti n 3. F d p is ning 4. Weap ns f Mass Destructi n
Water & Climatic Hazards
Envir nmental Hazards Bi l gical

Types Chemical, Industrial and Nuclear Accidents Accident related
Hazards 1. Chemical disasters 2. Industrial disasters 1. B at / R ad / Train acc
idents / air crash Rural / Urban fires B mb /serial b mb blasts 2. F rest fires
3. Oil spills/Fires 4. Nuclear 3. Building c llapse 4. Electric Accidents 5. Fes
tival related disasters 6. Mine fl ding
What is vulnerability ?
Vulnerability may be defined as The extent t which a c mmunity, structure, servi
ces r ge graphic area is likely t be damaged r disrupted by the impact f par
ticular hazard, n acc unt f their nature, c nstructi n and pr ximity t hazard
us terrains r a disaster pr ne area. Vulnerabilities can be categ rized int ph
ysical and s ci -ec n mic vulnerability.
pr ximity, l cati n and nature f the hazard. It als relates t the technical c
apability f building and structures t resist the f rces acting up n them durin
g a hazard event. Figure 1.3 sh ws the settlements which are l cated in hazard u
s sl pes. Many landslide and fl ding disasters are linked t what y u see in th
e figure 1.3. Unchecked gr wth f settlements in unsafe areas exp ses the pe ple
t the hazard. In case f an earthquake r landslide the gr und may fail and th
e h uses n the t p may t pple r slide and affect the settlements at the l wer
level even if they are designed well f r earthquake f rces.
Physical Vulnerability: It includes n ti ns f wh and what may be damaged r de
str yed by natural hazard such as earthquakes r fl ds. It is based n the phys
ical c nditi n f pe ple and elements at risk, such as buildings, infrastructure
etc; and their
S ci -ec n mic Vulnerability: The degree t
hazard
which a p pulati n is affected by a
Figure 1.3 : Site after pressures fr m p pulati n gr wth and urbanizati n

5

will n t merely lie in the physical c mp nents f vulnerability but als
n the
s ci ec n mic c nditi ns. The s ci -ec n mic c nditi n f the pe ple als determ
ines the intensity f the impact. F r example, pe ple wh are p r and living in
the sea c ast d nt have the m ney t c nstruct str ng c ncrete h uses. They are
generally at risk and l se their shelters when ever there is str ng wind r cyc
l ne. Because f their p verty they t
are n t able t rebuild their h uses.
safe areas and their h uses are built with str nger materials. H wever, even whe
n everything is destr yed they have the capacity t c pe up with it. Hazards are
always prevalent, but the hazard bec mes a disaster nly when there is greater
vulnerability and less f capacity t c pe with it. In ther w rds the frequency
r likelih d f a hazard and the vulnerability f the c mmunity increases the
risk f being severely affected.
What is capacity ?
Capacity can be defined as res urces, means and strengths which exist in h useh l
ds and c mmunities and which enable them t c pe with, withstand, prepare f r, p
revent, mitigate r quickly rec ver fr m a disaster. Pe ples capacity can als be
taken int acc unt. Capacities c uld be:
What is risk ?
Risk is a measure f the expected l sses due t a hazard event ccurring in a giv
en area ver a specific time peri d. Risk is a functi n f the pr bability f pa
rticular hazard us event and the l sses each w uld cause. The level f risk depen
ds up n: y Nature f the hazard Vulnerability f the elements which are affected
Ec n mic value f th se elements
Physical Capacity: Pe ple wh se h uses have been destr yed by the cycl ne r cr
ps have been destr yed by the fl d can salvage things fr m their h mes and fr m
their farms. S me family members have skills, which enable them t find empl ym
ent if they migrate, either temp rarily r permanently. S ci -ec n mic Capacity:
In m st f the disasters, pe ple suffer their greatest l sses in the physical a
nd material realm. Rich pe ple have the capacity t rec ver s n because f thei
r wealth. In fact, they are seld m hit by disasters because they live in
6
y y
A c mmunity/l cality is said t be at risk when it is exp sed t hazards and is li
kely t be adversely affected by its impact. Whenever we discuss disaster managem
ent it is basically disaster risk management. Disaster risk management includes all
measures which reduce disaster related l sses f life, pr perty r assets by ei
ther reducing the hazard r vulnerability f the elements at risk.

Disaster Risk Reducti n can take place in the f ll wing ways: 1. Preparedness Th
is pr tective pr cess embraces measures which enable g vernments, c mmunities an
d individuals t resp nd rapidly t disaster situati ns t c pe with them effect
ively. Preparedness includes the f rmulati n f viable emergency plans, the deve
l pment f warning systems, the maintenance f invent ries and the training f p
ers nnel. It may als embrace search and rescue measures as well as evacuati n p
lans f r areas that may be at risk fr m a recurring disaster. Preparedness there
f re enc mpasses th se measures taken bef re a disaster event which are aimed at
minimising l ss f life, disrupti n f critical services, and damage when the d
isaster ccurs. 2. Mitigati n Mitigati n embraces measures taken t reduce b th
the effect f the hazard and the vulnerable c nditi ns t it in rder t reduce
the scale f a future disaster. Theref re mitigati n activities can be f cused
n the hazard itself r the elements exp sed t the threat. Examples f mitigati
n measures which are hazard specific include water management in dr ught pr ne a
reas, rel cating pe ple away fr m the hazard pr ne areas and by strengthening st
ructures t reduce damage when a hazard ccurs. In additi n t these physical me
asures, mitigati n sh uld als aim at reducing the ec n mic and s cial vulnerabi
lities f p tential disasters
Disaster Management Cycle
Disaster Risk Management includes sum t tal f all activities, pr grammes and me
asures which can be taken up bef re, during and after a disaster with the purp s
e t av id a disaster, reduce its impact r rec ver fr m its l sses. The three k
ey stages f activities that are taken up within disaster risk management are:
c mmunity level etc. Such risk reducti n measures taken under this stage are ter
med as mitigati n and preparedness activities.
2.
During a disaster ccurrence).
(disaster
Initiatives taken t ensure that the needs and pr visi ns f victims are met and
suffering is minimized. Activities taken under this stage are called emergency
resp nse activities.
1.
Bef re a disaster (pre-disaster). 3. After a disaster (p st-disaster)
Initiatives taken in resp nse t a disaster with a purp se t achieve early rec
very and rehabilitati n f affected c mmunities, immediately after a disaster st
rikes. These are called as resp nse and rec very activities. 7
Activities taken t reduce human and pr perty l sses caused by a p tential hazar
d. F r example carrying ut awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing weak
structures, preparati n f the disaster management plans at h useh ld and

Reference: Are y u prepared? Learning fr m the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake Di
saster - Handb k f r Disaster Reducti n and V lunteer activities Figure 1.4 : D
isaster Management
In the subsequent chapters we w uld discuss in detail s me f the maj r hazards
prevalent in ur c untry its causes, impact, preparedness and mitigati n measure
s that need t be taken up.
Times f Disaster. UNESCO and West view Press, Inc., C l rad . 3. Anders n M. Vu
lnerability t Disaster and Sustainable Devel pment: A General Framew rk f r Ass
essing Vulnerability. UNDP Disaster Management Training Pr gramme.1992. An Overv
iew f Disaster Management. Internati nal Federati n f Red Crescent S cieties W
rld Disaster Rep rt: F cus n C mmunity resilience. http://www.unisdr. rg/eng/l
ibrary/libtermin l gy
4.
Reference f r further reading:
1. Reading materials f 11th C mmunity Based Disaster Risk Management C urse, Ba
ngk k, Thailand July 21 August 1, 2003. Anders n, M. and P. W dr w. 1989. Risin
g fr m the Ashes: Devel pment Strategies in 5.
2.
6.
8

Exercise
1) Explain with examples the difference between hazard, and vulnerability. H w d
es capacity influence vulnerability? Explain in detail the vulnerability pr fil
e f ur c untry.
3)
Define risk and suggest tw ways f reducing risk with appr priate examples. Bri
efly discuss the Disaster Management Cycle with suitable examples.
4)
2)
9

Chapter 2
NATURAL HAZARDS - CAUSES, DISTRIBUTION PATTERN, CONSEQUENCE, AND MITIGATION MEAS
URES
The discussi n n vari us termin l gies has helped us in having a basic understa
nding f disaster management. H wever, each hazard has its wn characteristics.
T understand the significance and implicati ns f vari us types f hazards we m
ust have a basic understanding ab ut the nature, causes and effects f each haza
rd type and the mitigati n measures that need t be taken up. In this chapter, w
e w uld discuss the f ll wing hazards namely earthquake, tsunami, landslide, fl
d, cycl ne and dr ught that we n rmally face in ur c untry. kil meters under t
he sea t 65 kil meters under the c ntinents. The crust is n t ne piece but c n
sists f p rti ns called plates which vary in size fr m a few hundred t th usands
f kil meters (Fig 2.1.1). The the ry f plate tect nics h lds that the plates ri
de up n the m re m bile mantle, and are driven by s me yet unc nfirmed mechanis
ms, perhaps thermal c nvecti n currents. When these plates c ntact each ther, s
tress arises in the crust (Fig 2.1.2). These stresses can be classified acc rdin
g t the type f m vement al ng the plates b undaries: a) pulling away fr m each
ther, b) pushing against ne an ther and c) sliding sideways relative t each
ther.
2.1 Earthquake
Earthquake is ne f the m st destructive natural hazard. They may ccur at any
time f the year, day r night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can
destr y buildings and infrastructure in sec nds, killing r injuring the inhabit
ants. Earthquakes n t nly destr y the entire habitati n but may de-stabilize th
e g vernment, ec n my and s cial structure f the c untry. But what is an earthq
uake? It is the sudden shaking f the earth crust. The impact f an earthquake i
s sudden and there is hardly any warning, making it imp ssible t predict.
All these m vements are ass ciated with earthquakes. The areas f stress at plat
e b undaries which release accumulated energy by slipping r rupturing are kn wn
as faults. The the ry f elasticity says that the crust is c ntinu usly str
essed by the m vement f the tect nic plates; it eventually reaches a p int f m
aximum supp rtable strain. A rupture then ccurs al ng the fault and the r ck re
b unds under its wn elastic stresses until the strain is relieved. The fault ru
pture generates vibrati n called seismic (fr m the Greek seism s meaning sh ck
r 10
Cause f Earthquake :
The earths crust is a r cky layer f varying thickness ranging fr m a depth f ab
ut 10

Fig. : 2.1.1 : Tect nic Plates
Seven maj r plates and several min r nes- They m ve a few inches a year, riding
n semi-m lten layers f r ck underneath the crust
Fig. : 2.1.2 : Tect nic Plates
11

Table 2.1.1 Different types f plate m vement
Plate M ti ns Divergent - where new crust is generated as the plates pull away f
r m each ther.
Examples The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which splits nearly the entire Atlantic Ocean n
rth t s uth, is pr bably the bestkn wn and m st-studied example f a divergent
-plate b undary. The rate f spreading al ng the MidAtlantic Ridge averages ab u
t 2.5 centimeters per year (cm/yr), r 25 km in a milli n years. Ring f Fire an
d The Himalayan m untain range dramatically dem nstrates ne f the m st visible
and spectacular c nsequences f plate tect nics.
Illustrati ns
Mid Atlantic Ridge
2. C nvergent - where crust is destr yed as ne plate dives under an ther.
3. Transf rmati nal - where crust is neither pr duced n r destr yed as the plate
s slide h riz ntally past each ther.
The San Andreas fault slicing thr ugh the Carriz Plain in the Tembl r Range eas
t f the city f San Luis Obisp
San Andreas fault, Calif rnia, U.S.A 12

earthquake) waves, which radiates fr m the f cus in all directi ns. The p int f
rupture is called the f cus and may be l cated near the surface r deep bel w
it. The p int n the surface directly ab ve the f cus is termed as the epicent
er f the earthquake (see Fig 2.1.3).
Deep:- 300 t 700 kms fr m the earth surface Medium:- 60 t 300 kms Shall w: les
s than 60 kms
The deep f cus earthquakes are rarely destructive because by the time the waves
reach the surface the impact reduces. Shall w f cus earthquakes are m re c mm n
and are extremely damaging because f their pr ximity t the surface.
Measuring Earthquakes
Earthquakes can be described by the use f tw distinctively different scales f
measurement dem nstrating magnitude and intensity. Earthquake magnitude r am u
nt f energy released is determined by the use f a seism graph which is an instr
ument that c ntinu usly rec rds gr und vibrati n. The scale was devel ped by a s
eism l gist named Charles Richter. An earthquake with a magnitude 7.5 n the Ric
hter scale releases 30 times the energy than ne with 6.5 magnitudes. An earthqu
ake f magnitude 3 is the smallest n rmally felt by humans. The largest earthqua
ke that has been rec rded with this system is 9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and Chile, 1960
). The sec nd type f scale, the earthquake intensity scale measures the effects
f an earthquake where it ccurs. The m st widely used scale f this type was d
evel ped in 1902 by Mercalli an Italian seism l gist. The scale was extended and
m dified t suit the m dern times. It is called the M dified Mercalli Scale, wh
ich expresses the intensity f earthquake effect n pe ple, structure and the ea
rths surface in values fr m I t XII. With an intensity f VI and bel w m st f t
he pe ple can feel the shake and there are cracks n the walls, 13
Fig 2.1.3
General characteristics
Earthquake vibrati ns ccur in a variety f frequencies and vel cities. The actu
al rupture pr cess may last f r a few sec nds t as l ng as ne minute f r a maj
r earthquake. The gr und shaking is caused by b dy waves and surface wave. B dy wav
es (P and S waves) penetrate the b dy f the earth, vibrating fast. P waves travel
ab ut 6 kil meters per h ur and S waves travel with a speed f 4 kil meters per h
ur.
Surface waves vibrate the gr und h riz ntally and vertically. These l ng peri d
waves cause swaying f tall buildings and slight waves m ti n in b dies f water
even at great distances fr m the epicenter.
Earthquakes can be f three types based n the f cal depth:

but with an intensity f XII there is general panic with buildings c llapsing t
tally and there is a t tal disrupti n in n rmal life. Predictability: Alth ugh s
me scientists claim ability t predict earthquakes, the meth ds are c ntr versi
al. Accurate and exact predicti ns f such sudden incidents are still n t p ssib
le.
Typical adverse effects
Physical damage:
d wn f c mmunicati n facilities. The effect f an earthquake is diverse. There
are large number f casualties because f the p r engineering design f the bui
ldings and cl se pr ximity f the pe ple. Ab ut 95 per cent f the pe ple wh ar
e killed r wh are affected by the earthquake is because f the building c llap
se. There is als a huge l ss t the public health system, transp rt and c mmuni
cati n and water supply in the affected areas.
Distributi n pattern f Earthquakes in India
India falls quite pr minently n the Alpine Himalayan Belt. This belt is the l
ine al ng which the Indian plate meets the Eurasian plate. This being a c nverge
nt plate, the Indian plate is thrusting underneath the Eurasian plate at a speed
f 5 cm per year. The m vement gives rise t tremend us stress which keeps accu
mulating in the r cks and is released fr m time t time in the f rm f earthquak
es.
Fig 2.1.4 sh ws the adverse effect s f an earthquake
Damage ccurs t human settlement, buildings, structures and infrastructure, esp
ecially bridges, elevated r ads, railways, water t wers, pipelines, electrical g
enerating facilities. Aftersh cks f an earthquake can cause much greater damage
t already weakened structures. Sec ndary effects include fires, dam failure an
d landslides which may bl ck water ways and als cause fl ding. Damage may ccu
r t facilities using r manufacturing danger us materials resulting in p ssible
chemical spills. There may als be a break
Fig 2.1.5: Fault line in India
Fig 2.1.5 Fault lines in India
14

Table 2.1.2: List f significant Earthquakes in India
Year 1950 1956 1967 1975 1988 1988 1991 1993 1997 1999 2001 2005 L cati n Arunac
hal Pradesh - China B rder Anjar, Gujarat K yna, Maharashtra Kinnaur, Himachal P
radesh Manipur - Myanmar B arder Bihar - Nepal B rder Uttarkashi - Uttar Pradesh
Hills Latur - Maharashtra Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh Cham li, Uttar Pradesh Bhuj,
Gujarat Muzaffarabad (Pakistan) Impact in Jammu & Kashmir Magnitude f 6+ 8.5 7
.0 6.5 6.2 6.6 6.4 6.0 6.3 6.0 6.8 6.9 7.4
The seismic z ning map f India is divided int f ur z nes namely Z ne II, III,
IV and V, with z ne V sh wn in red c l ur in figure 2.1.6 being m st vulnerable
t
earthquakes. Much f India lies in z ne III. New Delhi the capital city f India
lie in z ne IV where as big cities like Mumbai and Chennai are in z ne III.
Fig: 2.1.6
15

P ssible risk reducti n measures:
C mmunity preparedness: C mmunity preparedness is vital f r mitigating earthquak
e impact. The m st effective way t save y u even in a slightest shaking is DRO
P, COVER and HOLD. Planning: The Bureau f Indian Standards has published build
ing c des and guidelines f r safe c nstructi n f buildings against earthquakes.
Bef re the buildings are c nstructed the building plans have t be checked by t
he Municipality, acc rding t the laid d wn bylaws. Many existing lifeline build
ings such as h spitals, sch ls and fire stati ns may n t be built with earthqua
ke safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs t be upgraded by retr fitting
techniques. Public educati n is educating the public n causes and characterist
ics f an
earthquake and preparedness measures. It can be created thr ugh sensitizati n an
d training pr gramme f r c mmunity, architects, engineers, builders, mas ns, tea
chers, g vernment functi naries teachers and students. Engineered structures: Bu
ildings need t be designed and c nstructed as per the building by laws t withs
tand gr und shaking. Architectural and engineering inputs need t be put t gethe
r t impr ve building design and c nstructi n practices. The s il type needs t
be analyzed bef re c nstructi n. Building structures n s ft s il sh uld be av i
ded. Buildings n s ft s il are m re likely t get damaged even if the magnitude
f the earthquake is n t str ng as sh wn in Figure 2.1.7. Similar pr blems pers
ist in the buildings c nstructed n the river banks which have alluvial s il.
Effect
f S il type n gr und shaking
Essential requirements in a Mas nry building Fig: 2.1.7

16

Web Res urces:
www.nicee. rg: Website f The Nati nal Inf rmati n Center f Earthquake Engineer
ing (NICEE) h sted at Indian Institute f Techn l gy Kanpur (IITK) is intended t
c llect and maintain inf rmati n res urces n Earthquake Engineer-ing and make
these available t the interested pr fessi nals, researche-rs, academicians and
thers with a view t mitigate earthquake disasters in India. The h st als giv
es IITK-BMTPC Earthquake Tips. www.imd.ernet.in/secti n/seism /static/ welc me.h
tm Earthquake Inf rmati n India Mete r l gical Department, India. IMD detects an
d l cates earthquakes and evaluates seismicity in different parts f the c untry
. www.bmtpc. rg In rder t bridge the gap between research and devel pment and
large scale applicati n f new building material techn l gies, the erstwhile Min
istry f Urban Devel pment, G vernment f India, had established the Building Ma
terials And Techn l gy Pr m ti n C uncil in July 1990. www.earthquake.usgs.g v S
urce f r science ab ut the Earth, its natural and living res urces, natural haz
ards, and the envir nment.
2.2 Tsunami
The term Tsunami has been derived fr m a Japanese term Tsu meaning harb r and
nami meaning waves. Tsunamis are p pularly called tidal waves but they actuall
y have n thing t d with the tides. These waves which ften affect distant sh r
es, riginate by rapid displacement f water fr m the lake r the sea either by
seismic activity, landslides, v lcanic erupti ns r large mete r id impacts. Wha
t ever the cause may be sea water is displaced with a vi lent m ti n and swells
up, ultimately surging ver land with great destructive p wer. The effects f a
tsunami can be unn ticeable r even destructive.
Causes f a Tsunami
The ge l gical m vements that cause tsunamis are pr duced in three maj r ways. T
he m st c mm n f these are fault m vements n the sea fl r , acc mpanied by an
earth-quake. They release huge am unt f energy and have the capacity t cr ss
ceans. The degree f m vement depends n h w fast the earthquake ccurs and h w
much water is displaced. Fig 3.1 sh ws h w an earthquake causes tsunami. The se
c nd m st c mm n cause f the tsunami is a landslide either ccurring under wate
r r riginating ab ve the sea and then plunging int the water. The largest tsu
nami ever pr duced by a landslide was in Lituya
Exercise:
1. 2. What are earthquakes ? List ut the causes f an earthquake. Differentiate
between magnitude and intensity f an earthquake. H w are they measured ? Ident
ify three maj r mitigati n measures t reduce earthquake risk.
3.
17

Fig 2.2.2 Picture f a Tsunami
General Characteristics:
Tsunami differs fr m rdinary cean waves, which are pr
er water. The tsunamis travel much faster than rdinary
l wave speed f 100 kil meters per h ur, tsunami in the
may travel the speed f a jet airplane - 800 kil meters
ite f their speed, tsunami increases the water height
sses unn ticed by ships at sea.
Fig 3.1 An Earthquake causing Tsunami
duced by wind bl wing v

waves. C mpared t n rma
deep water f the cean
per h ur! And yet, in sp
nly 30-45cm and ften pa
Bay, Alaska 1958. The massive r ck slide pr duced a wave that reached a high wat
er mark f 50 - 150 meters ab ve the sh reline. The third maj r cause f tsunami
is v lcanic activity. The flank f a v lcan l cated near the sh re r under wa
ter may be uplifted r depressed similar t the acti n f a fault, r, the v lca
n may actually expl de. In 1883, the vi lent expl si n f the fam us v lcan , K
rak t a in Ind nesia, pr duced tsunami measuring 40 meters which crushed up n Ja
va and Sumatra. Over 36,000 pe ple l st their lives in this tyrant waves.
C ntrary t the p pular belief, the tsunami is
ssible f r a tsunami t c nsist f ten r m re
unami wave train. The waves f ll w each ther
rmally causes fl ding as a huge wall f water
n t a single giant wave. It is p

waves which is then termed as ts
5 t 90 minutes apart. Tsunami n
enters the main land.
Predictability:
There are tw distinct types f tsunami warning: a) b) Internati nal tsunami war
ning systems and Regi nal warning systems.
18

Fig 2.2.3 Fl ding caused by the 2004 Tsunami in Tamil Nadu
In 1995 the US Nati nal Oceanic and Atm spheric Administrati n (NOAA) began deve
l ping the Deep Ocean Assessment and Rep rting f Tsunami (DART) system. By 2001
six stati ns had been depl yed in the Pacific Ocean. Each stati n c nsists f a
sea bed b tt m pressure rec rder (at a depth f ab ut 6000 m) which detects the
passage f a tsunami and transmits the data t a surface bu y. The surface bu y
then radi s the inf rmati n t the PTWC. In India, the Survey f India maintain
s a tide gauge netw rk al ng the c ast f India. The gauges are l cated in maj r
p rts as sh wn in the figure 2.2.4. The day-t -day maintenance f the gauge is
carried with the assistance fr m auth rities f the p rts.
Tsunamis have ccurred in all the ceans and in the Mediterranean Sea, but the g
reat maj rity f them have ccurred in the Pacific Ocean. Since scientists cann
t exactly predict earthquakes, they als cann t exactly predict when a tsunami w
ill be generated. a)
Internati nal Tsunami Warning Systems: Sh rtly after the Hil Tsunami (1946), th
e Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS) was devel ped with its perati nal cente
r at the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) near H n lulu, Hawaii. The PTWC i
s able t alert c untries several h urs bef re the tsunami strikes. The warning
includes predicted arrival time at selected c astal c mmunities where the tsunam
i c uld travel in few h urs. A tsunami watch is issued with subsequent arrival t
ime t ther ge graphic areas. Regi nal Warning Systems usually use seismic data
ab ut nearby earthquakes t determine if there is a p ssible l cal threat f a
tsunami. Such systems are capable en ugh t pr vide warnings t the general publ
ic in less than 15 minutes.
19
Fig. 2.2.4 : Tide gauge netw rk in India
b)
Apart fr m the tide gauge, tsunami can be detected
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, rec rded data fr m f ur
t f tsunami waves tw h urs after the earthquake.
atellites bservati ns f the Indian Ocean tsunami
e in
with the help

radars and rec
It sh uld be n
w uld n t have
f radars. The
rded the heigh
ted that the s
been f any us

delivering warnings, as the data t k five h urs t pr cess and it was pure chan
ce that the satellites were verhead at that time. H wever, in future it is p ss
ible that the space-based bservati n might play a direct r le in tsunami warnin
g.
Tsunami - A Terr r The year 2004 has c me t an end. A mem rable year it has bee
n. Ups and d wns and highs and l ws in the past year we have seen. The year went
by sm thly but came t a crashing end. Natures fury shattered the life f s
many Br ken pieces we are still t mend. Tsunami - a huge tidal wave swept ver
the life f all. Natures wrath spared n ne Mankind suffered a great fall. Th us
ands f h mes were destr yed Th usands f lives were taken. We have taken nature
f r granted and a heavy price we have f rsaken. The aftersh cks f the disaster
We are still enduring. The nes alive are being given help Their pains we are c
uring. In the hist ry f mankind This blemish will remain f rever. When reminded
f this grave calamity The w rld will always shiver. The w unds will take time
t heal This disaster will always remain in ur mind. But we will stand up with
a smile And walk ahead leaving this terr r behind. Ashwathi Thampi J.K. Singhani
a Sch l (Standard VIII), Thane
Typical adverse effects:
L cal tsunami events r th se less than 30 minutes fr m the s urce cause the maj
rity f damage. The f rce f the water can raze everything in its path. It is n
rmally the fl ding affect f the tsunami that causes maj r destructi n t the
human settlements, r ads and infrastructure thereby disrupting the n rmal functi
ning f the s ciety. Withdrawal f the tsunami causes maj r damage. As the wave
s withdraw t wards the cean they sweep ut the f undati ns f the buildings, th
e beaches get destr yed and the h uses carried ut t sea. Damage t p rts and a
irp rts may prevent imp rtati n f needed f d and medical supplies. Apart fr m
the physical damage, there is a huge impact n the public health system. Deaths
mainly ccur because f dr wning as water inundates h mes. Many pe ple get washe
d away r crushed by the giant waves and s me are crushed by the debris, causes.
There are very few evidences which sh w that tsunami fl ding has caused large
scale health pr blem. Availability f drinking water has always been a maj r pr
blem in areas affected by a disaster. Sewage pipes may be damaged causing maj r
sewage disp sal pr blems. Open wells and ther gr und water may be c ntaminated
by salt water and debris and sewage. Fl ding in the l cality may lead t cr p l
ss, l ss f livelih d like b ats and nets, envir nmental degradati n etc. 20

Distributi n pattern f Tsunami in India:
Even th ugh India has n t faced frequent Tsunamis but there is a need t identif
y the areas that are generally affected by Tsunamis. The wh le f the Indian c a
stal belt is pr ne t Tsunami. Table 2.2.1 sh ws incidents f tsunamis that have
affected ur c untry.
Date 1524 02 April 1762 16 June 1819 31 Oct ber 1847 31 December 1881 L cati n N
ear Dabh l, Maharashtra Arakan C ast, Myanmar Rann f Kachchh, Gujarat Great Nic
bar Island An earthquake f 7.9 in the Richter scale in Car Nic bar Island
their effectiveness has been questi ned, as tsunamis are ften higher than the b
arriers. F r instance, the tsunami which hit the island f H kkaid
n July 12,
1993 created waves as much as 30m (100 ft) tall - as high as a 10-st ry building
. The p rt t wn f A nae n H kkaid was c mpletely surr unded by a tsunami wall
, but the waves washed right ver the wall and destr yed all the w dImpact Suff
icient data n t available Sufficient data n t available Sufficient data n t avai
lable Sufficient data n t available Entire east c ast f India and Andaman & Nic
bar Islands; 1m tsunamis were rec rded at Chennai. East c ast f India was affe
cted; 2m tsunamis were rec rded at Chennai. East c ast f India was affected but
n estimates f height f the tsunami is available West c ast f India fr m n r
th t Karwar was affected; 12m tsunami was felt at Kandla. The East c st f Indi
a was affected. The waves measured ar und 10 m high killing m re than 10,000 pre
ci us lives.
Table 2.2.1: Hist ry f tsunamis in India
26 August 1883
Expl si n f the Krakat a v lcan in Ind nesian. An 8.1 Richter scale earthquake
in the Andaman archipelag . An 8.5 Richter scale earthquake at a distance f ab
ut 100km s uth f Karachi Banda Aceh, Ind nesia; Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pra
desh, Andaman and Nic bar Islands, India; Sri Lanka; Thailand; Malaysia; Kenya;
Tanzania
26 June 1941
27 N vember 1945
26 December 2004
While it is f c urse n t p ssible t prevent a tsunami, in certain tsunami pr n
e c untries s me measures have been taken t reduce the damage caused n sh re.
Japan has implemented an extensive pr gramme f building tsunami walls f up t
4.5m (13.5 ft) high in fr nt f p pulated c astal areas. Other l calities have b
uilt fl d gates and channels t redirect the water fr m inc ming tsunamis. H we
ver, 21
Fig 2.2.5 Tsunami walls in p pulated c astal areas f Japan

framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in sl wing d wn and m
derating the height f the tsunami but it did n t prevent maj r destructi n and
l ss f life. S me ther systematic measures t pr tect c astlines against tsun
amis include:
Site Planning and Land ManagementWithin the br ader framew rk f a c mprehensive
plan, site planning determines the l cati n, c nfigurati n, and density f deve
l pment n particular sites and is, theref re, an imp rtant t l in reducing tsu
nami risk.
In areas where it is n t feasible t restrict land t pen-space uses, ther lan
d use planning measures can be used. These include strategically c ntr lling the
type f devel pment and uses all wed in hazard areas, and av iding high-value a
nd high ccupancy uses t the greatest degree p ssible.
Engineering structures M st f the habitati n f the fishing
n the c astal areas. The h uses c nstructed by them are mainly
aterials with ut any engineering inputs. Theref re there is an
ucate the c mmunity ab ut the g d c nstructi n practices that
such as:
c mmunity is seen i
f light weight m
urgent need t ed
they sh uld ad pt
Fig 2.2.7 Design s luti n t tsunami effect Fig 2.2.6 Damaged h uses c nstructed
n the sea c ast in Chennai
The designati n and z ning f tsunami hazard areas f r such pen-space uses as a
griculture, parks and recreati n, r natural hazard areas is rec mmended as the
first land use planning strategy. This strategy is designed t keep devel pment
at a minimum in hazard areas. 22
Site selecti n Av id building r living in buildings within several hundred feet

f the c astline as these areas are m re likely t experience damage fr m tsuna
mis. C nstruct the structure n a higher gr und level with respect t mean sea l
evel.
Elevate c astal h mes: M st tsunami waves are less than 3 meters in height. Elev
ating h use will help reduce damage t pr perty fr m m st tsunamis. C nstructi n
f water breakers t reduce the vel city f waves. Use f water and c rr si n r
esistant materials f r c nstructi n. C nstructi n f c mmunity halls at higher l
cati ns, which can act as shelters at the time f a disaster.
Exercise:
1. What is Tsunami? Identify three causes, c nsequences and impact f tsunami wa
ves. H w can we predict Tsunami? Suggest five risk reducti n measures that can b
e taken up t prevent severe damage.

2. 3.
2.3 CYCLONE
What is a Cycl ne?
Cycl ne is a regi n f l w atm spheric pressure surr unded by high atm spheric p
ressure resulting in swirling atm spheric disturbance acc mpanied by p werful wi
nds bl wing in anticl ckwise directi n in the N rthern Hemisphere and in the cl
ckwise directi n in the S uthern Hemisphere. They ccur mainly in the tr pical a
nd temperate regi ns f the w rld. Cycl nes are called by vari us names in diffe
rent parts f the w rld as menti ned in b x n the next page.
Fl d management - Fl ding will result fr m a tsunami. Tsunami waves will fl d
the c astal areas. Fl d mitigati n measures c uld be inc rp rated.
Web Res urces:
http://i c.unesc . rg/itsu/ IOC/UNESCO Internati nal C rdinati n gr up f r the
Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific (ICG/ ITSU), Paris, France http://quake.us
gs.g v/tsunami/ Tsunamis and Earthquakes, USGS, USA www.asc-india. rg Amateur Se
ismic Centre is a c mprehensive website carrying details f state wise seismicit
y f r the c untry. This als has extensive rep rts n vari us past Earthquakes/T
sunamis. http://www.prh.n aa.g v/pr/itic/ Internati nal Tsunami Inf rmati n Cent
er, H n lulu, Hawaii http://www.tsunami. rg/ Pacific Tsunami Museum site. Includ
es answers t frequently asked questi ns, links, and inf rmati n related t Paci
fic Ocean tsunamis.

Cycl nes in India are m derate in nature. S me f the general characteristics
a cycl ne are: 1. 2. 3. Str ng winds Excepti nal rain St rm surge

Cycl nes are generally acc mpanied by
23

Cycl nes are kn wn by different names in different parts
f the w rld:
Typh ns in the N rthwest Pacific Ocean west f the dateline Hurricanes in the N
rth Atlantic Ocean, the N rtheast Pacific Ocean east f the dateline, r the S
uth Pacific Ocean. Tr pical cycl nes - the S uthwest Pacific Ocean and S utheast
Indian Ocean. Severe cycl nic st rm (the N rth Indian Ocean) Tr pical cycl ne (t
he S uthwest Indian Ocean) Willie-Willie in Australia
T rnad in S uth America st rm travelled m re than 250 km inland and within a pe
ri d f 36 hrs ravaged m re than 200 lakh hectares f land, dev uring trees and
vegetati n, leaving behind a huge trail f destructi n. The vi lent cycl ne was
merciless and br ke the backb ne f Orissas ec n my and killed th usands and deva
stated milli ns. The devel pment f a cycl ne c vers three stages namely a) F rm
ati n and initial devel pment state: F ur atm spheric/ ceanic c nditi ns are ne
cessary f r the f rmati n f a cycl ne namely:
Fig 2.3.1 Orissa Super Cycl ne Fig 2.3.2 Stages f cycl ne f rmati n
str ng winds which cause a l t f destructi n. In s me cases it is acc mpanied b

y heavy d wnp ur and als the rise in the sea which intrudes inland there by cau
sing fl ds.
29th Oct ber 1999, Super-cycl ne with wind speed f 260-300 km/h ur hit the 140
kil meter c ast f Orissa with a st rm surge created in the Bay- f-Bengal with w
ater level 9 metres higher than n rmal. The super 24
A warm sea temperature in excess f 26 degree centigrade, t a depth f 60 meter
s, which pr vides abundant water vap ur in the air by evap rati n. High relative
humidity (degree t which the air is saturated by

water vap r) f the atm sphere t a height f ab ut 7000 meters, facilitates c n
densati n f water vap r int dr plets and cl uds, releases heat energy and indu
ces dr p in pressure.
Atm spheric instability (an ab ve average decrease f temp
erature with altitude) enc urages c nsiderable vertical cumulus cl ud c nvecti n
when c ndensati n f rising air ccurs. A l cati n f at least 4-5 latitude deg
rees fr m the Equat r all w the influence f the f rce due t the earths r tati n
(C ri lis f rce) t take effect in inducing cycl nic wind circulati n ar und l
w pressure centers.
cumulus thundercl ud bands. These bands spiral inwards and f rm a dense highly a
ctive central cl ud c re which raps ar und a relatively calm z ne. This is calle
d the eye f a cycl ne. The eye l ks like a black h le r a d t surr unded by thi
ck cl uds. The uter circumference f the thick cl ud is called the eye wall. c) W
eakening r decay: A tr pical cycl ne begins t weaken as s n as its s urce f
warm m ist air is abruptly cut ff. This is p ssible when the cycl ne hits the l
and, n the cycl ne m ves t a higher altitude r when there is the interference
f an ther l w pressure.
Depending n their track n the warm tr pical sea and pr ximity t land a cycl n
e may last f r less than 24 h urs t m re than 3 weeks. On an average the life c
ycle f a cycl ne (a cycl ne t c mplete these three stages menti ned ab ve) tak
es six days. The l ngest cycl ne is typh n J hn which lasted f r 31 days (Augus
t t September, 1994 in the n rth east and n rth west pacific basins).
Indian Cycl nes
Cycl nes vary in frequency in vari us parts f the w rld. The 7516.6 kil meters
l ng Indian c astline is the earths m st cycl ne battered stretch f the w rld. A
r und 8 per cent f the t tal land area in India is pr ne t cycl nes. Ab ut tw
-third f the cycl nes that ccur in the Indian c astline ccur in the Bay f Be
ngal. The states which are generally affected in the east c ast are West-Bengal,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh; Tamil Nadu and n the west c ast Gujarat, Maharashtra,
G a, Karnataka and Kerala. 25
Fig 2.3.3 Cycl ne f rmati n
b)
Fully matured: The main feature f a fully mature tr pical cycl ne is a spiral p
attern f highly turbulent giant

Distributi nal Pattern:
The map f India (Fig 2.3.4) sh ws the areas that are generally affected by str
ng winds/ cycl nes. S me f the maj r cycl nes that have affected the c untry in
the past are as menti ned in table 2.3.1
damage. The satellites track the m vement f these cycl nes based n which the p
e ple are evacuated fr m areas lively t be affected. It is difficult t predict
the accuracy. Accurate landfall predicti ns can give nly a few h urs n tice t
threatened p pulati n. India has ne f the best cycl ne warning systems in the
w rld. The India Mete r l gical Department (IMD) is the n dal department f r win
d detecti n, tracking and f recasting cycl nes. Cycl ne tracking is d ne thr ugh
INSAT satellite. Cycl ne warning is disseminated by several means such as satel
lite based disaster warning systems, radi , televisi n, teleph ne, fax, high pri
rity telegram, public ann uncements and bulletins in press. These warnings are
disseminated t the general public, the fishing c mmunity
Fig 2.3.4 Wind and Cycl ne map f India
Table 2.3.1: Death ass ciate with n tew rthy Tr pical Cycl nes (1970 2005)
Sl N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Year 1971 1972 1977 1979 1981 1982 1984 1985 1990
1990 1999 Eastern C ast Andhra Pradesh and Orissa Chennai, kerala & Andhra Prade
sh Andhra Pradesh Gujarat Gujarat & Maharashtra Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh Andh
ra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Orissa Orissa Area Death t ll 9658 100 14,204 594 470
500 512 5000 957 250 8913
(S urce: Office f the US F reign Disaster Assistance)
Warning:
L w pressure and the devel pment can be detected h urs r days bef re it causes
26
especially th se in the sea, p rt auth rities, c mmercial aviati n and the g ver
nment machinery.

Elements at Risk: Str ng winds, t rrential rains and fl ding cause a huge l ss
t life and pr perty. The 1999 Super Cycl ne f Orissa killed m re than 10,000 p
reci us lives with w men and children greatly affected. Apart fr m l ss t life
there is a huge l ss t infrastructures like h uses built f mud, lder building
s with weak walls, bridges, settlements in l w lying areas.
Water supplies Gr und and pipe water supply may get c ntaminated by fl d waters
. Cr ps and f d supplies high winds and rains ruin the standing cr p and f d s
t ck lying in l w lying areas. Plantati n type cr ps such as banana and c c nut
are extremely vulnerable. Salt fr m the sea water may get dep sited n the agric
ultural land and increase the salinity. The l ss f the cr p may lead t acute f
d sh rtage. C mmunicati n severe disrupti n in the c mmunicati n links as the
wind may bring d wn the electricity and c mmunicati n t wers, teleph ne p les, t
eleph ne lines, antennas and satellite disk and br adcasting services. Transp rt
lines (r ad and rail) may be curtailed, Lack f pr per c mmunicati n affects ef
fective distributi n f relief materials.
Typical Adverse effect:
First, in a sudden, brief nslaught, high
ture and h using, in particular fragile c
ed by heavy rains and fl ds and, in flat
tidal waves and inundating the land ver
er inland.
winds cause maj r damage t infrastruc

nstructi ns. They are generally f ll w
c astal areas by st rm surge riding n
l ng distances f even upt 15 kil met
P ssible Risk Reducti n Measures:

C astal belt plantati n - green belt plantati n al ng the c astal line in a scie
ntific interweaving pattern can reduce the effect f the hazard. Pr viding a c v
er thr ugh green belt sustains less damage. F rests act as a wide buffer z ne ag
ainst str ng winds and flash fl ds. With ut the f rest the cycl ne travel freel
y inland. The lack f pr tective f rest c ver all ws water t inundate large are
as and cause destructi n. With the l ss f the f rest c ver each c nsecutive cyc
l ne can penetrate further inland. Hazard mapping Mete r l gical rec rds f the
wind speed and the directi ns give the pr bability f the winds in the regi n. C
ycl nes can be predicted several days in advance. The nset is extensive and ft
en 27
2.3.5 Mangr ve plantati n n the c astal belt
Physical damage structures will be damaged r destr yed by the wind f rce, fl d
ing and st rm surge. Light pitched r fs f m st structures especially the nes
fitted n t industrial buildings will suffer severe damage. Casualties and publ
ic heath caused by fl ding and flying elements, c ntaminati n f water supplies
may lead t viral utbreaks, diarrhea, and malaria.

very destructive. Past rec rds and paths can give the pattern f ccurrence f r
particular wind speeds. A hazard map will illustrate the areas vulnerable t cyc
l ne in any given year. It will be useful t estimate the severity f the cycl n
e and vari us damage intensities in the regi n. The map is prepared with data in
puts f past climat l gical rec rds, hist ry f wind speed, frequency f fl din
g etc. Fig.2.3.6 sh ws the wind and cycl ne z ne map f Andhra Pradesh.
plains is at utm st risk. Siting f key facilities must be marked in the land us
e. P licies sh uld be in place t regulate land use and building c des sh uld be
enf rced. Engineered structures structures need t be built t withstand wind f
rces. G d site selecti n is als imp rtant. Maj rity f the buildings in c ast
al areas are built with l cally available materials and have n engineering inpu
ts. G d c nstructi n practice sh uld be ad pted such as: - Cycl nic wind st rms
inundate the c astal areas. It is advised t c nstruct n stilts r n earth m
und. - H uses can be strengthened t resist wind and fl d damage. All elements
h lding the structures need t be pr perly anch red t resist the uplift r flyi
ng ff f the bjects. F r example, av id large verhangs f r fs, and the pr j
ecti ns sh uld be tied d wn.
Fig. 2.3.6 Andhra Pradesh state wind and cycl ne z ne map
- A r w f planted trees will act as a shield. It reduces the energy. - Building
s sh uld be wind and water resistant. - Buildings st ring f d supplies must be
pr tected against the winds and water. - Pr tect river embankments. C mmunicati
n lines sh uld be installed undergr und. - Pr vide str ng halls f r c mmunity sh
elter in vulnerable l cati ns.
Land use c ntr l designed s that least critical activities are placed in vulner
able areas. L cati n f settlements in the fl d
Fig 2.3.7 A shelter with special feature t withstand cycl nes and fl ds. Tradi
ti nal h mes can be impr ved by building in disaster resistant features. Such h
mes c uld withstand cycl nes with m derate speeds.
28

C nstructi n at gr und level risk f inundati n
If natural elevati n is n t available c nstructi n n stilts
raised earth m unds
r n artificially
Large verhangs get lifted and br ken. F r large verhangs, use ties. Fig. 2.3.8
Safe C nstructi n Practices
Fl d management T rrential rains, str ng wind and st rm range leads t fl ding
in the cycl ne affected areas. There are p ssibilities f landslides t . Fl d
mitigati n measures c uld be inc rp rated (see secti n n fl ds f r additi nal
inf rmati n). Impr ving vegetati n c ver The r ts f the plants and trees keep
the s il intact and prevent er si n and sl w run ff t
prevent r lessen fl ding. The use f tree planted in r ws will act as a windbr
eak. C astal shelterbelt plantati ns can be devel ped t break severe wind speed
s. It minimizes devastating effects. The Orissa calamity has als highlighted th
e need f r urgent measures like shelterbelt plantati n al ng cycl ne-pr ne c ast
al areas. Species ch sen f r this purp se sh uld n t nly be able t withstand t
he impact f str ng cycl nic winds, but als check s il er si n.
Web Res urces:
www.imd.ernet.in Indian Mete r l gi-cal Department (IMD) pr vides all India weat
her rep rt, end f m ns n seas n rep rt, weather charts, satellite images, rain
fall maps, earthquake rep rts and severe weather warnings. IMD pr vides cycl ne
warnings fr m the Area Cycl ne Warning Centres (ACWCs) It has devel ped the nece
ssary infrastructure t riginate and disseminate the cycl ne warnings at appr p
riate levels. It has made perati nal a satellite based c mmunicati n
Fig 2.3.9 C astal belt plantati n
29

system called Cycl ne Warning Disseminati n System f r direct disseminati n f c
ycl ne warnings t the cycl ne pr ne c astal areas. www.ndmindia.nic.in Natural
Disaster Management India. Pr vides current news n Fl d, Dr ught and Cycl nes,
Weather Links fr m NIC and weather c nditi ns/ temperatures n Indian Ocean (ww
w.weather.nic.in). www.bmtpc. rg/disaster.htm In rder t bridge the gap between
research and devel pment and large scale applicati n f new building material t
echn l gies, the erstwhile Ministry f Urban Devel pment, G vernment f India, h
ad established the Building Materials And Techn l gy Pr m ti n C uncil in July 1
990. www.gsdma. rg/cycpre.htm Link t Cycl ne preparedness n the Gujarat State
Disaster Management Auth rity website. The G vernment f Gujarat (GOG) establish
ed the Gujarat State Disaster Management Auth rity t c - rdinate the c mprehens
ive earthquake rec very pr gram. www. sdma. rg website f Orissa State Disaster
Mitigati n Auth rity. The G vernment f Orissa established the Orissa State Disa
ster Management Auth rity t c - rdinate the c mprehensive Orissa Super Cycl ne
rec very pr gram. Visit the secti n Safety Tips f r cycl nes and ther hazards. ww
w.tr pmet.res.in The IITM functi ns as a nati nal centre f r basic and applied r
esearch in m ns n mete r l gy f the tr pics in general with special reference
t m ns n mete r l gy f India and neighb rh d. Its primary functi ns are t p
r m te, guide and c nduct research in the field f mete r l gy in all its aspect
s. www.c l rad .edu/hazards is an excellent site having a c mprehensive c verage
f disasterrelated inf rmati n rganized in an easy t read way.
Exercise
1. 2. Explain the characteristics f a cycl ne. Explain in detail the c nditi ns
necessary f r the devel pment f a cycl ne. Identify risk reducti n measures f
r cycl nes.
3.
2.4 FLOOD
Fl d is a state f high water level al ng a river channel r n the c ast that
leads t inundati n f land, which is n t usually submerged. Fl ds may happen g
radually and als may take h urs r even happen suddenly with ut any warning due
t breach in the embankment, spill ver, heavy rains etc. There are different t
ypes f fl ds namely: flash fl d, riverine fl d, urban fl d, etc. Flash fl
ds can be defined as fl ds which ccur within six h urs f the beginning f hea
vy rainfall, and are usually ass ciated with cl ud bursts, st rms and cycl nes r
equiring rapid l calized warnings and immediate resp nse t reduce damage. Wirel
ess netw rk and teleph ne c nnecti ns are used t m nit r fl d c nditi ns. In c
ase f flash fl ds, warnings f r timely evacuati n may n t always be p ssible.
Causes:
There are several causes
may vary
30
f fl ds and differ fr m regi n t
regi n. The causes

fr m a rural area t an urban area. S me f the maj r causes are: a. b. Heavy ra
infall Heavy siltati n f the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity f t
he rivers/stream. Bl ckage in the drains lead t fl ding f the area. Landslide
s bl cking the fl w f the stream. C nstructi n f dams and reserv irs In areas
pr ne t cycl ne, str ng winds acc mpanied by heavy d wn p ur al ng with st rm s
urge leads t fl ding.
Distributi nal Pattern f fl ds in India
Fl ds ccur in alm st all the river basins f the c untry. The Vulnerability At
las f India sh ws pict rially the areas liable t fl ds. Ar und 12 per cent (4
0 milli n hectare) f land in India is pr ne t fl ds.
c. d. e. f.
Typical Adverse Effects:
The m st imp rtant c nsequence f fl ds is the l ss f life and pr perty. Struc
tures like h uses, bridges; r ads etc. get damaged by the gushing water, landsli
des triggered n acc unt f water getting saturated, b ats and fishing nets get
damaged. There is huge l ss t life and livest ck caused by dr wning. Lack f pr
per drinking water facilities, c ntaminati n f water (well, gr und water, pipe
d water supply) leads t utbreak f epidemics, diarrh ea, viral infecti n, mala
ria and many ther infecti us diseases. Fl ding als leads t a large area f a
gricultural land getting inundated as a result there is a huge cr p l ss. This r
esults in sh rtage f f d, and animal f dder. Fl ds may als affect the s il c
haracteristics. The land may be rendered infertile due t er si n f t p layer
r may turn saline if sea water fl ds the area. 31
Fig 2.4.1 Map sh wing Fl d Z nes in India
M st f the fl d affected areas lie in the Ganga basin, Brahmaputra basin (c mp
rising f Barak, Tista, T rsa, Subansiri, Sank sh, Dihang and Luhit), the n rthw
estern river basin (c mprising Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas and the Ghagra
), peninsular river basin (Tapti, Narmada, Mahanadi, Baitarani, G davari, krishn
a, Pennar and the Kaveri) and the c astal regi ns f Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu,
rissa and Kerela. Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa are s me f the states
wh have been severely pr ne t fl ds. Our c untry receives an annual

rainfall f 1200 mm, 85% f which is c ncentrated in 3-4 m nths i.e June t Sept
ember. Due t the intense and peri dic rain, m st f the rivers f the c untry a
re fed with huge quantity f water, much bey nd their carrying capacity. Table 2
.4.1 bel w sh ws s me f the maj r fl ds that have affected the c untry.
level rises. Except f r flash fl ds there is usually a reas nable warning peri
d. Heavy precipitati n will give sufficient warning f the c ming river fl d. H
igh tides with high winds may indicate fl ding in the c astal areas. Evacuati n
is p ssible with suitable m nit ring and warning. Warning is issued by the Cent
ral Water C mmissi n (CWC), Irrigati n & Fl d C ntr l Department,
Table 2.4.1 Death T ll in maj r fl ds f India
Year 1961 1968 1971 1978 1980 1989 1994 1995 1997 Number f pe ple killed 2,000
4,892 1,023 3,800 1,600 1,591 2,001 1,479 1,442 L cati n N rth (1) Rajasthan, Gu
jarat - (2) N rth-East, West Bengal, Assam N rth India N rth, N rtheast Uttar Pr
adesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Haryana Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat Assa
m, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, G a, K
erala, Gujarat states Bihar, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, We
st Bengal, Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pra
desh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal states Assam
, Arunachal, Bihar, Kerala, Meghalaya, Punjab, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, West Benga
l states Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Prad
esh, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
1998 2000
1,811 1,290
Warning:
Fl d f recasting and warning has been highly devel ped in the past tw decades.
With the advancement f techn l gy such as satellite and rem te-sensing equipme
nts fl d waves can be tracked as the water
and Water Res urces Department. CWC maintains cl se liais n with the administrat
ive and state engineering agencies, l cal civil auth rities t c mmunicate advan
ce warning f r appr priate mitigati n and preparedness measures.
32

Mapping f the fl d pr ne areas is a primary step inv lved in reducing the risk
f the regi n. Hist rical rec rds give the indicati n f the fl d inundati n a
reas and the peri d f ccurrence and the extent f the c verage. Warning can be
issued l king int the earlier marked heights f the water levels in case f p
tential threat. In the c astal areas the tide levels and the land characteristi
cs will determine the submergence areas. Fl d hazard mapping will give the pr p
er indicati n f water fl w during fl ds. Land use c ntr l will reduce danger
f life and pr perty when waters inundate the fl dplains and the c astal areas.
The number f casualties is related t the p pulati n in the area at risk. In ar
eas where pe ple already have built their settlements, measures sh uld be taken
t rel cate t better sites s as t reduce vulnerability. N maj r devel pment
sh uld be permitted in the areas which are subjected t high fl ding. Imp rtant
facilities like h spitals, sch ls sh uld be built in safe areas. In urban area
s, water h lding areas can be created like p nds, lakes r l w-lying areas.
Fig 2.4.3 Khash Dhalai Fl d Shelter. Fl d shelters like this are just ne exam
ple f h w c mmunities can pr tect themselves fr m the w rst f the fl ds. Bank
s f earth are raised by up t 5 metres and c ver an area f several kil metres.
The pe ple dig a huge p nd in the middle and use this earth t raise the gr und
. Whenever the fl ds c me, pe ple can bring their livest ck, p ssessi ns even t
heir h mes t safety. The p nd in the middle bec mes an imp rtant s urce f f d
, as it is used t farm fish.
C nstructi n f engineered structures in the fl d plains and strengthening f s
tructures t withstand fl d f rces and seepage. The buildings sh uld be c nstru
cted n an elevated area. If necessary build n stilts r platf rm. Fl d C ntr
l aims t reduce fl d damage. This can be d ne by decreasing the am unt f run
ff with the help f ref restati n (t increase abs rpti n c uld be a mitigati n
strategy in certain areas), pr tecti n f vegetati n, clearing f debris fr m st
reams and ther water h lding areas, c nservati n f p nds and lakes etc. Fl d
Diversi n include levees, embankments, dams and channel impr vement. Dams can st
re water and can release water at a manageable rate. But failure f dams in ear
thquakes and perati n f releasing the water can cause fl ds in the l wer area
s. Fl d Pr fing reduces the risk f damage. Measures include use f sand bags
t keep fl d water away, bl cking r sealing f d rs and wind ws f h uses etc
. H uses 33
Fig 2.4.2 H uses c nstructed n stilts in slum areas

may be elevated by building n raised land. Buildings sh uld be c nstructed away
fr m water b dies. Fl d Management In India, systematic planning f r fl d man
agement c mmenced with the Five Year Plans, particularly with the launching f N
ati nal Pr gramme f Fl d Management in 1954. During the last 48 years, differe
nt meth ds f fl d pr tecti n structural as well as n nstructural have been ad
pted in different states depending up n the nature f the pr blem and l cal c nd
iti ns. Structural measures include st rage reserv irs, fl d embankments, drain
age channels, antier si n w rks, channel impr vement w rks, detenti n basins etc
. and n n-structural measures include fl d f recasting, fl d plain z ning, fl
d pr fing, disaster preparedness etc. The fl d management measures undertaken
s far have pr vided reas nable degree f pr tecti n t an area f 15.81 milli
n hectares thr ugh ut the c untry.
www.nih.ernet.in India Nati nal Institute f Hydr l gy perf rm tasks such as Gr
und water z ne mapping, Fl d plain mapping, land use, salinity, sedimentati n,
S il er si n, water-l gging etc.
Exercise
1. 2. Define Fl d. List ut s me f the causes and adverse effects f fl ds. N
ame tw basins in India that are frequently affected by fl d and explain the wa
rning disseminati n system f India in the fl d affected areas. Explain in deta
il atleast five p ssible risk reducti n measures f r fl ds.
3.
2.5 DROUGHT
What is Dr ught?
Dr ught is either absence r deficiency f rainfall fr m its n rmal pattern in a
regi n f r an extended peri d f time leading t general suffering in the s cie
ty. It is interplay between demand that pe ple place n natural supply f water
and natural event that pr vides the water in a given ge graphical regi n. The st
ate f Kerala which receives m re than 3000 mm f rainfall every year is declare
d dr ught affected as it is insufficient t have tw g d cr ps. The m re the im
balance in supply the higher is the dr ught. The f ll wing will help explaining
this general definiti n f the dr ught further. It is a sl w n-set disaster and
it is difficult t demarcate the time f its nset and the end. Any unusual dry
peri d which results in a sh rtage f useful water.
Web Res urces:
www.cwc.nic.in website f the Central Water C mmissi n f India, (CWC) f India.
http://wrmin.nic.in website f the Ministry f Water Res urces, G I. www.imd.er
net.in Indian Mete r l gical Department (IMD) pr vides all India weather rep rt,
end f m ns n seas n rep rt, weather charts, satellite images, rainfall maps,
earthquake rep rts and severe weather warnings. www.ndmindia.nic.in Natural Disa
ster Management India. Pr vides current news n Fl d, Dr ught and Cycl nes, Wea
ther Links fr m NIC and weather c nditi ns temperatures n Indian Ocean (www.wea
ther.nic.in).
34
Dr ught is a n rmal, recurrent feature f climate. Climate is expected

me aberrati ns and dr ught is just a part f it. Dr ught can ccur by
distributi n f rain in time and space, and n t just by its am unt. Dr
egative balance between precipitati n and water use (thr ugh evap rati
irati n by plants, d mestic and industrial uses etc) in a ge graphical
t sh w s
impr per
ught is n
n, transp
regi n.
What n earth d y u kn w ab ut water? Appr ximately 80 per cent f earths surfac

e is c vered with water but nly 1% f it is fresh water that we can use. Ab ut
2.7 per cent f the t tal water available n the earth is fresh water f which a
b ut 75.2 per cent lies fr zen in P lar Regi ns and an ther 22.6 per cent is pre
sent as gr und water. The rest is available in lakes, rivers, atm sphere, m istu
re, s il and vegetati n. This 1% f water is n w threatened by p lluti n! T day,
we have appr ximately the same am unt f water as when the Earth was f rmed. Ea
rth will n t get/generate any m re water! We are using up the fresh water faster
than we are recharging ur gr undwater
The effects f dr ught accumulate sl wly ver a c nsiderable peri d f time.

Causes f Dr ught
Can y u think f what causes dr ught? Th ugh dr ught is basically caused by defi
cit rainfall, which is a mete r l gical phen men n, it manifests int different
spheres because f vari us vulnerability fact rs ass ciated with them (see the b
x). S me f these fact rs are human induced. Th ugh dr ught is a natural disast
er, its effects are made w rst in devel ping c untries by ver p pulati n, ver
grazing, def restati n, s il er si n, excessive use f gr und and surface water
f r gr wing cr ps, l ss f bi diversity.
Mete r l gical dr ught

Mete r l gical dr ught is simple absence/deficit f rainfall fr m the n rmal. It
is the least severe f rm f dr ught and is ften identified by sunny days and h
t weather.
Types f dr ughts
Dr ught pr ceeds in sequential manner. Its impacts are spread acr ss different d
mains as listed bel w.
Hydr l gical dr ught

Hydr l gical dr ught ften leads t reducti n f natural stream fl ws r gr und
water levels, plus st red water supplies. The main impact is n water res urce s
ystems.
35
Agricultural dr ught
This f rm f dr ught ccurs when m isture level in s il is insufficient t maint
ain average cr p yields. Initial c nsequences are in the reduced seas nal utput
f cr ps and ther related pr ducti n. An extreme agricultural dr ught can lead
t a famine, which is a pr l nged sh rtage f f d in a restricted regi n causi
ng widespread disease and death fr m starvati n.
S ci -ec n mic dr ught
S ci -ec n mic dr ught c rrelates the supply and demand f g ds and services wi
th the three ab ve-menti ned types f dr ught. When the supply f s me g ds r
services such as water and electricity are weather dependant then dr ught may ca
use sh rtages in supply f these ec n mic g ds.
Can y u think f s me m re vulnerability fact rs t dr ught? L w s il m isture h
lding capacity Absence f irrigati n facilities
Livest ck with ut adequate f dd
er st rage facilities P r water management
Def restati n
Over grazing Water c n
suming cr pping patterns
Excessive gr und water draft
S il er si n P pulati n gr
wth and urbanizati n
Industrializati n Gl bal warming Can y u believe it!!! Che
rapunji in Meghalaya, which was said t receive highest rainfall in the w rld, i
s n w reeling under acute drinking water pr blem. This is because f water run f
f, denudati n and n st rage facilities. Fig 2.5.1
Measuring Dr ught :
Elements at Risk
In general, all th se elements that are primarily dependent n water are m st af
fected. It affects the rainfed cr ps and then sl wly creeps int the irrigated c
r ps. Pe ple wh are dependent n agriculture and areas where the ther livelih
d pp rtunities are least devel ped are greatly affected. The herdsman, landles
s lab urer, subsistence farmers, w men, children and farm animals are the m st v
ulnerable gr ups. Mete r l gical Dr ught
Hydr l gical Dr ught
Agricultural Dr ught
S ci -ec n mic Dr ught
36

Dr ught Mathematics The f ll wing criteria have been set by the Indian Mete r l
gical Divisi n (IMD) f r identifying the dr ught. Onset f dr ught: Deficiency
f a particular years rainfall exceeding 25 per cent f n rmal. M derate dr ught:
Deficit f rainfall between 26-50 per cent f n rmal. Severe dr ught: Deficit f
rainfall m re than 50 per cent f n rmal.
Fig 2.5.2 Map sh wing dr ught pr ne states in India.
Typical adverse effects
Dr ught, different fr m any ther natural disaster, d es n t cause any structura
l damages. As the mete r l gical dr ught turns int hydr l gical dr ught, the im
pacts start appearing first in agriculture which is m st dependant n the s il m
isture. Irrigated areas are affected much later than the rainfed areas. H wever
, regi ns surr unding perennial rivers tend t c ntinue n rmal life even when dr
ught c nditi ns are prevailing ar und. The impacts sl wly spread int s cial fa
bric as the availability f drinking water diminishes, reducti n in energy pr du
cti n, gr und water depleti n, f d sh rtage, health reducti n and l ss f life,
increased p verty, reduced quality f life and s cial unrest leading t migrati
n.
Distributi n Pattern
Ar und 68 per cent f Indias t tal area is dr ught pr ne t dr ught. 315 ut
t tal f 725 Talukas in 99 districts are dr ught pr ne. 50 milli n pe ple are a
nnually affected by dr ught. In 2001 m re than eight states suffered the impact
f severe dr ught. In 2003 m st parts f Rajasthan experienced the f urth c nsec
utive year f dr ught.
There are vari us mitigati n strategies t c pe up with dr ught. 1.
Public Awareness and educati n: If the c mmunity is aware f the d s and d nts, th
en half f the pr blem is s lved. This includes awareness n
37
f a

the availability f safe drinking water, water c nservati n techniques, agricult
ural dr ught management strategies like cr p c ntingency plans, c nstructi n f
rain water harvesting structure. Awareness can be generated by the print, electr
nic and f lk media. 2.
Dr ught M nit ring: It is c ntinu us bservati n f the rainfall situati n, avai
lability f water in the reserv irs, lakes, rivers etc and c mparing with the ex
isting water needs in vari us sect rs f the s ciety. Water supply augmentati n
and c nservati n thr ugh rainwater harvesting in h uses and farmers fields increa
ses the c ntent f water available. Water harvesting by either all wing the run
ff water fr m all the fields t a c mm n p int (e.g. Farm p nds, see the picture
) r all wing it t infiltrate int the s il where it has fallen (in situ) (e.g.
c nt ur bunds, c nt ur cultivati n, raised bed planting etc) helps increase wat
er availability f r sustained agricultural pr ducti n. Expansi n f irrigati n f
acilities reduces the dr ught vulnerability. Land use based n its capability he
lps in ptimum use f land and water and can av id the undue demand created due
t their misuse. Livelih d planning identifies th se livelih ds which are leas
t affected by the dr ught. S me f such livelih ds include increased ff-farm e
mpl yment pp rtunities, c llecti n f n n-timber f rest pr duce fr m the c mmun
ity f rests, raising g ats, carpentry etc.
38
Fig. 2.5.3 Rain Water harvesting
3.
Fig 2.5.4 A watershed sh wing c llecti n f water t
c mm n p int.
4.
6.
Dr ught planning: the basic g al f dr ught planning is t impr ve the effective
ness f preparedness and resp nse eff rts by enhancing m nit ring, mitigati n an
d resp nse measures.
Planning w uld help in effective c rdinati n am ng state and nati nal agencies
in dealing with the dr ught. C mp nents f dr ught plan include establishing dr
ught taskf rce which is a team f specialists wh can advise
5.
7.

the g vernment in taking decisi n t deal with dr ught situati n, establishing c
rdinati n mechanism am ng vari us agencies which deal with the dr ughts, pr vi
ding cr p insurance schemes t the farmers t c pe with the dr ught related cr p
l sses, and public awareness generati n.
started his m vement c ncentrating n trapping every dr p f rain, which is basi
cally a dr ught mitigati n practice. S the villagers built check dams and tanks
. T c nserve s il they planted trees. The result: fr m 80 acres f irrigated ar
ea tw decades ag , Ralegan Siddhi has a massive area f 1300 acres under irriga
ti n. The migrati n f r j bs has st pped and the per capita inc me has increased
ten times fr m Rs.225 t 2250 in this span f time. The entire eff rt was nly
pe ples enterprise and inv lved n funds r supp rt fr m the G vernment.
Web Res urces:
Ralegan, bef re dr ught mitigati n eff rts http://dmc.kar.nic.in/default.htm www
. watershedindia.net www.rainwaterharvesting. rg www.dr ught.unl. edu
Exercise
1. 2.
Ralegan, after dr ught mitigati n eff rts Fig 2.5.5
Why is dr ught a sl w nset disaster? Identify five fact rs that cause dr ught.
Explain the f ur different types f dr ught Identify the elements that are at ri
sk in areas that are pr ne t dr ught and identify five risk reducti n measures
t c mbat dr ught.
3.
What a mitigati n appr ach can d ? A success st ry The pe ple f Ralegan Siddhi
in Maharashtra transf rmed the dire straits t pr sperity. Twenty years ag the
village sh wed all traits f abject p verty. It practically had n trees, the t
ps il had bl wn ff, there was n agriculture and pe ple were j bless. Anna Haza
re, ne f the Indias m st n ted s cial activists, 39
2.6 LANDSLIDE
What is a landslide?
The term landslide includes all varieties f mass m vements f hill sl pes and can
be defined as the d wnward and utward m vement f sl pe f rming materials c mp
sed f r cks, s ils, artificial fills r

c mbinati n f all these materials al ng surfaces f separati n by falling, slid
ing and fl wing, either sl wly r quickly fr m ne place t an ther. Alth ugh th
e landslides are primarily ass ciated with m untain us terrains, these can als
ccur in areas where an activity such as surface excavati ns f r highways, build
ings and pen pit mines takes place. They ften take place in c njuncti n with e
arthquakes, fl ds and v lcan es. At times, pr l nged rainfall causing landslide
may bl ck the fl w f river f r quite s me time. The f rmati n f river bl cks
can cause hav c t the settlements d wnstream n its bursting. S me f the c mm
n definiti ns are bel w in table 1.
Causes f Landslide
There are several causes
f landslide. S me f the maj r causes are as f ll ws:
1.
Ge l gical Weak material: Weakness in the c mp siti n and structure f r ck r s
il may als cause landslides. Er si n: Er si n f sl pe t e due t cutting d wn
f vegetati n, c nstructi n f r ads might increase the vulnerability f the te
rrain t slide d wn. Intense rainfall: St rms that pr duce intense rainfall f r
peri ds as sh rt as several h urs r have a m re m derate intensity lasting seve
ral days have triggered abundant landslides. Heavy melting f sn w in the hilly
terrains als results in landslide. Human Excavati n f sl pe and its t e, l adi
ng f sl pe/t e, draw d wn in reserv ir, mining, def restati n, irrigati n, vibr
ati n/blast, Water leakage fr m services.
2.
3.
4.
Fig 2.6.1 Landslide in hilly terrain
f India
Table 1 : Definiti ns Landslide Hazard refers t the p tential f ccurrence f

a damaging landslide within a given area; such damage c uld include l ss f life
r injury, pr perty damage, s cial and ec n mic disrupti n, r envir nmental de
gradati n. Landslide Vulnerability reflects the extent f p tential l ss t give
n elements ( r set f elements) within the area affected by the hazard, expresse
d n a scale f 0 (n l ss) t 1 (t tal l ss); vulnerability is shaped by physic
al, s cial, ec n mic and envir nmental c nditi ns. Landslide Risk refers t the
pr bability f harmful c nsequences-the expected number f lives l st, pers ns i
njured, extent f damage t pr perty r ec l gical systems, r disrupti n f ec
n mic activity within a landslide pr ne area. The risk may be individual r s cie
tal in sc pe, resulting fr m an interacti n between the hazard and individual r
s cietal vulnerability. Landslide Risk Evaluati n is the applicati n f analyse
s and judgments (enc mpassing physical, s cial, and ec n mic dimensi ns f lands
lide vulnerability) t determine risk management alternatives, which may include
determinati n that the landslide risk is acceptable r t lerable. 40
Falls: Abrupt m vements f materials that bec me detached fr m steep sl pes r c

liffs, m ving by free-fall, b uncing, and r lling. Fl ws: General term including
many types f mass m vement, such as debris fl w, debris avalanche, lahar, and
mudfl w. Creep: Sl w, steady d wnsl pe m vement f s il r r ck, ften indicated
by curved tree trunks, bent fences r retaining walls, tilted p les r fences.
Debris fl w Rapid mass m vement in which l se s ils, r cks, and rganic matter
c mbine with entrained air and water t f rm slurry that then fl ws d wn sl pe,
usually ass ciated with steep gullies. Debris avalanche A variety f very rapid
t extremely rapid debris fl w.
Fig 2.6.2 Bhachau Landslide - The land slipped during the 26th January 2001 eart
hquake event in Bhachau. N te that pe ple are still camped beneath. M ns n rain
s c uld p ssibly wash the s il d wn sl pe.
5.
Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in many different t p graphic and ge
l gic settings. R ck falls, s il slides and r ckslides fr m steep sl pes inv lv
ing relatively thin r shall w dis-aggregated s ils r r ck, r b th have been t
he m st abundant types f landslides triggered by hist rical earthquakes. V lcan
ic erupti n Dep siti n f l se v lcanic ash n hillsides c mm nly is f ll wed b
y accelerated er si n and frequent mud r debris fl ws triggered by intense rain
fall.
6.
Type f Landslides:
The c mm n types f landslides are described bel w. These definiti ns are based
mainly n the w rk f Varnes (Varnes, D.J., 1978).
41
Lahar Mudfl w r debris fl w that riginates n the sl pe f a v lcan , usually

triggered by heavy rainfall er ding v lcanic dep sits, sudden melting f sn w an
d ice due t heat fr m v lcanic vents, r the break ut f water fr m glaciers, c
rater lakes r lakes dammed by v lcanic erupti ns Mudfl w Rapidly fl wing mass
f wet material that c ntains at least 50 per cent sand, silt, and clay-sized par
ticles. Lateral spreads Often ccur n very gentle sl pes and result in nearly h
riz ntal m vement f earth materials. Lateral spreads usually are caused by liq
uefacti n, where saturated sediments (usually sands and silts) are transf rmed f
r m a s lid int a liquefied state, usually triggered by an earthquake. Slides M
any types f mass m vement are included in the general term landslide. The tw maj
r types f landslides are r tati nal slides and translati nal landslides. T ppl
e A bl ck f r ck that tilts r r tates f rward and falls, b unces, r r lls d w
n the sl pe.
s il and in sl ppy areas are als at risk. R ads, c mmunicati n lines are vulner
able.
Fig 2.6.4 adverse effects f landslide

Distributi nal Pattern:
Landslides c nstitute a maj r natural hazard in ur c untry, which acc unts f r
c nsiderable l ss f life and damage t c mmunicati n r utes, human settlements,
agricultural fields and f rest lands. The Indian subc ntinent, with diverse phy
si graphic, seismic, tect nic and climat l gical c nditi ns is subjected t vary
ing degree f landslide hazards; the Himalayas including N rtheastern m untains
ranges being the w rst affected, f ll wed by a secti n f Western Ghats and the
Vindhyas. Rem val f vegetati n and t e er si n have als triggered slides. T rr
ential rainfall n the def rested sl pes is the main fact r in the Peninsular In
dia namely in Western Ghat and Nilgiris. Human interventi n by way f sl pe m di
ficati n has added t this effect.
Adverse Effects:
The m st c mm n elements at risk are the settlements built n the steep sl pes,
built at the t e and th se built at the m uth f the streams emerging fr m the m
untain valley. All th se buildings c nstructed with ut appr priate f undati n f
r a given
42

measures have been initiated as mitigati n measures. Fig. 2.6.6 sh ws landslide
hazard z nati n map f India with red being areas m re susceptible t landslides
than areas depicted in light yell w.
Fig 2.6.5 Sp ts sh wing maj r landslides in India
One f the w rst tragedies t k place at Malpa Uttarkhand (UP) n 11th and 17th
August 1998 when nearly 380 pe ple were killed when massive landslides washed aw
ay the entire village. This included 60 pilgrims g ing t Lake Mansar var in Tib
et. C nsequently vari us land management
Table 2.6.2 : S me f the maj r Landslides in the last ne decade
Oct ber 1990 July 1991 N vember 1992 July 1993 August 1993 August 1993 N vember
1993 Nilgris Assam Nilgiris Itanagar Kalimp ng, West Bengal K hima, Nagaland Nil
gris 36 pe ple killed and several injured. Several buildings and c mmunicati n n
etw rk damaged 300 pe ple killed, r ad and buildings damaged R ad netw rk and bu
ildings damaged, Rs.5 milli n damage estimate 25 pe ple buried alive 2 km r ad d
amaged 40 pe ple killed, heavy l ss f pr perty 200 h uses destr yed, 500 pe ple
died, ab ut 5 km r ad stretch was damaged 40 pe ple killed, pr perty w rth seve
ral lakhs damaged 43

Kashmir Nati nal Highway 1A severely damaged Varundh ghat, 20 pe ple killed, bre
aching f ghat r ad K nkan C ast damaged t the extent f 1km at several places
May 1995 Aizwal 25 pe ple killed. R ad severely damaged Miz ram September 1995 K
ullu, HP 22 pers ns killed and several injured. Ab ut 1 km r ad destr yed 14,Aug
ust 1998 Okhimath 69 pe ple killed 18,August 1998 Malpa, 205 pe ple killed. R ad
netw rk t Mansar var Kali river disrupted August 2003 Uttarkashi Heavy l ss f
infrastructure
January 1994 June 1994
Hazard mapping l cates areas pr ne t sl pe failures. This will help t av id bu
ilding settlements in such areas. These maps will als serve as a t l f r mitig
ati n planning.
N c nstructi n f buildings in areas bey nd a certain degree f sl pe

Land use practices such as:
Areas c vered by degraded natural vegetati n in upper sl pes are t be aff reste
d with suitable species. Existing patches f natural vegetati n (f rest and natu
ral grass land) in g d c nditi n, sh uld be preserved Any devel pmental activit
y initiated in the area sh uld be taken up nly after a detailed study f the re
gi n has been carried ut. In c nstructi n f r ads, irrigati n canals etc. pr p
er care is t be taken t av id bl ckage f natural drainage T tal av idance f
settlement in the risk z ne sh uld be made mandat ry. Rel cate settlements and i
nfrastructure that fall in the p ssible path f the landslide
Retaining Walls can be built t st p land fr m slipping (these walls are c mm nl
y seen al ng r ads in hill stati ns). These are c nstructed t prevent smaller s
ized and sec ndary landslides that ften ccur al ng the t e p rti n f the larg
er landslides.
S urce: http://www.ge engineer. rg/ph t s/ reearth1.jpg Fig. 2.6.7 Retaining wal

l - Reinf rced wall c nstructed as a mitigati n measure.

Surface Drainage C ntr l W rks The surface drainage c ntr l w rks are implemente
d t c ntr l the m vement f landslides acc mpanied by infiltrati n f rain wate
r and spring fl ws.
44

Engineered structures with str ng f undati ns can withstand r take the gr und m
vement f rces. Undergr und installati ns (pipes, cables, etc.) sh uld be made f
lexible t m ve in rder t withstand f rces caused by the landslide Increasing
vegetati n c ver is the cheapest and m st effective way f arresting landslides.
This helps t bind the t p layer f the s il with layers bel w, while preventin
g excessive run- ff and s il er si n. Insurance will assist individuals wh se h
mes are likely t be damaged by landslides r by any ther natural hazards.
Exercise
1. 2. 3. What are landslides ? List ut five maj r causes f landslides in India
. Identify maj r type f landslides. Suggest risk reducti n measures f r landsli
de mitigati n.
References f r further reading:
http://www.csre.iitb.ac.in/rn/resume/landslide/ lsl.htm Landslide Inf rmati n Sy
stem - Center f Studies in Res urce Engineering IIT Mumbai. http://landslides.u
sgs.g v USGS Nati nal Landslide Hazards Pr gram (NLHP) http://www.fema.g v/hazar
ds/landslides/ landslif.shtm Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA, USA is ta
sked with resp nding t , planning f r, rec vering fr m and mitigating against di
sasters. http://ilrg.gndci.pg.cnr.it/ The Internati nal Landslide Research Gr up
(ILRG) is an inf rmal gr up f individuals c ncerned ab ut mass earth m vement
and interested in sharing inf rmati n n landslide research.

45

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NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

A Supplementary Textbook in Geography for Class XI on UNIT 11 : Natural Hazards

FIRST EDITION 2006

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

which a p pulati n is affected by a

Figure 1.3 : Site after pressures fr m p pulati n gr wth and urbanizati n

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

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Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

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f S il type n gr und shaking

Essential requirements in a Mas nry building Fig: 2.1.7

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

duced by wind bl wing v

n t a single giant wave. It is p

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

with the help

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Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

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Site selecti n Av id building r living in buildings within several hundred feet

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

str ng winds which cause a l t f destructi n. In s me cases it is acc mpanied b

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

winds cause maj r damage t infrastruc

P ssible Risk Reducti n Measures:

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Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

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f fl ds and differ fr m regi n t

regi n. The causes

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Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

Dr ught is a n rmal, recurrent feature f climate. Climate is expected

What n earth d y u kn w ab ut water? Appr ximately 80 per cent f earths surfac

The effects f dr ught accumulate sl wly ver a c nsiderable peri d f time.

Mete r l gical dr ught

Hydr l gical dr ught

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Natural Hazards & Disaster Management

f landslide. S me f the maj r causes are as f ll ws:

Table 1 : Definiti ns Landslide Hazard refers t the p tential f ccurrence f