Chapter 1 : Introduction to Reservoir Modelling

& Simulation & Diffusivity Equation

Derivation (September 2016)

Course Background
Lecturers
Mr Juhairi Aris bin Muhamad Shuhili
Dr Jalal Foroozesh

Reference Material
Basic Applied Reservoir Simulation by Turgay Ertekin
Reservoir Simulation - Aziz Khaled
Principles of Applied Reservoir Simulation John R. Fanchi
Practical Reservoir Simulation Mike R. Carlson

Assessment Breakdown
Individual Lab Project (20%)
Eclipse Project (10%)
Lab Report (5%)
Presentation (5%)
CMG Project (10%)
Lab Report (5%)
Presentation (5%)
Pop Quizzes (5%)
Quiz (2.5%) (Juhairi Aris)
Quiz (2.5%) (Dr. Jalal Foroozesh)
Tutorials (5%)
Assignment (10%)
Assignment 1 (5%) (Juhairi Aris)
Assignment 2 (5%) (Dr Jalal Foroozesh)
Test 1 (10%) (Mr. Juhairi Aris)
Test 2 (10%) (Dr Jalal Foroozesh)
---------------------------------------------------------Total coursework 60%
Final exam 40%

Problem of The Semester (Aris) will contribute up to 3%

(the marks will be distributed to other assessment
respectively).

Class Participation & Assistance will be given another

2%

2 Lectures, 1 Tutorial and 1 Lab Session per week

(except for the first week).

Software: Schlumberger Eclipse and CMG.

Ground Rules
Students with less than 90% attendance (without valid reason) will be
warned and barred.
Students who miss any assessment (without valid reason) will have no makeup assessment.
Please do not chat during the lecture, put your handphone to silent mode
and ask question in the last 10 minutes of lecture.
There will be no extension on any assessment deadline (zero mark).
Plagiarism will result in zero mark
Meeting with lecturer is done with appointment basis. (Email first).
Any queries please email me.
No ECF will be considered during assessment evaluation

Course Outcomes
Identify the different steps (workflow) for developing a reservoir
simulator
Identify the basic equations of fluid flow in porous media applied to
various type of reservoir simulator.
Apply simple finite different schemes and matrix solver in a Black Oil
Simulator.
Conduct simulation study using a commercial simulator

Course Schedule

Course Tentative

Pre-Requisite
Computational Method (Compulsory)
Reservoir Rock & Fluid Properties (Highly Recommended)
Reservoir Engineering I (Highly Recommended)
Reservoir Engineering II (Highly Recommended/Simultaneously)

Reservoir Simulation
Reservoir simulation is an important and useful tool in reservoir management. Reservoir
engineer can utilise it under different operating conditions to predict the reservoir
performance. This is the main advantage of reservoir simulation. Prediction of performance
accuracy is really important because oil and gas project usually costs huge capital.
Reservoir simulation can be done at any stage.
Reservoir simulation is done by solving the partial differential equations for single or
multiphase flow using complex numerical method.
Reservoir simulation is divided into 2 main branches which are history matching and
performance forecasting.
Reservoir simulation is defined as the process of using the behaviour of a model of the
reservoir to represent or approximate the behaviour of the true reservoir.

Reservoir Simulator
Reservoir simulators use numerical methods and high-speed
computers to model multidimensional fluid flow in reservoir rock.
Main components of a simulator

Geological model
Reservoir model
Fluid model
Petro-physical model
Mathematical model.

Mathematical Model
A mathematical model is described by a set of partial differential
equations (PDEs) which describe mass transport in region occupied
by the reservoir together with initial and boundary conditions.
The set of PDEs plus the initial and boundary conditions is referred to
an initial boundary value problem.
If the model is sufficiently simple, we may be able to solve the IBVP
analytically
For most problems, of interest, however, the IBVP cannot be solved
analytically and thus we use a numerical model (or simulator),
which is based on the application of numerical methods to obtain an
approximate solution of the IBVP

Required Input
Reservoir properties
Permeability & Porosity
Thickness
Dimensions & Geometry
Initial pressure & Saturations
Rock Compressibility
Fluid properties
Viscosity & Density
Formation Volume Factor
Relative Permeability
Capillary Pressures
Fluid Compressibility
Past production history
Water Oil Ratio
Gas Oil Ratio
Reservoir Pressure
Production Rate
Fluid contacts
Oil Water Contact
Gas Oil Contact

Supremacy of RMS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

RMS in Field Development Plan

Heterogeneity vs. Anisotropy

Heterogeneity refers to the variation of rock and fluid properties with
respect to location.
Anisotropy refers to the variation of permeability with respect to
direction. The vertical permeability is usually lower than horizontal
permeability due to variation in stratigraphy is more prominent
vertically. The usual permeability anisotropy, kv/kh is ranging from 0.1
to 0.3
In real case, a reservoir is always heterogeneous and anisotropic.
Reservoir simulation is the only technique in modelling fluid flow
which considers heterogeneity and anisotropy. This is another
advantage of reservoir simulation.

Heterogeneity vs. Anisotropy

Material Balance vs. Reservoir Simulation (1-6)

Pressure vs. Potential

In 1-D flow horizontal flow, the effect of gravity is often neglected.
However, in vertical flow, the effect of gravity plays an important role
in determining the direction of flow.
The resultant direction of flow can be computed by taking into
consideration of pressure difference and gravitational force. The
combined term of pressure difference and gravitational force is
known as potential term.

Permeability Tensor
In an anisotropic media, pressure difference can be applied in all 3
directions and in each direction, the permeability varies in 3 different
directions.
This will result in a 3 x 3 matrix tensor. Tensor is actually a generic
term. Scalar is zero rank tensor while vector is first rank tensor. Scalar
will form 1 x1 matrix while vector will form 3 x 1 matrix.
In the case of permeability, the matrix formed is a symmetrical
matrix. It means the Kxy = Kyx, Kxz = Kzx, and Kzy = Kyz.

Key Steps in a Simulation Study

1. Clear Objectives

Compare & Adjust

2. Reservoir Characterization
3. Model Selection
4. Model Construction

5. Model Validation
6. Predictions
7. Documentation
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Model (Simulator) Selection

The Black Oil Model:
Reservoir processes that can be modelled using the black oil model
include:
Recovery by fluid expansion - solution gas drive (primary depletion).

Water flooding including viscous, capillary and gravity forces

(secondary recovery).
Immiscible gas injection.
Some three phase recovery processes such as immiscible wateralternating- gas (WAG).

Capillary imbibition processes.

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Model (Simulator) Selection

The Compositional Model:
Examples of reservoir processes that can be modelled using a
compositional model include:
Miscible Gas injection (first contact or multi- contact miscibility, e.g. in
CO2 flooding).
The modelling of gas injection into near critical reservoirs.
Gas recycling processes in condensate reservoirs.

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Model Validation
Two important ideas for the proper
validation of reservoir models:
History Matching must not be achieved at the expense
of parameter modifications that are physically and/or
geologically wrong.
Even when a model is fully validated, simulation results
will still have some degree of uncertainty

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Predictions
Important considerations when making
reservoir model predictions:
Prediction cases shouldnt exceed capabilities of the model.
Predictions need to be consistent with field practices.

Simulation yields a non-unique solution with inherent uncertainties

from:
Lack of validation (e.g., reservoirs with sparse geologic or
engineering data).
Modeling or mathematical constraints because of compromises
made in model selection.
Inherent uncertainties in reservoir characterization and/or scale up
to model dimensions.

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Diffusivity Equation
In developing diffusivity equations, there are 3 main underlying
equations:
Darcys Equation
Continuity Equation
Equation of State

Darcys Equation
Darcys equation dictates the flow of
fluid in porous medium.
Darcys equation is often modified to suit
the conditions of flow such as potential
term, capillary pressure term and
multiphase flow.

Darcys Equation (single phase)

Darcys equation for single phase is as shown.

q = flow rate
k = permeability
A = cross-sectional area of flow
P = pressure difference across the 2 ends
= viscosity of the fluid

The units for each parameter changes according to the situation. It can be in the form of field units, SI
units, British units or the mixture of them. Field unit itself is a form of hybrid unit. In this course, only
field units will be used extensively.
Field units

Flow rate = stb/d

Permeability = milidarcy
Area = ft2
Length = ft
Viscosity = cp
Pressure = psi

Darcys Law (Multiphase Flow/Water-Wet/Inclined)

FYI

Darcys Law (Multiphase Flow & Inclined)

FYI

Continuity Equation
Continuity equation refers to conservation of mass.
Consider a block shaped volume of the porous media with side
lengths x, y and z.

Continuity Equation
In deriving continuity equation, there are 3 main things to consider:
inflows
outflows
rate of accumulation

For simplicity we will consider the case where there is only flow in the
x-direction.

Continuity Equation

Continuity Equation

Continuity Equation
The negative sign is because the inflow
is bigger than outflow but in the
equation we use at time t plus delta
minus t. Since, the mass flow rate is
higher at time t then at time t plus delta
t, thus we need the negative symbol to
compensate for that.

Equation of State
Isothermal Compressibility
Isothermal compressibility means the viscosity will not change with
temperature.

Derivation of DE

Derivation of DE

Incompressible DE

Real Gas Diffusivity Equation

Real Gas Diffusivity Equation

Real Gas Diffusivity Equation

Real Gas Diffusivity Equation

Real Gas Diffusivity Equation

Spatial Discretization
The reservoir static model built must be first discretized before simulation.
Discretization of a reservoir refers to dividing the reservoir into a number of grid blocks.
The range for the number of grid blocks can be thousands to millions. Grid blocks are
also known as cells.
The number of grid blocks is limited by the simulator capacity, time constraint and cost
limitation. The smaller the size of grid block, the larger the number of grid blocks. The
larger the number of grid blocks, the longer the time needed to complete the
simulation.
The number of grid size is often related to accuracy (not always).
The discretization of reservoir often considers the simulator capability, time, cost and
also the necessity of the gridding size.
Gridding size is usually made smaller nearby a fault and nearby a source/sink because
the pressure change in the vicinity of a the regions is prominent. Thus to accurately
simulate the pressure change, the gridding must be smaller to attain higher accuracy.

Spatial Discretization

Each grid-block in a model has only one set of properties; there is no variation
in any property within a block.
For example, pressures and/or phase saturations in a model block will be
volumetric averages of the saturations in that part of the reservoir represented
by the block.
A model block can be visualized as a well-stirred tank (i.e.., its contents are
homogeneous) connected to adjacent tanks with pipes whose flow capacities
are determined by reservoir flow properties.

Gridding System (Point vs. Block)

There are 2 types of gridding system which are known as block-centered and pointcentered. In block-centered, grid blocks with known dimensions are superimposed
over the reservoir. For a block-centered system, the grid points are defined as the
centres of the grid blocks.
In a point distributed grids, grid points are distributed over the reservoir before
block boundaries are defined. For point, block boundary is placed halfway between
2 adjacent pressure points. Historically, reservoir simulators have used blockcentered grids because the volume associated with each grid point is clearly defined.
Point-centered (or point-distributed) grid has its boundaries coincident with the
exterior boundaries of the system. Point-centered gridding system is also known as
lattice-centered. Block-centered grid has its boundaries one-half grid block away
from the exterior boundaries.
The two grid systems do not produce the same grid points unless we choose equally
spaced grid points separated by a uniform space x. Note that we do not need to
consider equally spaced grid-points or grid blocks.

Gridding System (Point vs. Block)

Actually, it is more appropriate to use smaller grid spacing near the source/sink
locations. The similar reason as in near fault region, more accurate pressure
monitoring.
Block-centered & point-centered system are suitable to handle Neumann and
Dirichlet problem respectively. Point distributed grid systems have numerical
advantages when non-uniform spacing is used. In particular, a point-distributed-grid
results in a consistent finite difference operator on an non-uniform grid whereas a
block-centered grid does not.
Historically, the block-centered grid system has been the most commonly used grid
system in petroleum reservoir simulation. This is because the block-centered grid
system adheres more closely to the material-balance concept used in reservoir
engineering.

Up-scaling/Averaging
The severity of heterogeneities needed more number of cells to represent the static model.
Thus, the variation in the properties of static model such as permeability can be catered for.
To combine a set of blocks with different permeability into a single block with a single
permeability. Usually, arithmetic and harmonic averaging are used.
As aforementioned, the number of cells is usually proportional to the cost and time. Thus,
this set up a barrier to exactly imitate the static model.
Thus, permeability from different locations (laterally or vertically) must be averaged to find
the most representative value for the whole reservoir. Usually, with well test analysis, a
representative permeability value can be obtained. However, if the permeability data is
obtained from core sampling, then averaging process must take place.
There are 5 types of permeability averaging such as arithmetic, harmonic, geometric, log
mean average (only end points are known) and upstream relative permeability (multiphase
flow). The type of averaging depends on the bedding of the formation. Arithmetic and
harmonic are more common compared to the rest.

Up-scaling

Boundaries Condition
Dirichlet boundary condition refers to constant pressure at the
boundary. This type of boundary condition usually arises when there is
a continuous support from aquifer in maintaining reservoir pressure.
Neumann boundary condition refers to the condition of constant
pressure gradient (C) across the boundary. Usually, the C = 0. This
means there is no flow across the boundary. This happens when the
reservoir is bounded by sealing fault.

Boundaries Condition

Boundaries Condition

Also known as Robins Boundary Condition

Temporal Discretization
A simulator also divides the production period into smaller time steps.
Changes in a reservoir (pressure, saturation, etc.) are computed over
each time step.
Conditions are defined only at the beginning and end of each time-step;
nothing is defined at any intermediate time within a time interval.
The accuracy with which reservoir behaviour can be calculated generally
will be influenced by the length of the time steps as well as the number
of grid blocks.

Temporal Discretization
For any size grid-block and any length of time step, there will always be
abrupt changes in reservoir conditions from one block to the next and
from one time-step to the next.

Temporal Discretization
A plot of saturation vs. time in any block in the model would be a "stairstep" curve
A time/saturation plot for the corresponding location in the reservoir
would be a continuous, smooth curve.
The stair-step approximation approaches actual reservoir saturation
distribution as the sizes of grid-blocks and time-steps decrease.
An important step in simulation clearly is the selection of the number of
blocks in a model and the time-step size to use in calculating the
reservoir response.

Other Design Consideration

Selecting grid type
Structured versus unstructured grids

Selecting reservoir fluid type

Black-oil, compositional, miscible, chemical, thermal

Selecting the boundary conditions

Learning Outcome
Students are able to discuss the importance of reservoir simulation
Students are able to understand the workflow in reservoir simulation
Students are able to perform spatial and temporal discretization
Students are able to derive diffusivity equation