12c-08 Rock Quarrying Bench Drilling

NTNU
Norwegian University of
Science and Technology
Thesis for the degree of
Philosophiae Doctor
Faculty of Engineering Science
and Technology
Department of Civil and Transport Engineering
Doctoral thesis
Doctoral theses at NTNU, 2009:96 (4)
Vegard Olsen
Rock Quarrying
Bench Drilling
Vegard Olsen
Rock Quarrying
Bench Drilling
Thesis for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor

Trondheim, June 2009
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology
NTNU
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Thesis for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor
Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology
Vegard Olsen
ISBN 978-82-471-1572-5 (printed ver.)
ISBN 978-82-471-1573-2 (electronic ver.)
ISSN 1503-8181
Doctoral theses at NTNU, 2009:96 (4)
Printed by NTNU-trykk
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
BENCH DRILLING BASICS
2.1 Drilling Methods
2.2 Drillhole Deviation
12
2.3 Practical Issues
17
DRILLING CAPACITY
21
3.1 Introduction
21
3.2 Net Penetration Rate
24
3.3 Fixed Times
37
3.4 Drilling Capacity Model
42
3.5 Examples of Application
50
DRILLING COSTS
53
4.1 Introduction
53
4.2 Life of Drilling Equipment
54
4.3 Drilling Cost Model
68
4.4 Drilling Cost Estimations
78
89
DRILLING STUDIES
93
5.1 Introduction
93
5.2 Registrations
96
Continues next page
STUDY RESULTS
105
6.1 Introduction
105
106
6.3 Hole Deviation Features
123
6.4 Drill Steel Life
128
APPENDICES
129
A.
Previous Editions
129
B.
Research Partners
130
C. List of Parameters
131
D. Conversions
132
E.
Vickers Hardness Number Rock
133
F.
Sites Visited
134
G. List of References
138
PREFACE
ROCK QUARRYING Bench Drilling
REPORT 12C-08
This report is one of five reports concerning rock quarrying:
12A-08
12B-08
12C-08
12D-08
12E-08
ROCK QUARRYING Quarry Design

ROCK QUARRYING Blast Design
ROCK QUARRYING Bench Drilling
ROCK QUARRYING Loading
ROCK QUARRYING Transport
A considerable amount of information concerning rock quarrying has been systemized

and brought up to date through these reports to be used for:
Placement and design of rock quarrying

Blast design
Estimation of production capacities and costs
Cost analysis, tender, budgeting and cost control
Choice of method and equipment
The present report is mainly a tool for production planning, choice of equipment and
prediction of time consumption and costs in rock quarry drilling. The report is also used
as a textbook and contains detailed parts concerning drilling technology and drillhole
deviation and it also presents the planning of drilling studies and some basic study
results.
The basis of the report is studies and statistics from quarrying, mainly in Norway, carried
out during the last four decades. Visited sites are presented in Appendix E.
The last edition of the report is prepared by Vegard Olsen as a part of his PhD thesis
entitled Rock Quarrying Prediction Models and Blasting Safety, and it contains updated
capacities and prices for new technology and equipment.
Economic support for field data collection has been provided by partners presented in
Appendix B.
PREFACE
For reference, registration and similar, we ask for the following:
NTNU Department of Civil and Transport Engineering (2008): Report 12C-08 ROCK
QUARRYING Bench Drilling.
Trondheim, December 2008
Amund Bruland
Professor
1. INTRODUCTION
General
This report is meant to be a tool for bench drilling in rock quarrying and surface mines.
Production planning, choice of equipment and estimation of drilling capacity and costs
are the topics of the report. Combined with the other reports in the Rock Quarrying
series, this provides a toolbox for improvements and optimisation of the total production
line is available.
The report has briefly included costs concerning charging and blasting. Hence, the report
gives total costs for the rock pile. For a more detailed study of blasting technique, we
refer to the Report 12B-08 ROCK QUARRYING Blast Design.
The report mainly relates to performance and costs. In addition, choice of equipment is
dependent upon:
Local conditions in the quarry (terrain, bench, geology)

Desired production volume and production period
Desired rock size and fragmentation
Rock drillability and blastability
Landscaping and environmental issues
Several factors influence the performance and costs, the most important are:
Specific drilling
Rock drillability
Rock abrasiveness
Choice of drilling equipment
Products
The products related to the rock drilling operation, such as drilling rigs and drill steel,
will continuously be developed and new brand names and models will occur. New
products will be available on the market. Different suppliers worldwide will also offer
products that are almost identical under different product names.
For several years, Atlas Copco and Sandvik (former Tamrock) have been the dominating
suppliers for the Norwegian market when it comes to drilling equipment and
components. For this reason, the product names and labels used in the report mainly
originate from these companies.
3
1. INTRODUCTION
The price level of the products used in the report is December 2008.
Adjustment of prices can be done by using the Construction Machinery Index which is
updated every month by the Construction Engineering Research Group at NTNU.
Subscription can be arranged by contacting: amund.bruland@ntnu.no.
In bench drilling, it has been common to use the units inches (") and feet (') when
referring to drilling equipment dimensions. In the report we use millimetres (mm) and
metres (m). This is according to the practice of the drilling equipment manufacturers.
To simplify this transition, we have made tables that show the conversion from "old" to
"new" units for the most common dimensions. The tables are found in Appendix D.
2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS
2.1 DRILLING METHODS

2.11 General
Drilling of holes in quarries is carried out to be able to place explosives in the solid rock
mass and blasting it into a requested fragmentation dependent upon blastability
parameters and usage of the rock. There are mainly four methods used to drill such blast
holes:
Top hammer drilling

Down the hole drilling (DTH)
COPROD drilling
Rotary drilling
The principles of the breaking forces are shown in Figure 2.1

Impact
Impact
Feed
Rotation
Feed
Feed
Rotation
Feed
Rotation
Rotation
Impact
Figure 2.1
Illustrations of the drilling methods principles.

From left: Top hammer, Coprod, DTH, Rotary.
Common for the three percussive methods (top hammer, DTH and COPROD) is that feed
force, percussion power and rotary torque are used to break the rock, whereas percussion
power is the main crushing factor. The hammering impact from the rock drill piston
creates stress waves which are transmitted through the rod to the bit, breaking the rock by
the bits tungsten carbide inserts.
5
In rotary crushing drilling, the rock breaks by the feed force and rotary torque only,
which are transmitted through the drill tube to the bit, see Figure 2.1. The feed force
crushes the rock, and the rotary torque serves new hitting points for the buttons on the tricone roller bit as it turns. Compressed air flushing through the bit makes sure the cuttings
are removed during drilling. When the buttons on the tri-cone bit hit the rock, the
breaking principle is the same as for percussion drilling
Figure 2.2
Breaking principle of the rock by drilling [1].
2.12 Top Hammer Drilling

In the Norwegian market, the source of energy for top hammer drilling is hydraulic oil
pressure. Some smaller rigs can be pneumatic, and a few old pneumatic rigs may still be
in use. In some countries, pneumatic rigs still hold a substantial share of the surface drill
rig market.
The top hammer drills are mounted on top of the drill string. The top hammer transfers
the feed, the rotation and the percussion energy through one united drill string. The net
penetration rate is high though the energy loss is significant down the hole. Three to five
percent of the impact energy is lost over every additional coupling, and the net
penetration rate decreases down the hole.
In conventional aggregate quarrying, the diameter range varies from 51 mm to 127 mm,
hence 76 mm to 102 mm is the most appropriate. Rod diameters span from 32 to 51 mm,
according to drill rig and drill hammer sizes. Special large rods (guide tubes) replace the
first rod in difficult rock formations where large deflections occur. Due to the relatively
slim rod, the deflection can be substantial for top hammer drilling in problematic rock.
Contrary to the other drilling methods, top hammer drilling is used in many other
blasting works besides quarry blasting. Here we mention: Road cut blasting, building site
blasting, trench blasting and other small blasting projects.
By historical means, it is interesting to mention the so called Herbert rigs, developed by
Sandvik. These rigs were designed for drilling holes in the range of 145-254 mm. The
Herbert rigs are no longer produced because of drill steel life problems.
Figure 2.3
Top hammer drilling rig (Atlas Copco Roc D7). Aggregate quarry.
Horizontal even cleaned bench.
2.13 Down the Hole Drilling

The DTH drilling method has a drill hammer in front of the drill string, which is driven
by compressed air transmitted through the drill string. The DTH system loses very little
energy down the hole as the piston is in direct contact with the drill bit. Since compressed
air is used to run the piston, the net energy utilization is low and the net penetration rate
compared to the top hammer and Coprod drilling diameter ranges is poor. In contrast the
net penetration rate stays nearly constant down the hole as long as the flushing capacity is
sufficient and the system is well adapted for holes longer than 30 m.
7
Two types of DTH rigs exist in the marked; large mining rigs (150 mm to 300 mm
diameter range), competing with rotary drilling rigs, and smaller quarry rigs (89 mm to
178 mm diameter range) partly competing with both Coprod and top hammer drilling
rigs. The rod diameter varies from 70 to 140 mm. Mechanical rod handling is standard
equipment due to the weight of the drill steel. The weight also affects the coverage area,
as the boom is relatively short.
The smaller DTH rigs have the same mobility features as the large top hammer rigs and
the Coprod rigs. Due to the large drillhole diameters, rock debris drilling is favourable
concerning the total production capacity. The large DTH rigs (152 - 254 mm) have poor
mobility features and require an even bench floor. Hole straightness is good and the
method is often used for slope stability improvement in steep ore bodies in surface
mining. It is also used in well drilling.
Figure 2.4
DTH drilling rigs.

Left: Sandvik DPI 600 (quarry type). Right: Atlas Copco DM 30 (mine type).
The DTH drill rigs working performance range is normally from 12 bars to 30 bars.
Compared to top hammer drilling, the energy consumption per produced unit is large.
The efficiency (i.e. net penetration rate) of the DTH drilling is very dependent on the
physical size of the rock drill. The rock drill is placed in a casing (tube), which must be
smaller than the bit diameter. This means that low effective hammers must drill the
smallest holes, and DTH drilling is therefore not very applicable for small diameters (i.e.
less than 140 mm)
In recent years, the DTH drilling has been used in some medium to large Norwegian
aggregate quarries in the hole diameter range from 140 mm through 171 mm.
2.14 Coprod drilling
The Coprod concept was developed by Atlas Copco, and is so far the only system of this
kind in the market.
The Coprod drilling system combines the speed of top hammer with the precision of the
DTH. Like the top hammer, the percussion is working from the top of the drill string.
However, the energy is transmitted through threadless rods inside the rigid threaded pipe
sections. These pipes transfer the rotation and feed to the drill bit. The pipes are furnished
with stop lugs to hold the rods in place inside the pipe section. The Coprod sections are
joined together via the drill pipes.
Because the drill rods inside the pipes are threadless, little energy is lost through the drill
string. Net penetration rate is high and remains relatively high over the entire hole length.
The pipes stiffness makes the hole accuracy good. Little deflection and separate
transferring of energy through the drill string give a high service life for the main drill
steel components (Pipes and rods).
Available drillhole diameters are from 90 to 165 mm. The Coprod rigs use both 3.66 rods
and 6.10 m rods. The Coprod section, (tube and rod), exists in three sizes: 89, 102 and
127 mm, which refers to the outer diameter of the tube. The drill steel is heavy, and
mechanical rod handling is standard.
The Coprod rigs are converted from both top hammer rigs and DTH rigs. They have the
same cross-country features as corresponding top hammer or DTH rigs. As for DTH rigs,
the weight of the drill steel affects the coverage area, and the Coprod rigs should work on
even bench floors. The system is made for drilling through the rock debris from the prior
subdrilled zone.
The Coprod drilling is used in quarries as the main production rig, or as an auxiliary rig
in large mines, drilling holes for contour and smaller blasts.
The Coprod system is not common in the Norwegian market, however in other European
countries it is used to a larger extent.
2.15 Rotary Drilling

As described above, high feed force and rotary torque are used to crush the rock using
rotary crushing drilling. The energy is transmitted through the drill tubes to the bit. There
is more or less no loss of energy down the hole and the net penetration rate stays more or
less constant down the hole. The net penetration rate is less dependent upon machine
size, drillhole diameter and hole depth, as long as the power outlet is sufficient for thrust
and rotary speed.
Rotary drilling is normally used in large mines or quarries with high annual production
volumes of more than five million tons per year. Even though the net penetration rate is
relatively low compared to the other drilling methods, the production capacity is very
high since the drill bit diameters application is larger than for the other drilling methods.
Rotary drilling is used for drillhole diameters between 152mm and 445 mm. In hard rock
formations, drillhole diameters less than 200 mm are of minor interest. Smaller bit
dimensions complicate the bearing design capable of mastering the necessary thrust. The
rotary tube outer diameter spans from 89 mm to 425 mm. All rigs have mechanical rod
changing. Because of the size, rotary rigs have very poor cross country features. They
require even bench floor and well prepared roads for tracking.
Figure 2.5
Rotary drilling rig. Sandvik DR460.
10
For rotary drilling, hole deflection is insignificant due to both the stiffness of the pipes
and the rock breaking mechanism, which uses only thrust and rotation energy.
Rotary drilling was developed in connection with oil drilling, i.e. long drillholes with
relatively large diameters in loose rock formations. Developments in metallurgy and
bearing design have brought the use of rotary drilling towards harder and more abrasive
rock types. Rotary drilling dominates the drilling operations in larger mines, along with
construction sites requiring high production over a limited period of time, such as rock
fill dams or large waste rock removal projects. The method is also used to drill pilot holes
in diameter shaft drilling projects, for example larger.
11
2.2 DRILLHOLE DEVIATION

2.21 General
To be able to blast safely and economically, it is important to drill the holes in the correct
planned position, with as little deviation as possible.
Rock drilling deviation is usually divided into four causes:
Collaring deviation
Alignment deviation (horizontal direction and vertical inclination)
Drilling deflection
Drillhole depth deviation
Normally the size of the deviation is given in percentage of drillhole depth or in cm/m;
both giving the same values.
Figure 2.6
Diagrammatic representation of collaring dc, alignment da, deflection dd and vertical

depth dz deviations [2].
In addition to the following sections 2.22 through 2.26, more information about deviation
features is described in Section 6.3.
12
2.22 Collaring and Alignment Deviation

Collaring deviation is a lateral displacement from a planned location. It is therefore a
constant for any hole length.
Alignment deviation arises from inaccuracy in setting the feed boom in a planned
position. The alignment deviation is both horizontal (azimuth) and vertical (inclination).
The horizontal deviation gets less important as the inclination approaches a vertical
direction. The alignment deviation leads to a linear increase of deviation down the hole.
Causes of collaring and alignment deviations include:
Instability of the drilling rig

Lack of precision in the surveying and setting out process and the
tools/techniques used to align the feed beam
The topography at the collaring point
The drilling operators experience and motivation
2.23 Deflection
While collaring and alignment deviation arise from sources prior to drilling, deflection
arises from sources during drilling. Below, a list of factors that influence the deflection is
presented.
Drillhole design
Hole inclination/direction, hole diameter and hole length
Drilling parameters
Thrust (feed), percussion pressure, torque, rotation speed, flushing, drill string
weight, anti-jamming system
Equipment components
Piston design, chuck/shank clearances, couplings and treads, stabilizers design,
drill bit design, drill rod design, rod/bit ratio, equipment wear
Rock mass and site properties

Structure (bedding, jointing, fissuring or combinations), bedding dip relative to
hole direction, joint frequency or bed thickness, rock hardness, cohesion between
beddings/foliations, bench floor conditions (rock debris or cleaned bench)
13
Apart from bullet point 4, an operator or machine designer directly or indirectly can
control deflection through drilling parameters and choice of equipment. Less total
deflection appears by introducing the following actions:
Shorter holes
Increased drill string diameter or guide tube
Reduced drill hammer output
Longer and wider drill bit skirt
Pointier button inserts
Reduced bit/rod ratio
In addition to changing from top hammer to Coprod, DTH or rotary drilling will
generally imply reduced deflection.
In bedded and foliated rock, the drillholes are observed to either deflect parallel or
normal to the bedding or foliation plane. The uniform deviation generally appears to be
up-dip when the bedding inclination is less than 40-50 to the horizontal, and down-dip
otherwise. Severe deflections can be measured under optimal conditions.
In homogenous rock, the deflection is random and usually small. Increased jointing
frequency will lead to more uniform deviation, converging towards the bedded rock
conditions.
Figure 2.7
Common borehole deflection tendencies according to, respectively little () and large
() angle with the foliation direction [3].
14
Informally, an acceptable maximum deflection level is set to be approx. 50 mm/m, which

means an average deflection of 20 to 30 mm/m.
2.24 Depth Deviation
Drillhole depth deviation in bench blasting is the vertical displacement of the planned
hole bottom position. Alignment and deflection deviations will indirectly contribute to
drillhole depth deviation, even though the hole length itself is as planned. Drilling
without depth measuring instruments (rarely in 2008) increases the depth deviation
accuracy and makes operator errors more probable.
Joint fault material, rock debris and drill cuttings falling into blast holes after drilling,
reduce the hole depth and the planned extent of the charge column and the bottom
charge. This error may be larger than the drillhole depth deviation itself. Smaller holes
are more sensible to this than larger holes. Often the operator drills the holes a couple of
decimeters longer than optimal, due to the negative economical effects of too short holes.
2.25 Safety
Inaccurate drilling of blast holes has negative effects on the safety in rock quarrying,
mainly due to uncontrolled throwing of rocks. A minor, but still important effect, is
related to ground vibrations.
All surface blasting includes a risk of damaging nearby structures and objects, and in the
worst case, injuring people. The reason for flyrock incidents is basically too high
explosive energy in a given area of the bench. Flyrocks originating from the bench face
are the most lethal cases. Bench top flyrocks are more or less vertical and less dangerous
than frontal flyrocks.
Measuring drillhole deviation makes it possible to compensate the divergent burden
properties by a reduced or increased specific charge or drilling of new holes. However,
the drillhole survey is not sufficient by itself and it should be supplemented by scanning
of the face. An uneven blast face due to back breaking from the previous blasts is normal.
Visual inspection will reveal large cavities or toes, and adjacent holes can be individually
adjusted before drilling, but smaller crucial zones may be ignored. Straight holes can in
some cases be just as hazardous as deviated holes. See Figure 2.8.
15
Figure 2.8
Deviating conditions that may cause flyrock incidents.
2.26 Economical Benefits

Improvement of the hole straightness will give economical benefits in several ways:
Reduced specific drilling and charging

Subdrilling may be reduced
More efficient drilling: Less jamming, rod handling problems and steel breakages
Longer drill steel life
Better fragmentation: Reduced secondary breaking and less fines
Better loading conditions: Higher efficiency and less wear on loading machinery
Less dilution of waste rock
Less overbreak and underbreak
16
2.3 PRACTICAL ISSUES

2.31 Bench Cleaning
Bench cleaning means the excavation of the loose rock masses remaining from the
previous overlaying bench, which have served as the operational plane during loading
and transport of the blasted material.
Figure 2.9
Bench cleaning operation. Lime stone quarry. Horizontal and even cleaned bench floor.
Traditionally top hammer drilling has required a cleaned bench before drilling could be
started. In the past, drilling through the rock debris from the prior subdrilled zone from
the previous overlaying blast has been reserved for DTH drilling and Rotary drilling, due
to the size of the drilling rig, the drill rod and the drillhole diameter. In recent years top
hammer drilling has also been performed without cleaning the bench before drilling
(further called rock debris drilling). In practicality, 89 mm drillhole diameter is the
smallest diameter used.
Compared to rock debris drilling, bench cleaning gives extra costs because of the extra
excavating costs and the reduced drilling capacity due to the uneven bench floor
conditions normally appearing. A cleaned bench will also increase the marking error and
the collaring deviation. There are no indications of various deflection properties between
the two conditions. Rock debris drilling will, to some extent, cause less drilling capacity
due to the instability of the bore hole wall in the rock debris.
17
Figure 2.10 Blast ready for charging in a limestone quarry. Holes drilled through the rock debris.
Approximate thickness of the rock debris layer on the overlying bench is indicated
between the arrows.
2.32 Terrain Bench Drilling

Drilling on terrain benches exists, to some extent, in most quarries in relation to quarry
extensions and opening work. In road cuttings and building site blasting, the terrain
drilling is the primary condition.
Compared to drilling inside a quarry on well prepared benches, terrain bench drilling
normally gives:
Lower drilling capacity

Reduced drilling pattern or drill bit diameter
Higher specific drilling
The topography of a terrain bench is usually more demanding and the moving time will
increase. Therefore, fewer holes will be drilled per hour.
Surface rock mass may be more fractured than the underlying rock volume. To reduce
the amount of blocks from the top of the terrain bench, reduced drillhole diameter or
drilling pattern should be used, resulting in more specific drilling than the ordinary
production blasts require.
18
In road cuttings and building sites, there are normally fewer possibilities to optimize the
drilling and blasting process. In general, this causes a closer drilling pattern to achieve
good enough blasting results in order to obtain proper loading and crushing efficiencies.
2.33 Marking of Drilling Pattern
Manually marking of the drillholes are made by spray paint, and the drilling pattern are
set out by measuring the burden and hole spacing in relation to the bench front. In these
cases, backbreak and an unclear bench crest or bench wall, will make the positioning of
the first row difficult. To avoid this problem, the drilling operator normally measures the
distance to the first row in the next blast before blasting. See Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11 Measuring and setting out the first row.
More and more, GPS assisted drill rigs are used in quarries, mines and contractor
drilling. Combined with digital terrain models, the marking and setting out of drillholes
is no longer necessary.
19
2.34 Bit Grinding

Special grinding equipment should be used for grinding so that the buttons are shaped
back to the original shape. The grinding may be done by equipment directly mounted on
the rig or in the workshop. When using the equipment on the rig, the operator can do it
while the drilling process is ongoing. If the drill bits are ground in the workshop, extra
manpower will be needed to maintain full production capacity.
Normally, the drill bits buttons are worn flat by the abrasive minerals found in the rock
drilled. Flattening of the buttons will result in a lower net penetration rate. Normally the
bits should be ground when 1/3 of the button diameter is worn. As a rule of thumb, the
bits are ground 10 times before scraped, due to reduced diameter. Button breakage and
pop-outs may cause earlier discarding of the bits.
Ideally, the wear of the bit-body steel should follow the button wear. Too little body steel
wear may cause too little button protruding depth and too little periphery clearance. The
bit-body steel must then be removed by an angel cutter or similar tool. High bit-body
steel wear may lead to exposure of the inserts, causing insert pop-outs.
If flushing holes are deformed, they should be opened by a rotary burr or steel file. Too
little flushing air may cause a reduced net penetration rate as described earlier.
DropCentre
Hardmetalbuttons
(cementedcarbide)
Bodysteel
Flushingcanals
Guidedskirt
Retraccuttingedges
Figure 2.12 Top hammer button bit with drop centre and guided retrac skirt [5].
20
3. DRILLING CAPACITY
3.1 Introduction
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.11 General
The manufacturers of the rock drilling equipment and the contractors constantly try to
improve the efficiency and safety of the drilling operation. Stringent demands for
economic profit increase the desire for higher productivity and improvement in hole
quality. The development within drilling coverage, stability, manoeuvrability, working
environment, productivity and drill steel life all affect the total productivity and regular
studies of the drilling equipment are carried out to be able to present up to date capacity
values.
The advance rate prediction model in this report has been developed to determine drilling
capacities for different equipment combinations and varying rock conditions. The model
is built up stepwise, consisting of three diagrams:
1. Net penetration rate
2. Average net penetration rate over drillhole depth
3. Fixed times
The basis of the report is commonly used equipment in the construction market in 20052007, but data from the most recent models is also included. Most of the studies have
been carried out during production drilling in Norwegian quarries, and mostly in typical
abrasive and hard rock formations such as: Gneiss, granite, greenstone, schist and
sandstone.
The bench drilling equipment is divided into the four categories described in Section 2.1:
Top hammer
Coprod
DTH
Rotary
Within each category, there are numerous different rigs and rock drills from various
manufacturers. The data in this report doesnt constitute a basis to distinguish between
different manufacturers with similar performance characteristics.
21
3.1 Introduction
3.12 Geological Parameters

The net penetration rate and the life of the drilling tools are highly dependent upon the
following rock mass properties:
Rock drillability
Rock abrasiveness
Rock mass jointing will also play a role, however, this parameter is not added in the
prediction model.
There are many geological parameters that describe these rock properties. In this report,
we use the following test methods:
DRITM (Drilling Rate Index)

VHNR (Vickers Hardness Number Rock)
For extensive information about rock drillability and abrasiveness see [6].
Rock Drillability
The Drilling Rate Index is an indirect method used to measure rock drillability. It is
estimated on the basis of two laboratory tests, the Brittleness Value S20 and the
Sievers J value SJ.
Table 3.1 shows the values for poor and good drillability used in different figures in the
report.
Gooddrillability
DRITM=65
Mediumdrillability
DRITM=49
Poordrillability
DRITM=37
Table 3.1
Referred drillability index values.
The standard drillability values were originally related to typical rocks found in the
Norwegian rock. The characterizations were fixed to a certain distribution of the values
representing the majority of the test database at the Laboratory for Rock Mechanics at
22
3.1 Introduction
NTNU in the 1970ies. The rock samples are mainly from Scandinavian hard rocks and
the referred values may be lower compared to experiences in other regions of the world.
Rock Abrasivity
The VHNR is estimated on the basis of the content and hardness of the minerals in the
rock sample, which is found by XRD analysis. High VHNR indicates high abrasiveness.
Highabrasiveness
VHNR=750900
Mediumabrasiveness
VHNR=450750
Lowabrasiveness
VHNR=300450
Table 3.2
Preliminary classification of VHNR abrasivity values.
In Appendix E, a table of minerals and VHNR values is shown.

Not only the minerals influence the bit life, but also grain size, shape and bonding are
important. The abrasiveness may vary within a rock type with the same VHNR.
Other well established laboratory methods used for determining the wear capacity of rock
are:
Cutter life Index (CLITM)

Bit Wear Index (BWI)
Cerchar Abrasion Index (CAI).
Wear Index (F)
Rosiwal Mineral Abrasivity Rating
Equivalent quartz content
Studies at the NTNU show that the SJ value, used in the determination of the DRITM, also
gives good correlation, particularly related to the life of the drill bits.
23
3.2 NET PENETRATION RATE

3.21 General
Through Figure 3.1 to Figure 3.9, the net penetration rates are shown as a function of
drillability. The DRITM values span from 20 to 70. A drillability lower than 20 is very
seldom found in rock formations. For drillability higher than 70, extrapolation of curves
may be used. However, attention should be paid to difficulties that may arise from lack of
flushing capacity, and lower net penetration rates than predicted should be used.
The net penetration rates are based on standard drilling equipment settings and average
wear of the drill bits. Recordings of varying drill settings and drill steel properties are
corrected to a standard condition.
To some extent, the records contain some rock mass jointing. Records of high net
penetration rates, in zones of heavily jointed rock mass, are rejected when analyzed. If
drilling in heavily jointed rock or very homogenous rock is planned, the curves should be
adjusted according to this.
The graphs give the net penetration rate of the second rod. The first rod is not used as it is
normally disturbed by various disrupting elements during drilling, and few good
recordings are made. The disrupting elements are mainly:
Blast induced fracturing from the subdrilling of the overlying blast

Reduced drilling power as a deviation reduction effort
Rock debris or overburden drilling
The net penetration rate decreases down the hole due to energy loss, and to find the
average net penetration rate over the total hole length, a correction of the second rod net
penetration rate value must be made. Figure 3.3, Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.8 present
correction values for the correspondent drilling methods as a function of the drillhole
depth. See also Figure 6.1.
The average net penetration rate graphs are based on normal fractured rock mass
conditions in the top of the bench, and full drilling power directly after collaring.
Divergence from these assumptions will be added in the fixed times. See Section 3.3. The
bench floor conditions vary between the drilling methods.
Descriptions and guide lines for the time studies carried out in this report are presented in
Chapter 5.
24
3.22 Top Hammer Drilling

The hydraulic top hammer drilling graphs represent performance data for new surface
drilling machinery and equipment in the period of 2005 to 2007.
The graphs present data on 51 mm to 127 mm drillholes, even though 76 mm to 102 mm
are the most appropriate drill bit diameters used. The smaller bit diameters (51 mm and
64 mm) are included to cover urban blasting works, road excavation and building site
blasting works with special demands according to e.g. flyrock, contour and vibration
levels. The larger hole diameters (115 mm and 127 mm) are included to cover the use in
large quarries with high annual production demands and slope stability drillholes in large
mines.
The graphs of the pneumatic top hammer rigs represent machinery and equipment used
just before 1990. To some extent, new rigs will to some extent have higher performance
rates due to quality improvements and use of higher air pressure levels. Corrections may
be carried out according to the graph in Figure 6.13.
The average net penetration rate curves presented are based on cleaned bench conditions,
full percussion energy right after collaring and 0.75 metre of fractured rock mass in the
upper part of the bench, with 50 % higher net penetration rate. A standard rod length of
3.66 metres is used, and the first rod is assumed to drill 3.0 metre. Rods with integrated
threads (speedrods) are assumed and the energy loss (i.e. reduction in net penetration
rate) per coupling is 3 % and 4 %. Using interchangeable couplings, the energy loss is
more or less doubled.
25
Figure 3.1
Net penetration rate second rod. Pneumatic drills (1990 generation).

Air pressure 6.0 bars. Drill rods 3.05 m.
26
cm/min
240
HL700/Cop1838,64mm
220
HL500/ Cop1238,51mm
HL700/Cop1838,76mm
HL1000,89mm
200
180
160
HL700/Cop1838,89mm
HL500/ Cop1238,76mm
HL1000,102mm
140
HL1000,115mm
HL700/Cop1838,102mm
120
HL1000,127mm
HL700/Cop1838,115mm
100
80
60
40
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
DRITM
Figure 3.2
Net penetration rate second rod. Hydraulic rock drills (2005-2007 generation).
Drill rods 3.66 m.
The succession of the rock drills indicates where in the span the value should be picked from.
Newer rock drills with small improvements should be placed slightly above the corresponding older models.
27
120%
115%
HL1000,Cop1838,HL700
HL500
110%
pneumatic
105%
100%
95%
90%
85%
80%
3
11
13
15
17
19
Holedepth[m]
Figure 3.3
Average net penetration rate over drillhole depth in percentage of second rod.
Hydraulic and pneumatic drills. See also Figure 6.1.
28
3.23 Coprod
The Coprod drilling graphs are mainly based on studies made before 2000, and the
machinery and equipment available in the market at that time. Since the background
material is limited compared to e.g. the top hammer data, the curves must be used with
some care. Two supplementary studies are made after 2000. The results support and
strengthen the reliability of the existing curves.
The net penetration rate studies give only vague variations between the different rigs and
drilling machines. Based on theoretical assessments, dotted lines are drawn to indicate
the variation between the different hole diameters and rock drills.
The average net penetration rate down the hole is based on 6.1 metre and 3.66 metre drill
rods, respectively 5.9 metre and 3.6 metre length of the first rod. Further, it is assumed
0.8 metre of rock debris drilling at reduced percussion power, 0.5 metres cracked rock
mass drilling with full rock hammer output. Energy loss (i.e. net penetration rate) per
coupling is assumed to be 1.5 %.
Extra time for stabilizing the rock debris is added to the fixed times.
29
cm/min
180
160
COP 1850CR,105mm
COP4050CR,115mm
140
COP 1850CR,115mm
COP4050CR,127mm
120
COP 1850CR,127mm
COP4050CR,140mm
100
COP4050CR,152mm
80
60
40
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
DRITM
Figure 3.4
Net penetration rate second rod. Coprod rigs (2000 generation).
30
115%
110%
105%
100%
95%
Cop4050CR,Rod6.1m
90%
Cop1850CR,Rod3.66m
85%
80%
3
11
13
15
17
19
Holedepth[m]
Figure 3.5
Average net penetration rate over drillhole depth in percentage of net penetration rate
second rod. Coprod (2000 generation).
31
3.24 DTH
The DTH graphs represent two sets of data:
Existing data based on large mining DTH rigs operating in the range of 152 mm
to 191 mm drillhole diameter.
New data on smaller quarry sized DTH rigs operating in the range of 85 to 165
mm drillhole diameter.
The existing data is based on studies made before 1990. Adjustments according to
increased standard air pressure levels are made.
The new data is based on a limited amount of study objects; however, the performance
improvements are so significant that the results are implemented in the report.
The curves are divided in DTH quarry and DTH mining rigs. The division is made due to
the different rock drills applicable for the different DTH types. If same rock drill is used,
the same net drilling performance will be achieved.
The curve pairs indicate high and low net penetration rate for the appropriate rock drill,
according to the diameter range they may operate in. The upper curve will represent the
lowest applicable diameter a rock drill can drill. The lower curve represents the vice
versa.
The net penetration rate curves are based on an air pressure of 25 bars. Some smaller
DTH hammers operate only up to 12 bars and 18 bars. Figure 3.7 shows a correction
factor for air pressures differing from this pressure level.
The average net penetration rate over the total hole length, in percentage of the second
rod, is shown in Figure 3.8. The curves are based on 0.8 m rock debris drilling at reduced
power output and 0.5 m drilling in previous blasted and cracked rock mass at the top at
full power output. The energy loss (i.e. net penetration rate) is assumed to be equal to 1
% per 4 m drillhole depth. The length of the rods is insignificant concerning loss of
energy, and will only affect the fixed times.
32
cm/min
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
DRITM
Figure 3.6
Net penetration rate DTH rigs (2007 generation).

The upper and lower curves, for each DTH type, represent, respectively the lowest and
highest bit diameter for any rock drills bit diameter range.
33
1.0
ka
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
Operatingairpressure[bar]
Figure 3.7
Correction factor, ka.

Operating air pressure different from 25 bars, dependent on rock drillability.
34
120%
115%
25bar
17.5bar
110%
10bar
105%
100%
95%
90%
85%
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
Holedepth[m]
Figure 3.8
Average net penetration rate over drillhole depth in percentage of net penetration rate
for second rod. See also Figure 6.4.
35
3.25 Rotary Drilling

The net penetration curve for rotary drilling equipment is mainly based on studies made
before 1990. Three new studies were made in 2007-2008 to compare old and new
measurements. The development seems to be limited, and the net penetration rate values
seem to be more or less the same then as now. Developments seem to occur in the fixed
times and in the life time of drilling equipment.
The curves presented in Figure 3.9 are made for optimal thrust force and rotary speed.
Thrust and rotation relations are described in Section 6.28. No grinding of rotary drill bits
is made and average wear over the life time is assumed. See Section 6.25 for
development of net penetration rate due to drill bit wear.
The net penetration rate is constantly independent of the hole depth.
The dotted lines in the curve show a normal variation in rotary speed, thrust and bit wear.
cm/min
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
DRITM
Figure 3.9
Net penetration rate rotary drilling. Drillhole diameter; 200 mm to 381 mm.
36
3.3 Fixed Times
3.3 FIXED TIMES

3.31 General
To be able to estimate drilling capacities and advance rates for different drilling
equipment, the net penetration rate and the fixed time in the drilling cycle must be
known.
The fixed time represents the necessary time to be able to perform the drilling. The fixed
time is separated in:
Moving between holes

Adding drill rods
Drill rod pullback and uncoupling
In addition, changing of bits and control and stabilizing of drillhole must be added when
appropriate.
The fixed times in the report are based on skilled operators and ideal conditions
concerning feed boom alignment and set up and rod adding and uncoupling, however not
based on automatically rod adding or GPS equipped drill rigs.
Operator cabin and digital inclination measuring equipment is presupposed, together with
mechanized rod changing system, which is standard for all quarry rigs today. Smaller top
hammer rigs (25 mm to 51 mm) may have manual rod changing and the values presented
in Table 3.3 must be adjusted.
Remote controlled drilling may be used under very demanding terrain conditions. The
fixed time must be carefully evaluated according to Table 3.3.
The top hammer values are based on rigs handling the standard 3.66 m rods.
The Coprod values are based on 6.10 m rods. If using 3.66 m rods, the moving, set up
and rod handling times may be reduced because of the lighter drill steel and boom
system, giving faster handling and better mobility features.
The DTH quarry rig values are based on 5.0 m rods. The DTH mining rig values are
based on drilling with one continuous drill string. There will be no significant difference
if using 12 m or 18 m drill string.
37
3.3 Fixed Times
The rotary drilling values are based on rigs handling one continuous drill string up to
19 m. No significant difference in rod handling time will occur if drilling shorter holes.
The fixed times are not differentiated regarding drill rig manufacturer.
Time for changing rods when they are broken, service time and time for incidental
repairs are included in the assessments of effective hours per shift.
3.32 Moving between holes
The processes of moving between holes include the operations for: Moving, set up,
aligning and collaring. They are merged into one time entry as it may be difficult to
separate each operation during time measuring.
Moving time represents the time for changing position on the drilling rig between
two holes.
Set up represents the fine positioning and stabilization of the rig.
Alignment time includes the times for calibrating the sighting instrument in the
rig, positioning and aligning the boom.
Collaring time includes the time for creating a plane on the rock surface for the
drill bit not to skid.
The time for moving between holes is mainly dependent upon:
Bench floor conditions

Operator skills
Drilling pattern
Drill rig coverage
Drill rig size
Drilling method
A more undulating and sloping bench floor will mainly increase the moving time, and to
some extent, the alignment time. A bench surface classification is shown in Figure 5.1.
On rough benches, only applicable for top hammer rigs, the drilling operators skills and
experience may affect the moving time considerably. The drilling rig should be
positioned according to its reach and drilling pattern. Additionally, the succession of the
drillholes to be drilled according to the topography is important. Unskilled operators may
double the times in Table 3.3, which are based on good practice.
38
3.3 Fixed Times
Larger and heavier rigs, as seen between the drilling methods, give increased moving
times due to heavier drill steel and boom arrangements, making their manoeuvring
features poorer.
Alignment time will vary according to planned inclination angle of the drillhole and the
surface conditions around the holes marking spot. Less inclined holes give longer
alignment time, and a sloped mark up spot will increase the time for stabilizing the boom
toe to the rock surface. The time differences are relatively small and no separate time
factors are made to distinguish these relations.
Collaring is more or less independent from drilling method and bench floor conditions.
To avoid deviation problems caused by inaccurate drilling in the beginning of a drillhole,
often the first 0.5 to 1.0 meters are drilled with reduced rock drill output. The extra time
for this is not included in the values in Table 3.3, and must be added separately. Typical
extra time may be up to 1 minute.
3.33 Adding Drill Rods
The time for adding rods includes the time to insert one extension rod. If adding several
rods through the hole, the time must be multiplied by the number of added rods, which is
the total number of rods minus one. The first rod will always be attached to the rock drill.
Rod adding time depends on:
Rod dimensions
Drilling method
Operator skills
Drill rig automation
Longer and heavier rods increase the adding time due to longer travelling time for the
rock drill and slower motions of the hydraulics. This is particularly visible between the
various drilling methods, however, applicable within a given drilling method as well,
when the rod length is changed.
The operator skills affect the time to some extent, however not much. Some operators use
full speed when retracting the rock drill, gaining some seconds. Normal speed is used in
the report.
39
3.3 Fixed Times
Automatic rod adding is available on the newest drilling rigs. This means that the
operator makes the collaring and when the start up procedure is finished, the drill rig is
set in automatic mode. The hole is drilled to a given depth and the rod adding is done
automatically. The system also handles jamming if drilling through fault material or
heavily crushed zones. The rod adding time will not be reduced of significance, and the
automation is primarily developed to increase the total productivity of the drilling
process, as the drilling operator can do other things during the drilling of the hole. Drill
rod pullback and decoupling are not yet automated.
3.34 Drill Rod Pullback and Uncoupling
The time for drill rod pullback and uncoupling is defined as the time for removing one
rod after the final hole depth is reached. Time for loosening the threads is also included.
This time can be substantial if the drillhole deflection is large or the threads are worn.
Normally the time is insignificant, and this is assumed in the values in Table 3.3.
In heavily jointed and fractured rock the pullback time may increase.
The pullback time of the first rod (bottom rod) is faster than for the extension rods as no
uncoupling is required. When using the longest and heaviest rods, the first rod pullback
time is different from the other extension rods. In top hammer and Coprod drilling with
3.66 m rods or shorter, the difference is little and all rods are given with the same value.
3.35 Other Fixed Times
The time for changing the drill bit is dependent upon the abrasiveness of the rock mass
and the grinding interval. Time for changing bits varies to some extent by the weight of
the bit, however, the total time will seldom exceed one minute. If changing bits less
frequently than every third or fourth hole, the time will be insignificant. This is
applicable in most hard rock aggregate quarries. If more frequent bit changing is
necessary, the time for bit grinding should be added to the fixed time account.
In very abrasive rock, e.g. quartzite, it may be necessary to change the bit after drilling
every single rod. In such cases, the bit changing time is substantial for the drilling
capacity, therefore extra fixed time for rod pullback, uncoupling and rod adding must be
included. In most cases, the bits are not ground in rotary drilling. Bit life is generally
high, and the bit changing time is insignificant.
40
3.3 Fixed Times
If drilling through the rock debris, extra time for stabilizing the hole walls and controlling
the hole depth must be added. Stabilizing the hole walls is particularly important for the
smaller hole diameters (up to 102 mm), as small amounts of loose material will reduce
the hole depth substantially. The sub drilling may become too small. Typical times are
presented in Table 3.3.
Extra time for cautious drilling through the first metre must be added if this is required.
3.36 Summary of Fixed Times
DTH
DTH
(quarry)
(mine)
1.75
1.75
6.0
7.0
0.4
0.6
0.5
Pullbackonerod
0.6
0.5
0.8
2.02)
2.02)
Pullback1strod
0.3
0.3
3)
1.2
1.2
2.0
2.0
FIXEDTIMECATEGORY
TOPHAMMER
COPROD
1.53.01)
Addingonerod
Moving,alignmentandcollaring
(perhole)
Controlandstabilizinghole
(perhole)
Table 3.3
ROTARY
Average fixed times in minutes for varying drilling methods.

1)
Low value represents even bench floor. High value represents heavy undulating and horizontal cleaned bench
(in steep terrain the value may be significantly higher).
2)
Holes supposed to be drilled with a continuous drill string.
3)
For rock debris drilling 1.2 min.
For a more detailed discussions about the fixed times see Section 5.2.
41
3.4 DRILLING CAPACITY MODEL

3.41 General
Five different capacity expressions are used in the report:
Net drilling capacity (cm/min)

Drilling capacity (drm/eh)
Production capacity (sm3/eh)
Gross drilling capacity (drm/shift)
Gross production capacity (sm3/shift)
The expressions reflect the stepwise set-up of the capacity estimation model used in the
report.
3.42 Net Drilling Capacity
The net drilling capacity represents the drilled length divided by the rock drill hammering
time. In most cases, the net penetration rate graphs presented in Section 3.2, will cover
the net drilling capacity, as occasional minor jamming times are included in the curves.
In heavily fractured rock where major jamming times happen regularly, extra time must
be added to the fixed times.
This capacity unit (cm/min) may be used to compare the drilling effect of different
drilling equipment within the same rock and the same drillhole diameter.
Net penetration rate, net drilling capacity and net drilling time express the same drilling
features.
3.43 Drilling Capacity
Drilling capacity represents the net drilling time plus the necessary operational times (i.e.
fixed time) for drilling. The drilling capacity is the last unit, which in principle is
independent from the local organization and site specific conditions.
The capacity unit (drm/eh) may be used to compare drilling rigs and methods with
varying operational features, in addition to the net drilling time differences. The unit is
often used by contractors, together with drill rig hourly costs, to give estimates of drilled
metre costs and drilled metre prices in contracts and tendering.
42
If including the specific drilling (i.e. the drilling pattern) the production capacity can be
estimated. In general, the production capacity increases with increased drillhole diameter,
as the specific drilling decreases more than the drilling capacity. The production
capacity, combined with hourly costs, may be used in total cost estimations, and it may
be used in the capacity and cost accounts in quarries and mines.
The fixed time will be more and more dominant in the total drilling time as the net
penetration rate increases or the net drilling time decreases. See Figure 3.10. Due to this,
one can draw some principle conclusions:
The coverage area of a drilling rig (giving less moving time between holes) is
more important for contractor rigs than quarry rigs. Contractor rigs normally drill
smaller and shorter holes compared to the quarry rigs.
Utilization of a whole number of rods (i.e. adjusting the bench height) will be
more important as the net penetration rate increases.
Increased rod length (i.e. less rod adding and uncoupling time) is more important
as the net penetration rate increases.
The effect of an improved net penetration rate will be reduced as the rate
increases.
drm/eh
Netpenetrationrate
Figure 3.10 Illustration of capacity as a function of net penetration rate.
43
In Figure 3.11, the drilling capacity as a function of the drillhole diameter is presented.
The graphs are based on the experience data presented in the report and the following
assumptions:
Optimal drilling equipment according to hole diameter

Medium drillability, DRITM = 49
Drilled length 16.5 metres. (For varying bench heights see Figure 6.3)
Even bench floor conditions (i.e. rock debris drilling). Except for top hammer
assumed to have a cleaned bench. (Time for moving between holes = 2.5 min).
Other fixed times assumed to be insignificant
Rod lengths according to the table below:
DRILLING METHOD
ROD LENGTH
Top hammer
3.66 m
Coprod
6.1 m
DTH (quarry)
6.0 m
DTH (mine)
18 m
Rotary
18.0 m
Figure 3.11 shows the estimates of drilling capacity for optimal drilling equipment for
varying drillhole diameter. Except for the Coprod curve it is clear that the drilling
capacity decreases by increased drillhole diameter, independently from drilling method.
The decrease levels out for the largest diameters. As a comparison TBM machines with
10 m diameter may have a net penetration rate of 1 m/eh.
The drop at the beginning of the top hammer and Coprod curves indicates that the
smaller rock drills do not produce enough energy to cope with the larger rock drills for
larger drill holes. See also Figure 6.5.
44
drm/eh
60
Tophammer
50
Coprod
DTH(quarry)
DTH(mine)
40
Rotary
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Drillholediameter[mm]
Figure 3.11 Drilling capacity as a function of drillhole diameter. Drills with the best performance
have been presupposed.
Though the drilling capacity falls dramatically by increasing the drillhole diameter, the
production capacity increases, as the drilling pattern increases more than the loss in net
penetration rate and the fixed times, more or less, stays the same with varying drilling
capacity. See Figure 3.12.
The levelling out of the percussion drilling methods indicates that the current rock drills
have reached their maximum capacity. The curves are based on emulsion explosives. The
production capacity will be reduced by approximately 15 % if using ANFO due to less
explosive energy and smaller drilling patterns.
45
sm3/eh
800
700
600
500
400
Tophammer
Coprod
300
Dth(quarry)
Dth(mine)
200
Rotary
100
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Figure 3.12 Production capacity as a function of drillhole diameter. Medium drillability and
blastability, emulsion explosives. If using ANFO (only up to 127 mm); reduce volume
by approx. 15%.
46
3.44 Gross Drilling Capacity

The gross drilling capacity includes the production efficiency of the drilling rig into the
drilling capacity described above. Production efficiency equals machine availability
multiplied with organization availability. The machine availability equals the full time
availability (i.e. shift hours) minus repair downtime. Organization availability includes
all other times affecting the drilling rigs possibility to be in position for production.
Factors affecting the availability, hence the production capacity, are:
Scheduled maintenance
Variable repairs
Refuelling
Personal delays
Blasting delays
Other incidental loss of time
The sum of lost times varies according to:
Maintenance policy
Drilling rig working reliability
Age and condition of drilling rig and equipment
Type of work (long or short term)
Site organization
Working conditions
Drilling method
A scheduled and preventive maintenance policy will give less downtime than a randomly
based repair policy. High quality machinery and equipment will give higher availability
than poor quality products. New rigs have fewer stops than older rigs.
Long term jobs normally have lower efficiency than short term jobs. Shorter shifts
normally increase the production efficiency compared to long shifts. Increased number of
shifts per day or week will cause extra time loss between shifts. Additionally, the total
available time of the day or week will be reduced and the random repairs and the planned
maintenance work will more often be carried out in the critical production time line.
Poorly organized working sites and poor occupational environments will reduce the
operators motivation, hence the production efficiency.
47
Due to varying net penetration rate and rod lengths, the drilling methods will have
varying efficiency. A low net penetration rate gives more time for supervision and
planning of service and maintenance work, and reduces the probability of time critical
repairs. Also, other fixed times like marking of the drill pattern and grinding drill bits can
be done while the rig drills. Longer rods and automatic rod adding systems will imply the
same benefits. Contrary, if obtaining very high net penetration rates, the time for drilling
a single rod may be too short to allow any maintenance related work during drilling and
the production efficiency will be reduced.
The production efficiency values shown in Table 3.4 are experienced data from well
organized long term aggregate quarries and one 7.5 hour shift per day.
Actions to increase these values are very resource-demanding, however, poor
organization may easily cause a dramatic drop in the actual production efficiency.
DRILLINGMETHOD
EFFICIENCY
TophammerandCoprod
5.5eh/shift
73%
DTH(quarry)
6.0eh/shift
80%
DTH(mine)
6.5eh/shift
87%
Rotarydrilling
6.5eh/shift
87%
Table 3.4
Referred production efficiency values. 7.5 hours shifts.
Figure 3.13 illustrates the gross production capacities in sm3/shift as a function of

drillhole diameter, and is the succession of Figure 3.12, including the values in Table 3.4.
The curves are normalised, and they have to be adjusted for various conditions
mentioned in the preceding sections.
In the Norwegian industry, the maximum periodical and annual working hours are fixed
by public regulations and tariffs. In aggregate quarrying, the drilling normally follows the
standard shift system of 7.5 hours per shift, one shift per day and five shifts per week.
Depending upon the variable holidays and the site specific arrangements for in-betweendays in relation to e.g. Easter, Christmas and other National Holidays, experience from
quarries mines and construction sites gives in average 220 days, or 44 weeks of
production per year.
These numbers may be used to estimate an annual production capacity. Other shift
organisations may be used, however, changes in the production efficiency values may
appear.
48
sm3/shift
5000
4000
3000
Tophammer
Coprod
2000
Dth(quarry)
Dth(mine)
1000
Rotary
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Figure 3.13 Gross production capacity as a function of drillhole diameter. Medium drillability and
blastability, emulsion explosives. If using ANFO (only up to 127 mm); reduce volume
with approx. 15%.
49
3.5 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION

On the following pages, calculated examples of drilling capacity and shift capacity for
varying combinations of drilling equipment are shown. The calculations are based on
curves previously presented in this chapter. The cost calculations in Chapter 2.9 refer to
these prognosis examples.
Example
Tophammer(1)
Tophammer(2)
Drillholediameter
76mm
102mm
Rockdrill
HL700
Cop1838
Cleanedbench
Even
Gneiss
Gneiss
Benchconditions
Rocktype
TM
DRI =50
DRITM=50
3.66m
3.66m
Length1 rod
3.0m
3.0m
Hourspershift
7.5h
7.5h
Effectivehourspershift(Section3.44)
5.5eh
5.5eh
Holedepth
16.5m
16.5m
155cm/min
110cm/min
15598.5%=
11098.5%=
152.7cm/min
108.4cm/min
10.8min/hole
15.2min/hole
Numberofrods
1.5min/hole
2.5min/hole
Rodadding(Table3.3)
(51)0.4=1.6min/hole
(51)0.4=1.6min/hole
Rodpullback(Table3.3)
50.6min=3.0min/hole
50.6min=3.0min/hole
Controlofdrillhole(Table3.3)
1.3min
Otherfixedtimes(Section3.35)
Sumfixedtimes
6.1min/hole
8.4min/hole
Totaldrillingtime
16.9min/hole
23.6min/hole
Rockmassdrillability
Rodlength
st
nd
Netpenetrationrate2 rod(Figure3.2)
Averagenetpenetrationrate(Figure3.3)
Netdrillingtime
Moving,alignmentandcollaring(Table3.3)
Drillingcapacity
Shiftcapacity
.
.
60=58.6drm/eh
58.65.5=322.1drm/shift
.
.
60=41.9drm/eh
41.95.5=230.4drm/shift
50
Example
Coprod
DTH(quarry)
Drillholediameter
127mm
140mm
Coprod4050CR
Cop54(25bar)
Even
Even
Gneiss
Gneiss
Rockdrill
Benchconditions
Rocktype
TM
DRI =50
DRITM=50
6.10m
6.00m
Length1 rod
6.5m
6.5m
Hourspershift
7.5h
7.5h
5.5eh
6.0eh
Holedepth
15m
15m
116cm/min
63cm/min
Averagenetpenetrationrate
116101.0%=
63101%=
(Figure3.5andFigure3.8)
117.1cm/min
63.6cm/min
Netdrillingtime
14.1min/hole
25.9min/hole
1.75min/hole
1.75min/hole
(31)1.2min/hole
(31)1.0min/hole
20.5+0.3=
20.8+0.3=
1.3min/hole
1.9min/hole
1.2min/hole
1.2min/hole
Sumfixedtimes
5.45min/hole
5.85min/hole
Totaldrillingtime
19.5min/hole
31.8min/hole
Rodlength
st
Netpenetrationrate2ndrod
Numberofrods
Moving,alignmentandcollaring(Table3.3)
Rodadding(Table3.3)
Drillingcapacity
Shiftcapacity(Table3.4)
.
.
60=50.7drm/eh
50.75.5=278.8drm/shift
.
.
60=31.2drm/eh
31.26.0=186.9drm/shift
51
Example
DTH(mine)
Rotary
Drillholediameter
200mm
311mm
Drillingequipment
Mission65
Benchconditions
Even
Even
Gneiss
Gneiss
Rocktype
TM
DRI =50
DRITM=50
17m
18m
Length1 rod
Hourspershift
7.5h
7.5h
6.5eh
6.5eh
Holedepth
16.5m
16.5m
40cm/min
29cm/min
40101%=
29100%=
40.4cm/min
29.0cm/min
40.8min/hole
56.9min/hole
6min/hole
7min/hole
2min/hole
2min/hole
2min/hole
2min/hole
Sumfixedtimes
10.0min/hole
11.0min/hole
Totaldrillingtime
50.8min/hole
67.9min/hole
Rodlength
st
nd
Netpenetrationrate2 rod
Averagenetpenetrationrate(Figure3.8.)
Netdrillingtime
Numberofrods
Moving,setup,collaring(Table3.3)
Rodadding(Table3.3)
Drillingcapacity
Shiftcapacity(Table3.4)
.
.
60=19.5drm/eh
19.56.5=126.6drm/shift
.
.
60=14.6drm/eh
14.66.5=94.9drm/shift
52
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.1 Introduction
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.11 General
To estimate drilling costs, information about the following factors is needed:
Specific drilling
Gross drilling capacity
Economic life of drilling rigs
Life of drilling equipment
Prices of equipment, fuel and labour
The specific drilling expresses the drilled metres (i.e. volume of drillhole) necessary to
blast the rock mass into a requested fragmentation degree. Besides the fragmentation
degree, the specific drilling is mainly dependent upon:
Drillhole diameter
Blastability
Bench height
Explosive type
Closer discussions and further information on how to estimate the specific drilling, if not
already known, can be found in Report 12B-08 ROCK QUARRYING Blast Design.
Other prediction models also exist, however in this report, the specific drilling is based
on the estimation model in the referred report.
The gross drilling capacities used in the following section about cost estimations are
based on the data presented in the preceding sections.
53
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.2 LIFE OF DRILLING EQUIPMENT

4.21 General
The life of drilling equipment includes, in addition to the drilling rig, the drill steel
components. The drill steel is separated from the general maintenance and repairs of the
drill rig, as it is directly dependent upon the rock mass drillability and abrasivity. The life
of the drilling rig is not very dependent upon the rock mass properties.
Independent from the drilling method, the following components are included in the drill
steel assortment:
Drill bit
Drill rod/tube
Shank (top hammer and Coprod)
Stabilizer (rotary only)
In addition, some components are specific for certain drilling methods. This is
particularly applicable for the Coprod system.
The rock drills are included in the maintenance and repairs of the drilling rig.
The life estimates are based on empirical data from a large number of construction sites,
mines and quarries. The drilling rig life is also based on data retrieved from the
manufacturers and suppliers.
4.22 Drilling Rig
There are three expressions used to describe the life of machinery:
Technical life tt
Economic life tl
Economic useful life tu
The technical life of a drilling rig, or any other quarry machine, is the total hours the
machine can remain in production, as long as the necessary repairs are made. As the
repair costs increase with life, they will be very high if the machine is used very long. If
high repair costs are acceptable, the technical life time could be very long, however, there
is no practical interest in this.
54
4. DRILLING COSTS
The economic life of a drilling rig is determined by the purchase price and the
development of the repair costs. The economic life time is reached when the average
capital, repair, and running costs, combined, are the lowest. To find this optimal point of
economic life, the repair costs must be recorded and analysed over time. Only direct
machine costs are included.
The economic useful life includes the costs which are inflicted on the production line if
the given machine stops, or has insufficient production capacity. Machinery working in a
critical production line will have shorter economic useful life than similar machinery in
less critical positions. Hence, critically positioned machinery may be moved to less
critical jobs while keeping the costs at a minimum.
The machinery life assessments are treated extensively in [7].
Economic useful life is calculated by Equation [4.1]. See also Section 4.34:
4.1
economic useful life eh

depreciation basis i.e. purchase price
downtime factor see Section 4.35
dependent repair cost factor NOK/ eh2
NOK
economic life eh
Supposing the economic life is measured in effective hours, the economic life is more or
less independent from rock drillability.
Figure 4.1 shows the economic life as a function of optimal drillhole diameter. The
curves must be used with caution as the purchase price and the development of repair
costs will vary. The economic life does not apply to all types of machines, but indicates
in general the range of the economic life. Repair cost follow-up should be carried out
during the running of the machine to be able to find the optimal economic life.
When calculating drilling costs, economic life is most conveniently given in drilled
metres (drm). When this unit is used, economic life will vary with rock drillability. The
drilling capacity graphs in Figure 3.11 may be used to convert the graphs in Figure 4.1.
55
4. DRILLING COSTS
eh
DTH (mine)andRotary
40000
30000
20000
10000
Tophammer,CoprodandDTH (quarry)
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Figure 4.1
Economic life of drilling rigs.

Top hammer
51 mm 127 mm
Coprod
89 mm 152 mm
DTH quarry
140 mm 172 mm
DTH mine
172 mm 251 mm
Rotary
200 mm 389 mm
The optimal drillhole diameter represent a diameter the drill rig and rock drill primarily
are designed to use. When larger than optimal drillhole diameters are used, the result is a
decrease in economic life. Contrary, when smaller drillhole diameters are used, an
increase in economic life is registered.
Generally, the following connections are revealed:
If increasing the bit diameter a one-inch-step (approx. 25 mm), economic life will
be reduced by 600 hours.
If reducing the bit diameter a one-inch-step (approx. 25 mm), economic life will
be increased by 600 hours.
56
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.23 Drill Bits

The life of drilling accessory equipment varies mainly with rock drillability and
abrasiveness. In addition, maintenance and general handling of the equipment may
change the expected life time. In this report, proven bit life data from well organized
quarries and mines is used, with more or less optimal bit regrinding procedures. See
Section 2.34. The data is based on both abrasive wear and premature bit failure (i.e.
button pop-outs or other breaking characteristics). In the extreme low abrasivity range,
pop-outs and body steel breaking will be the life criteria. In the high abrasivity range
wear will be prominent.
As mentioned in Section 3.12, the life of the bit may be expressed by a multiple set of
abrasiveness units. In this report, VHNR is used. Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 show drill bit
life as a function of VHNR.
The curves must be used with great caution as the rock strength and rock mass fracturing
degree may vary compared to the average conditions, which form the basis of the curves.
The wear is also dependent upon the bit diameter. The curve indicates the variation going
from the smallest (< 76 mm) to the largest bits (> 127mm).
57
4. DRILLING COSTS
drm
6500
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
100
200
300
400
low
Figure 4.2
500
600
medium
700
800
high
900 1000 1100 VHNR

Abrasivity
Life of percussion drill bits (Top hammer, Coprod and DTH) in drill meters as a
function of VHNR and drillhole diameter.
58
4. DRILLING COSTS
drm
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
100
200
300
400
low
Figure 4.3
500
600
medium
700
800
high
900
1000 1100 VHNR

Abrasivity
Life of rotary drill bits (button bits) in drill meters as a function of VHNR and drillhole
diameter.
59
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.24 Drill String

The life of the drill string components is dependent upon:
Drillability and abrasiveness

The components dimensions
Drillhole diameter
Bench height
Rock mass jointing and deflection properties
Drilling settings (percussion frequency and energy, rotary speed and thrust)
The following graphs present the life as a function of drillability, drillhole diameter and
the components size when appropriate. Normal deflection properties are included (i.e. in
average less than 5 %) and drilling settings close to optimal are assumed. The life of the
drill string components is mainly given in drilled metres (drm).
Alternatively, the rods life may be given in rod metres (rm), which is independent from
bench height. The expression originates from an alternation of the extension rods
succession during drilling.
The recorded data is based on an average consumption over a certain period of time. The
rods succession is not changed unless a rod is broken. When a broken rod is removed, a
new rod is placed in the back of the rack.
When we are using drilled meters as the life unit, the rod life will be dependent upon the
bench height. Higher benches and deeper holes give less total drilled metres per rod since
the number of extension rods increases. More rods are used to produce the extra drilled
length.
The difference between the number of drilled metres and rod metres is illustrated in the
following example:
60
4. DRILLING COSTS
Drilling three holes of 12 m depth versus two holes of 18 m depth: Both give 36 drm. Supposing 3.7 m
rods, the following rod meters will appear:
A 12 m hole gives:
st
1 rod
nd
2 rod
A 18 m hole gives:
12.0 m
1)
12.0 3.0
rd
3 rod
th
4 rod
9.0 3.7
5.3 3.7
Total rod metres per hole

Three holes give
9.0 m
5.3 m
1.6 m
27.9 m
83.7 rm
1st rod
nd
2 rod
18.0 m
1)
18.0 3.0
15.0 m
rd
15.0 3.7
11.3 m
th
11.3 3.7
7.6 m
th
7.6 - 3.7
3.9 m
th
3.9 3.7
0.2 m
3 rod
4 rod
5 rod
6 rod
Total rod metre per hole
56.0 m
Two holes give
112 rm
1) Approximately 70 cm of the first rod cannot be drilled due to the hydraulic arrangement on the foot of the feeder.
The graphs in the following figures are based on 15 m bench heights (approx. 16 m
holes).
The life of the Coprod equipment, except the bits, is based on few observations, and the
curves should be used with caution.
If using rods with loose couplings in top hammer drilling, the life of these are
approximately the same as for the rods.
61
4. DRILLING COSTS
rm
G o o d d r illa b ility
P o o r d r illa b ility
6 0 0 0
5 1 m m
5 0 0 0
4 5 m m
4 0 0 0
3 8 m m
3 0 0 0
2 0 0 0
3 2 m m
1 0 0 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0 0
1 2 0
1 4 0
D r illh o le d ia m e te r , m m
Figure 4.4
Life of rods in rod meters for top hammer drilling as a function of drillability, drillhole
diameter and rod diameter.
62
4. DRILLING COSTS
rm
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Drillholediameter,mm
Figure 4.5
Life of tubes in rod meters for DTH and rotary drilling as a function of drillability and
drillhole diameter. DTH from 140 mm to 250 mm. Rotary from 200 to 389 mm.
63
4. DRILLING COSTS
Figure 4.6
Life of top hammer and Coprod shanks in drill meters as a function of drillability,
drillhole diameter and rod diameter.
64
4. DRILLING COSTS
drm
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Figure 4.7
Life of stabilizers in drill meters as a function of drillability and drillhole diameter.
65
4. DRILLING COSTS
Figure 4.8
Life of Coprod tubes and rods in rod meters as a function of drillhole diameter and
drillability.
66
4. DRILLING COSTS
Figure 4.9
Life of Coprod head complete and adapter in drill meters as a function of drillhole
diameter and drillability.
67
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.3 DRILLING COST MODEL

4.31 General
The drilling costs are broken down to the following entries:
Depreciation
Interest
Repair
Down time
Fuel
Service
Labour
Drilling steel costs
Insurance costs are not included in the model. Indirect cost entries, such as
administration, management and general expenses will be covered by the mark-up. Only
the direct cost of the drilling rig is included in the report.
The price level of the products used in this report is December 2008.
The cost estimation model is treated extensively in [7].
4.32 Depreciation Costs
The depreciation costs are based on the purchase prices of the drilling equipment and the
economic useful life. The drill steel cost is not included in the purchase price. The value
of construction machinery normally drops faster in the beginning of the depreciation time
than towards the end. Therefore, a degressive depreciation should be used when
calculating the costs, contrary to linear depreciation.
Figure 4.10 presents purchase prices of drilling rigs as a function of drillhole diameter.
The curves are based on standard equipped drilling rigs and a 10 % discount on list
prices. The price may vary significantly dependent upon the rigs extra equipment,
service agreements and the market situation.
68
4. DRILLING COSTS
MNOK
9
DTH (mine)andRotary
8
7
6
5
4
3
Tophammer,CoprodandDTH (quarry)
2
1
0
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
Figure 4.10 Purchase price of drilling rigs.
If the machine is replaced before the economic useful life is reached, the residual value
must be estimated. The average cumulated depreciation costs will then be higher than at
economic useful life. To estimate the residual value Equation 4.2 is used:
100
Rx
4.2
residual value %
actual time for calculation of the residual value eh
69
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.33 Interest Costs

The interest costs depend on the rate of interest, the depreciation time and average
residual value. In the long term, the rate of interest is around 7 %.
Estimating the interest costs over the economic useful life, and using the degressive
depreciation as described above, the average value of the rig over the depreciation time
will be 1/3 of the purchase price, giving the following equation:
1
4.3
interest costs over economic useful life NOK/eh

depreciation basis NOK
rate of interest %
effective hours per year eh
Estimating the interest costs over any part of the economic useful life, the average
residual value of the machine, during that period of time, must be used. This is described
in [7].
4.34 Repair Costs
The repair costs may be divided in two entries:
Fixed repair costs

Variable repair costs
The costs consist of spare parts and labour costs. From experience, the labour costs are
approximately 1/3 of the repair costs.
Average cumulated repair costs can be expressed by Equation 4.4
4.4
total repair costs NOK/eh

fixed repair cost NOK/eh
variable repair cost NOK/eh
repair factor NOK/eh2
machine age eh
70
4. DRILLING COSTS
The fixed repair costs are not dependent upon the age of the machinery, and stay constant
over the life of the machine. For a drilling rig this means repair or maintenance of the
rock drill, hydraulic hoses, tracks etc. For the DTH rigs, costs for the drill hammer are
included in the repair costs.
The fixed repair costs will increase with larger machinery and increased drillhole
diameter. Figure 4.11 shows experienced fixed repair costs as a function of drillhole
diameter for varying drilling methods.
NOK/eh
400
300
200
TophammerandCoprod
DTH(quarry)
DTH(mine)
Rotary
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
Figure 4.11 Fixed repair costs as a function of drillhole diameter.
The variable repair costs represent the repair costs which increase with the use of the
machine. The entry covers incidental repairs and the fact that the life of the new
components will be reduced because they are working with old and worn components.
As described in Section 4.2, it is the development of variable repair costs that determines
the economic life of the drilling rig. If using Figure 4.1 to decide the economic life, the
average cumulated variable repair costs can be estimated by Equation [4.5]:
71
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.5
variable repair costs NOK/eh

depreciation basis NOK
down time factor see Section 4.35

variable repair time period eh
Going the other way, knowing the repair costs, the gradient of the variable repair costs
together with the purchase price, make the basis for calculation of economic life. See
Section 4.32.
4.35 Downtime Costs
Downtime costs relate to the indirect costs that arise if the rig stops. Indirect costs are
related to stop in production and arrangements for keeping the production stop as short as
possible (i.e. auxiliary machine, subcontracts). The average cumulated downtime costs
are given as a function of the repair costs. See Equation 4.6.
4.6
downtime costs NOK/eh

total repair costs NOK
down time factor

fixed repair costs NOK/eh
variable repair costs NOK/eh
The downtime factor varies with rig size, type of work and number of rigs in use. It is
normally from 0.3 to 0.67. Higher down time factor implies increased indirect costs. If
the machinery is transferred to another production line, the down time factor must be
changed. Old machinery not applicable in a critical production line may be transferred to
other less critical works.
72
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.36 Fuel Costs

The fuel costs depend on fuel prices and fuel consumption. The fuel consumption
depends on the size of the drilling rig and the working conditions. Larger rigs give higher
fuel consumption per drilled metre.
The utilization of a drilling rig depends on the working conditions. The variation range is
normally from 50 % to 80 %. Figure 4.12 represents fuel consumption at 65 % utilization
for the top hammer and Coprod rigs. The DTH and rotary drilling represents 70 %
utilization.
l/eh
120
100
80
60
40
DTHandRotary
20
TophammerandCoprod
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Figure 4.12 Fuel consumption.
The fuel consumption may be calculated from the engine output. A consumption of
240 g/kWh is standard for this type of machine.
The price per December 2008 is 6.5 NOK/l.
73
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.37 Service Costs

The service costs represent the daily maintenance of the drilling rig. The cost entry
includes motor oil, hydraulic oil, grease, air and oil filters, antifreeze, batteries, light
bulbs etc. The largest entries are motor oil and lubricants.
Oil consumption is much higher for hydraulic top hammer drilling than DTH and rotary
drilling.
Labour is also included and it is supposed to be in average 0.5 hours per 6.0 effective
hour.
The service is a minor entry in the accounts. Nevertheless, poor service follow-up may
give considerable cost augments in other cost entries, such as: Repair, down time and
fuel consumption, along with reduced machine life.
Figure 4.13 shows the service costs as a function of drillhole diameter.
NOK/eh
90
80
70
TophammerandCoprod
60
Rotary
DTH
50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Figure 4.13 Service costs.
74
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.38 Labour Costs

The labour costs include the wage of the operator in addition to social security costs of
48 %. Local agreements and personal contracts may give substantial variations in the
operator wage. In this report, the fixed tariff wage of an industrial worker is used:
Currently 155 NOK/h.
Wages are calculated for 7.5 hours of work per shift.
Dependent upon the rig size and the working conditions, an auxiliary man is needed. The
labour demands vary between 1.1 and 1.5 men per shift. Besides being a substitute
operator, the auxiliary man takes part in the upkeep and maintenance, along with bit
grinding.
4.39 Drill Steel Costs
Drill steel costs cover costs for:
Drill bits
Rods/pipes (couplings)
Shanks
Stabilizers
Other materials (grinding, charging plugs, spray etc.)
The prices vary between the suppliers for more or less equal products. Every customer
gets special offers regarding sales volume and other market depending issues. The
product range is also varying within each drill steel segment. Low-price, standard and
heavy duty steel products are available in the market.
The Figure 4.14 through Figure 4.17 below present normalized prices for some common
drill steel products used in the Norwegian market. Heavy duty quality products designed
for hard rock are assumed.
For prices of other drill steel components we refer to the manufacturers price lists.
75
4. DRILLING COSTS
NOK
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
Tophammer
4000
Coprod
DTHquarry
2000
DTHmine
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Drillbitdiameter[mm]
Figure 4.14 Prices of percussion drill bits (Top hammer, Coprod and DTH)
NOK
10000
Rods
8000
6000
Tube(mine)
4000
Shanks
Tube(quarry)
2000
0
0
50
100
150
200
Rodortubediameter[mm]
Figure 4.15 Prices of top hammer rods and shanks (incl. Coprod shanks) and
DTH tubes (Quarry: 6 m. Mine: 9 m).
76
4. DRILLING COSTS
NOK
30,000
Head
25,000
20,000
Tube
15,000
Rods
Adapter
10,000
5,000
0
85
95
105
115
125
135
145
155
165
175
Figure 4.16 Prices of Coprod drill steel components.
NOK
Tube
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
Bit
Stabilizer
20,000
0
175
200
225
250
275
300
325
350
375
400
425
Figure 4.17 Prices of rotary drill steel: Bits, tubes and stabilizers.
77
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.4 DRILLING COST ESTIMATIONS

4.41 General
In the following, some cost estimation graphs will be presented. The graphs are meant to
be used when rough estimations are sufficient. Additionally, the graphs are meant to
visualize the general cost trends in drilling operations.
The drilling costs are presented as follows:
Drill rig and drill steel costs (NOK/eh)

Drilling costs (NOK/drm) (NOK/l) (NOK/eh)
Production costs (NOK/sm3)
Blasting costs (NOK/sm3)
The graphs are based on the presiding capacities and cost data. The blasting costs contain
prices for explosives and firing remedies, along with labour for charging and bench
preparation and secondary breaking costs, which all will be described in the following.
The presented curves are normalized and optimal drilling equipment is presupposed.
Medium drillability, medium blastability and high abrasiveness are used.
4.42 Drilling Costs
In all open-cast works, the drilling operation may be subcontracted. Normally, the
tenders and contracts in these situations are expressing the drilling costs as NOK/drm. In
some contracts, the drill steel costs are separated from the drilling costs and the unit
NOK/h is used. In these situations, the quarry organisation manages the blast design, the
charging and the blasting. NOK/h is normally used in the quarry accounts.
In principle, the costs per drilled metre increases with the drillhole diameter. See Figure
4.18. This is logical as more rock is crushed and removed from the drillhole per meter.
Nevertheless, Figure 4.19 shows that the drilling costs per litre drilled out volume are
decreasing with increased drillhole diameter.
Both graphs are levelling out for larger drillhole diameters, and this is due to the same
drilling features: Reduced unproductive time and the fact that the labour costs become a
lesser part of the machine cost. Also, the drilling capacity is levelling out as the operation
closes up to a maximum efficiency level regarding the rock breaking mechanisms.
78
4. DRILLING COSTS
Under favourable conditions for rotary drilling, costs per litre drilled out drillhole can be
as low as 2 NOK. Cost calculations for tunnel boring (TBM) indicate that drilling costs
down to 1/10 of that can be achieved (transport of muck not included).
NOK/drm 250
200
150
100
Tophammer
50
Coprod
DTHquarry
DTHmine
Rotary
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 4.18 Drilling costs per drilled meter. Medium drillability, high abrasiveness.
Poor and good drillability 20 %.
79
4. DRILLING COSTS
NOK/l
18
16
14
12
10
Tophammer
Coprod
DTHquarry
DTHmine
Rotary
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Figure 4.19 Drilling costs per drilled out volume. Poor and good drillability 20 %
80
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.43 Hourly Drilling Costs

Figure 4.20 shows the development of the hourly costs of the drilling machine and the
drilling steel. We see that the drill steel cost is a minor part of the total drilling costs,
which is decreasing with increased hole diameter.
NOK/eh
3000
Rotary
DTHquarry
2500
Coprod
2000
Tophammer
DTHmine
1500
1000
0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 4.20 Drilling costs per effective hour. The lower curves represent the separate rig costs, and
the upper curves are inclusive the drill steel costs.
81
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.44 Production Costs

In the production costs, the blastability of the rock is included, hence the specific drilling
is added to the drilling costs. If increasing the drillhole diameter, the production costs
decrease as the drilling pattern dimensions increase faster than the costs per meter
drillhole increases. See also Section 3.43
The costs level out due to poorer explosives distribution in the rock mass.
The unit NOK/sm3 (alternatively NOK/ton) is used when both drilling and charging is
included in the contracts. In relation to rock filling structures and infrastructure jobs, the
production costs normally are denoted in cubic metres. In quarries and mines tons are
more often used. The first expression is independent from the rock mass density.
NOK/sm3
10
Tophammer
Coprod
DTHquarry
DTHmine
Rotary
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 4.21 Drilling costs per blasted volume. Medium drillability and blastability, and emulsion
explosives. If using ANFO (only up to 127 mm); increase costs with approx. 15%.
82
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.45 Total Blasting Costs

In the total blasting costs, the following entries must be added in the cost estimations:
Bench preparation costs

Charging costs
Secondary breaking costs
In road cuts, costs regarding contour, stability and safety e.g. scaling, should be added. In
this report these costs are excluded.
Bench Top Preparation and Secondary Breaking
Operations which are dependent upon various drilling methods, must be included when
comparing the total blasting costs, or in other words, the total unit costs per blasted rock
pile. Such operations are:
Bench top cleaning

Rock debris stabilizing
Hammering of oversized blocks
Blasting of bench floor underbreak
The bench top cleaning costs are mainly related to the top hammer drilling method. The
costs include the costs for an excavator to remove the rock debris from the bench top.
The rock mass is normally thrown over the bench crest, down into the remains of the
previous rock pile. It is a significant cost entry, and some quarries using top hammer,
drillholes as small as 89 mm through the rock debris to avoid this cost. Therefore, some
extra costs for stabilizing the rock debris must be added.
For Coprod, DTH and rotary drilling, bench cleaning is not required. Stabilizing the
overburden must be done, especially for small diameters, but this operation is
considerably less expensive than the cleaning. The costs are related to accessory
equipment on the rig and special products needed to stabilize the debris. The extra time
costs are included in the capacity assessments.
Hammering involves the use of an excavator, mounted with a hydraulic hammer, to break
the oversized blocks.
Bench floor underbreak, particularly along the toe, is blasted along with the next blast.
The costs relate to the extra drilling and charging costs.
83
4. DRILLING COSTS
The costs in Table 4.1 are average experience data from quarries and mines in Norway.
Annual costs divided by annual production is used. The costs vary with the rock debris
depth and the drillhole diameter, along with the size of the auxiliary machinery. Caution
must be shown when using the values.
OPERATION
DRILLINGMETHOD
Benchtopcleaning
1)
Tophammer
COSTS
1.5NOK/sm3
DTH,CoprodandRotary
0.4NOK/sm3
Secondarybreakingofblocks
Tophammer
0.8NOK/sm3
andbenchfloorunderbreak
Coprod,DTHandRotary
0.50.3NOK/sm3
Overburdenproblems
Table 4.1
Additional costs divided by total production. 1) For rock debris drilling use overburden problems.
Charging
The charging costs include:
Explosives and primers

Firing remedies
Labour
The prices for explosives and firing remedies are obtained from Orica Mining Services.
The firing system prices are all list prices deducted 5 %. Explosives tax and freight are
excluded. It is assumed that emulsion explosives delivered in-hole and non-electric
detonators are used. For 51 mm and 64 mm drillholes, cartridge explosives are used.
Every quarry has special agreements with the explosives company, depending upon
quantity purchased. Further discounts may be obtained compared to the prices used in
this report.
Specific drilling and charging are based on the report 12B-08 ROCK QUARRYING
Blast Design.
84
4. DRILLING COSTS
The following prices are used when estimating the explosives and charging costs in
Figure 4.22:
Explosives
Emulsion
Primer, 1.5 kg
Primer, 500 kg
7.5 NOK/kg (delivered in hole)

64.0 NOK (bottom)
42.9 NOK (top)
Firing system
Top detonator
Bottom detonator
Connector block
Connector block
Firing line
18.9 NOK
41.7 NOK
15.8 NOK
18.9 NOK
1 NOK/m
Pump capacity
(7.8 m)
(18 m)
(4.5 m, narrow drill patterns)
(7.8 m, large drill patterns)
max 100 kg/min
NOK/sm3
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Figure 4.22 Charging costs. Medium blastability, emulsion explosives and nonelectric detonators.
When increasing the drillhole diameter, the labour costs and the firing systems share of
the total charging costs is decreased. The explosive costs are dominating, and for
diameters larger than 100 mm the total costs increases due to higher powder factor.
85
4. DRILLING COSTS
Comparing the drilling and charging costs, the charging costs increases more than the
drilling costs as the drillhole diameter increases. Additionally, during the last decades,
the relative part has increased. This is due to drilling capacity improvements and
relatively reduced drilling costs. See Figure 4.24. The blastability has greater influence
than the drillability upon the total unit cost.
For small drillhole diameters, the drilling costs are the major part of the total unit costs.
Thus for small drillhole diameters, utilizing the last rod is more important than drilling
with a blast optimal bench height.
For drillhole diameters up to 140 mm ANFO may be used. If the local conditions permit,
ANFO is less expensive than emulsion as a charging medium (approx. 10 %). However,
it is sensitive to water, which constitutes a large disadvantage in long term planning of
blast design.
Specific drilling (drm/sm3) decreases with increasing drillhole diameter. For top hammer
drilling this gives decreasing unit costs for drillhole diameters up to about 127 mm. For
Coprod and DTH drilling the unit costs decrease up to 165 mm diameter. For all drilling
methods, drilling larger diameters will increase the total unit costs, primarily because of
reduced drilling efficiency and increased specific charging (kg/sm3). See Figure 4.24.
86
4. DRILLING COSTS
NOK/sm3
20
15
10
Tophammer
Coprod
DTH(quarry)
DTH(mine)
Rotary
0
0
100
200
300
400
Figure 4.23 Total unit costs for blasted rock pile as a function of drillhole diameter.
Emulsion explosives. Medium drillability and blastability.
87
4. DRILLING COSTS
100%
80%
1979
60%
Chargingandblasting
40%
20%
Drilling
0%
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Figure 4.24 Comparison of charging and drilling costs. We can see that the drilling costs constitute a
larger part of the total costs than the charging and blasting costs. Marks represent values
from 1979, which implies that the drilling costs have reduced relatively to the charging costs
the last 30 years.
88
4. DRILLING COSTS
4.5 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION

The following examples are directly continued from the capacity examples in Section
3.5. The costs are based on the graphs presented in this chapter.
The calculations are based on
depreciation dependent upon actual use

depreciation over economic useful life
annual interest rate of 7 %
labour wages: 155 NOK/h
49 % social security costs
diesel price 6.50 NOK/l
44 working weeks per year
5 shifts per week
7.5 h per shift
Gneiss
DRITM = 50 (medium)
VHNR = 800 (medium)
SPR = 0.50 (medium)
Emulsion explosives
Other assumptions are according to the figures and tables referred to in the examples.
89
4. DRILLING COSTS
Example
Tophammer1
Tophammer2
76mm
102mm
Drillholediameter
Drillingequipment
Ranger700
RocF7
HL700
Cop1838
T45
T51
Tubesize
Benchconditions
Cleanedbench
Even
Rockmassblastability
SPR=0.5
SPR=0.5
Purchaseprice(Figure4.10)
3.0MNOK
3.5MNOK
Downtimefactor(Section4.35)
0.3
0.4
5.5eh
5.5eh
7600eh
9800eh
Effectivehourspershift(Table3.4)
Economiclife(Figure4.1)
Economicusefullife(Equation4.1)
=6666eh
Yearsofinterestpayment
=5.51years
Drillingcapacity(cap.example)
41.9drm/eh
5.95sm /drm
9.88sm /drm
Specificcharging(12B08)
=6.85years
58.6drm/eh
Specificblastedvolume(12B08)
=8283eh
0.76kg/sm
0.79kg/sm
Rigcosts
,
Depreciation
/ ,
Interest(Equation4.3)
% .
Fixedrepaircost(Figure4.11)
Dependentrepaircost(Equation4.5)
Downtime(Equation4.6)
=0.99NOK/drm
/ ,
=8.52NOK/drm
% .
=1.61NOK/drm
160/58.6=2.73NOK/drm
215/41.9=5.13NOK/drm
,
=5.91NOK/drm
=7.20NOK/drm
0.3(2.73+5.91)=2.59NOK/drm
0.4(5.13+7.20)=4.93NOK/drm
78/58.6=1.33NOK/drm
81/41.9=1.93NOK/drm
246.5/58.6=2.66NOK/drm
.
Labour(Section4.38)
Service(Figure4.13)
Fuel(Figure4.12)
=7.68NOK/drm
.
.
.
.
Sumrigcosts
=5.87NOK/drm
326.5/41.9=4.96NOK/drm
.
.
.
29.76NOK/drm
=8.59NOK/drm
42.87NOK/drm
Drillsteelcosts
Rodcosts(Figure4.4,Figure4.15andSection4.24)
=4.08NOK/drm
=3.75NOK/drm
Bitcosts(Figure4.2andFigure4.14)
=2.91NOK/drm
=3.35NOK/drm
=0.55NOK/drm
=0.47NOK/drm
Othercosts(Section4.39)
1.00NOK/drm
0.90NOK/drm
Sumdrillsteelcosts
8.21NOK/drm
8.80NOK/drm
29.76+8.21=38.0NOK/drm
42.87+8.80=51.7NOK/drm
Shankcosts(Figure4.6andFigure4.15)
Drillingcosts
(NOK/drm)
(NOK/sm )
Chargingcosts
(Figure4.22)
Benchpreparationand
secondarybreakingcosts(Table4.1)
TOTALCOSTSBLASTEDROCKPILE
51.7/9.88=5.2NOK/sm
7.2NOK/sm
6.6NOK/sm
1.5+0.8=2.3NOK/sm
0.4+0.8=1.2NOK/sm
15.9NOK/sm
13.0NOK/sm
38.0/5.95=6.4NOK/sm
3
3
3
3
90
4. DRILLING COSTS
Example
Coprod
DTH(quarry)
Drillholediameter
127mm
140mm
RocL7CR
RocL8
Cop4050CR
Cop54
50mmand102mm
114mm
Drillingequipment
Tubesize
Benchconditions
Even
Even
SPR=0.5
SPR=0.5
4.0MNOK
4.2MNOK
0.45
0.5
5.5eh
6.0eh
11,500eh
,
=9550eh
31.2drm/eh
14.55sm /drm
16.72sm /drm
=8.44years
50.7drm/eh
=10,206eh
=7.89years
12,500eh
,
0.79kg/sm
0.82kg/sm
Rigcosts
,
Depreciation
% .
=8.26NOK/drm
=1.52NOK/drm
=13.19NOK/drm
=2.60NOK/drm
375/31.2=12.02NOK/drm
,
=5.70NOK/drm
% .
,
270/50.7=5.33NOK/drm
,
/
.
=8.79NOK/drm
0.45(5.33+5.70)=4.96NOK/drm
0.5(12.02+8.79)=10.41NOK/drm
83/50.7=1.64NOK/drm
69/31.2=2.21NOK/drm
Service(Figure4.13)
Fuel(Figure4.12)
396.5/50.7=5.00NOK/drm
.
Labour(Section4.38)
.
.
Sumrigcosts
=7.10NOK/drm
556.5/31.2=11.46NOK/drm
.
.
.
=11.53NOK/drm
39.51NOK/drm
72.21NOK/drm
Drillsteelcosts
=4.47NOK/drm
=7.14NOK/drm
Bitcosts(Figure4.2andFigure4.14)
Rodandtubecosts(Figure4.5,Figure4.8,Figure
4.15,Figure4.16andSection4.24
Headandadaptercosts(Figure4.9andFigure4.16)
Shankcosts(Figure4.6,Figure4.15)
Sumdrillsteelcosts
,
,
,
.
,
,
=2.73NOK/drm
=0.25NOK/drm
=2.14NOK/drm
=0.59NOK/drm
0.80NOK/drm
0.70NOK/drm
13.40NOK/drm
5.42NOK/drm
Drillingcosts
(NOK/drm)
(NOK/sm )
Chargingcosts
(Figure4.22)
39.51+13.40=52.9NOK/drm
Benchpreparationand
72.21+5.42=77.6NOK/drm
77.6/16.72=4.6NOK/sm
6.6NOK/sm
6.7NOK/sm
0.4+0.5=0.9NOK/sm
0.4+0.5=0.9NOK/sm
11.1NOK/sm
12.2NOK/sm
52.9/14.55=3.6NOK/sm
3
3
3
3
91
4. DRILLING COSTS
Example
DTH(mine)
Rotary
200mm
311mm
SandvikD55SP
Bucyrus49
Mission65
150mm
Drillholediameter
Drillingequipment
Tubesize
Benchconditions
Even
Even
SPR=0.5
SPR=0.5
7.0MNOK
9.9MNOK
0.6
0.65
6.5eh
6.5eh
31,500eh
,
=24,903eh
.
,
14.6drm/eh
27.79sm /drm
46.02sm /drm
=9.80years
19.5drm/eh
=28,026eh
=8.71years
36,000eh
,
0.93kg/sm
1.05kg/sm
Rigcosts
,
Depreciation
% .
,
=14.42NOK/drm
=2.93NOK/drm
=9.31NOK/drm
=5.53NOK/drm
230/14.6=15.75NOK/drm
,
.
,
,
=14.66NOK/drm
0.65(15.75+14.66)=19.77NOK/drm
71/19.5=3.64NOK/drm
76/14.6=5.21NOK/drm
756.5/19.5=25.00NOK/drm
1086.5/14.6=48.08NOK/drm
Labour(Section4.38)
=24.20NOK/drm
0.60(5.13+9.31)=8.66NOK/drm
Service(Figure4.13)
Fuel(Figure4.12)
% .
,
140/19.5=7.18NOK/drm
,
/
.
.
.
.
.
Sumrigcosts
=19.25NOK/drm
.
.
.
.
90.39NOK/drm
=25.71NOK/drm
158.91NOK/drm
Drillsteelcosts
Bitcosts(Figure4.2,Figure4.14,Figure4.3and
Figure4.17)
Tubecosts(Figure4.5,Figure4.15,Figure4.17)
=5.50NOK/drm
=0.52NOK/drm
Stabilizercosts(Figure4.7andFigure4.17)
=28.42NOK/drm
,
,
,
,
=3.40NOK/drm
=1.14NOK/drm
0.60NOK/drm
0.50NOK/drm
Sumdrillsteelcosts
6.62NOK/drm
33.46NOK/drm
90.39+6.62=97.0NOK/drm
72.21+5.42=77.6NOK/drm
Drillingcosts
(NOK/drm)
(NOK/sm )
Chargingcosts
(Figure4.22)
Benchpreparationand
77.6/16.72=4.6NOK/sm
7.2NOK/sm
8.8NOK/sm
0.4+0.4=0.8NOK/sm
0.4+0.3=0.7NOK/sm
11.5NOK/sm
14.1NOK/sm
97.0/27.79=3.5NOK/sm
3
3
3
3
92
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.1 Introduction
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.11 General
Drilling studies should include:
Time studies
Machine data
Site specific features
Drillhole deviation
During the recent years, newer rigs have become computerized, continuously recording
net penetration rates and machine parameters. By utilizing drilling logs, field work can be
reduced, however not entirely omitted. It will always be necessary to observe site specific
features and operational procedures to control and complete the recorded data, and carry
out calibration measures. In any case, the basic theory about the drilling procedure and its
division into small comparable operations will always be important.
This chapter describes how the drilling studies should be carried out to be able to get
comparable observations over time and form a basis for unequivocal estimations of
drilling capacities and costs.
5.12 Time Studies
The time studies should be carried out as stopwatch studies. Stopwatch studies are based
on continuous time records of requested time objects. The estimation model is based on
studies of the following time entries:
Net penetration rate

Rod adding
Rod pullback and uncoupling
Moving
Set-up
Alignment
Collaring
In addition, times for drill bit changing, refuelling and drill pattern marking are recorded
when appropriate. Incidental delays are recorded, but discarded from the net penetration
data. Such delays may be included in the analysis of machine utilization.
93
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.1 Introduction
In addition to the time studies, site and rig specific data must also be recorded. This applies
to:
Drill rig type

Rock drill type
Drilling pressures
Drill steel type and dimensions
Drill bit wear and condition
Bench top conditions
Rock mass properties
If possible, drill steel temperature and drill cutting shape and size should be measured.
Data which is not directly affecting the drilling capacity, however still of interest for a
complete analysis of the drilling operation is:
Drill rig age

Motor hours
Hammer hours
Fuel consumption
Drill steel life
Grinding procedures
Blast parameters
5.13 Drillhole deviation

The deviation studies should be able to differentiate between the following deviation
features:
Collaring
Alignment (inclination and direction)
In-hole deflection
If a blast design with drillhole coordinates is available, the actual collaring points should
be compared to this. If not, the distance between the holes will be sufficient.
Collaring deviation is measured by conventional geodetic instruments, such as theodolite
or GPS. Alignment and deflection measurements are recorded with special in-hole
94
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.1 Introduction
surveying instruments. Several systems are available on the market, however, they are
more or less similar in use.
The following machine and site specific information should be recorded for optimisation
purposes:
Drill rig power settings

Drill steel type and dimensions
Drill bit design
Rock mass fracturing
95
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.2 Registrations
5.2 REGISTRATIONS
The net penetration rate expresses how fast the drill bit penetrates into the rock. It is
commonly expressed as cm/min, or m/min.
In addition to the fixed technical data of the drilling rig and the rock drill, variable
drilling properties which influence the net penetration rate should be recorded. These
include:
Drill rig power settings:

Percussion pressure, thrust force, rotation pressure and speed, and flushing pressure.
Drill steel parameters:

Drill bit design (bit diameter, button shape, bit front design), bit wear condition, drill rod
type, diameter and length, and type of coupling.
When measuring the net penetration rate, it is normal to measure the drilling time for one
rod. The drilled lengths of the first and the last rod may vary from the standard rod
length, and these must be recorded separately for every hole. Direct access or visibility to
the rigs depth meter display gives the most accurate measurement. If such a display is
not available, markings on the boom feed may give the drilled length.
Usually, there will be variations in the net penetration rate over one rod length.
Therefore, the measurements represent an average net penetration rate value. To some
extent, fractures are included in the recording. However, extensive fractured zones must
be removed from the data later. Jamming problems should be recorded and withdrawn
from the rod drilling time. If the beginning of the first rod is drilled with reduced power
out-put, this time and length should be recorded separately for the first rod.
Measuring shorter intervals (i.e. 50 - 100 cm) is advantageous when the rock is heavily
jointed. Then, the total length of representative records will increase. Measuring of
shorter intervals requires accurate sectioning of the drill rod and visibility to the rigs
depth display.
If possible, it is advantageous to do parts of the net penetration rate studies with varying
percussion pressures and rotation speed. This is applicable for all drilling methods.
See also Section 3.2 for more information about the net penetration rate surveys.
96
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.2 Registrations
5.22 Fixed Times

Generally, the fixed time records have little variation, except for moving time. Therefore,
a limited amount of observations has to be carried out in order to find the representative
fixed times. Nevertheless, it is important to record the fixed times through the entire
measuring process, and have precise definitions of the operations, so that the net
penetration rate measurements are not affected.
The standard fixed times are:
Adding drill rods

Drill rod pullback and uncoupling
Moving of rig
Set up of rig
Boom alignment
Collaring
Changing of bits
Other fixed times, such as rock debris stabilizing, control of drillhole after drilling and
extra time for accurate drilling should be specified if occuring regularly.
It is important to differentiate between the fixed times connected to the drilling process
and incidental delays. Incidental delays may be:
Marking up the drilling pattern

Bit grinding
Refuelling
Personal delays
Machine stops
See also Section 3.3 for details about the fixed times.
Adding Drill Rods
The time for inserting one extension rod includes the following operational sequence,
after the rotation of the rod has stopped:
Loosen the coupling threads by hammering

Uncouple the rock drill and pull it back on the chain feed
Lift the next rod into drilling position
97
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.2 Registrations
Connect the rock drill to the new rod

Connect the new rod to the previous rod
If the process is running smoothly, the recorded times will have low variations. Different
machine types show small variations, however various rod lengths will give some
variations. The operator skills may influence the time for adding drill rods. Hole
deflection may influence the time for loosening the threads.
Drill Rod Pullback and Uncoupling
The time for drill rod pullback and uncoupling includes the following operational
sequence, from the moment the final hole depth is reached:
All threads are hammered loose

The rock drill, still connected to the drill string, is pulled back on the chain feed
The upper rod is uncoupled from the next rod and the rock drill and lifted into the
drill rod rack
The rock drill is moved forward and connected to the lower rod
The described sequence is repeated until the the rock drill is connected to the first
rod (bottom rod)
The first rod is then pulled back (no uncoupling)
The time is dependent upon the hole depth and the total number of rods, and the entire
pullback and uncoupling time is divided by the number of rods. The time value is
expressed in min/rod.
Pullback of the first rod is faster than for the other rods, as it is not disconnected from the
rock drill before the next drillhole. For long and heavy rods or pipes, the time for
pullback of the first rod may be separated from the other rod pullback times.
Hole deflection may influence the time for loosening the threads, and the extra time
should be recorded. Operator skills may influence the time.
Moving, Set up, Alignment and Collaring
Theoretically, the time for moving includes the operation of changing the position of the
drill bit from one hole to another. The time starts when the pullback of the bottom rod is
finished.
98
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.2 Registrations
Moving time is very dependent upon the terrain conditions. Figure 5.1 may be used to
indicate relative classifications of the terrain. Steep sloped terrain will affect the
manoeuvrability more than undulating conditions.
Figure 5.1
Preliminary classification of terrain conditions.

Easy:
Rock debris or smooth horizontal terrain benches: Little or no problems manoeuvring between holes.
Medium:
Cleaned bench with some undulating areas (i.e. underbreak): Operator have to track around some
underbreak areas when moving between holes. Smooth terrain bench, however the slope is to steep to
manoeuvre freely in all directions.
Hard:
Cleaned bench in heavily fractured rock and mainly uneven bench floor. Large differences in bench
heights and the operator must track outside the bench area to be able to reach all holes. Steep terrain:
Only possible to track up and down. Wire support should be assessed.
Very hard:
Undulating surface and sloped cleaned bench. Operating on a narrow bench. Very steep terrain and
wire support required.
The tracking sequence between the holes in the blast should be recorded. For some holes,
only moving the boom or swinging the rig is necessary to move to the next hole. The size
of the drilling pattern, the rig coverage area and the operator skills will influence the
moving time.
Drill rig set up time includes the time for adjusting the undercarriage and extending the
rear support foot to stabilize the rig. The time is strongly dependent upon the terrain
conditions.
Further, the time for aligning the boom includes placing the boom in the correct position,
and adjusting the inclination and direction of the boom, according to the blast design.
On an uneven collaring area, the drill bit may skid when drilling starts. Therefore, some
extra time for collaring is needed to establish a plane and to avoid skidding.
99
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.2 Registrations
The processes of rig moving and set up, boom alignment and collaring have been
combined into one entry because the operations overlap each other. It may be difficult to
separate them during time measuring. Extra fixed times and delays, as described in the
beginning of this section, normally appear in between drilling two holes as well. The
researcher must be aware of this and also record these incidents.
Changing of Drill Bits
The time for changing the drill bit starts when the bit is placed on the rock surface and
hammered loose. Further, the operator has to uncouple the bit manually and attach a new
bit. The bit changing time is finished when the operator is ready to move to the next hole.
Documenting of the wear characteristics and the grinding procedure should be carried
out. This means:
Grinding intervals
Bit life
Grinding location (at the rig or in the workshop)
If possible, the actual diameter of the drill bit should be measured and the general
condition of the bits buttons and body steel should be described.
5.23 Drill Rig Settings
Air Pressure
Recording operating pressures during drilling is important, particularly for pneumatic
drills. A needle manometer put directly into a hose on the drilling machine may measure
pressures. The needle should be put at an angle along the airflow. This method may be
difficult for DTH drilling. Pressures are read on installed manometers on the drilling rig
or compressor.
Hydraulic Pressure
Empirical data has been collected to determine variations of net penetration rates for
varying pressures. The different manufacturers operate with different optimal pressures.
Percussion pressure, rotation pressure and thrust pressure can be read off manometers
installed on the rig. Pressures should be recorded, to check whether the machine operates
on extremely high or low pressures. An optimal relation between these pressures will
minimize wear and maximize the drilling capacity.
100
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.2 Registrations
Thrust and Rotation Speed

Thrust and rotation speed are recorded for all drilling methods. However, it is particularly
important for rotary drilling, in which the net penetration rate is more or less directly
dependent upon these pressure settings.
Most rigs have instruments in the operator cabin, showing both thrust and rotation speed.
Flushing Pressure
Flushing pressure should be recorded for all types of drills as well. The type of flushing
medium must be given (air or water). Air flushing is predominant for bench drilling rigs.
Flushing pressures must be high enough to remove the cuttings. If this is not so, the
packing of cuttings at the bottom of the drillhole results in decreasing net penetration
rate. Further, high flushing pressure may result in increased wear on the sides of the bit.
Drillhole deviation measurements are normally carried out for safety reasons, in which
reducing the risk for flyrock is the main focus. In addition, systematic surveys of
deviation may be used to improve the drilling quality, optimize the blasting and
ultimately reduce costs.
The drillhole top coordinates must be measured to analyze the collaring deviation.
Usually, theodolite or GPS instruments compatible with the given deviation measuring
system, are used.
Each in-hole deviation measuring system has its own measuring procedure; however,
they are similar and use similar principles. The procedures described below are mainly
based on the experience of using drillhole deviation measuring system and software
developed by the Norwegian company Devico: DeviToolTM and DeviBlastTM.
First, it is important to check if the instruments have the necessary battery capacities.
On site, the blasting direction should be recorded by aligning the probe along the bench
face or the drilled rows. Blasting direction will normally be perpendicular to this
direction. A conventional compass may also be used.
101
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.2 Registrations
After the instrument start-up process, a rubber hose or a wire is attached to the probe.
The instrument is lowered into the drillhole, with the rear end at the collar of the hole. It
is important that the probe lies in the back of the hole, giving a correct start direction of
the hole, both vertically and horizontally.
Blast plugs placed in the hole should be removed if possible. It is important to avoid
loose rocks or drill cuttings falling into the hole during logging.
When a measurement takes place, the instrument is held still and the record button on the
computer is pressed. A record confirmation is given on the computer. The instrument is
then lowered to the next logging depth. Normally, two or three meter logging intervals
are used. Markings on the rubber hose should be visible to keep correct depths. The same
recording procedure is followed until the probe reaches the bottom of the hole. The actual
hole depth is recorded.
The final recording in the hole is made after pulling the instrument 10 to 20 cm above the
hole bottom, to avoid mud and loose rock interfering with the measurement. The
computer is then made ready for the next hole. The instrument is pulled back and put into
a new hole. The same procedure is repeated until all holes have been measured. If
exceeding 20 to 30 holes, the measurement sequence should be divided in two, to reduce
the consequences of loosing data.
When the measurement sequence is finished, the data is downloaded and saved on the
data unit.
Before leaving the bench, the basic data for every hole (magnetic vector and gravity
vector) should be controlled for errors. False data can be detected and control logging can
be made. If detecting measurement errors in the office, it may be too late to make new
measurements because the holes may be charged or even blasted by then.
Renting of measuring equipment may be expensive, and returning to the bench later may
also be a cost issue.
102
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.2 Registrations
5.25 Geological Mapping

Site Survey
The degree of fracturing, along with the orientation of joint sets and major fault zones,
should be recorded. Measurements of the bench face may not be applicable due to
instability and possible rocks falls. In such cases, good pictures of the bench face will be
adequate to establish a geological view of the site. If the bench is cleaned, supplementary
joint mapping may be done on top of the bench.
Rock Sampling
To determine rock properties where drilling studies have been carried out, one or more
rock samples from each bench should be taken.
The samples should be of one or more blocks weighing in total 15 - 20 kg.
The samples must be representative of the rock being drilled. If possible, it is best to wait
until the rock has been blasted before taking samples. Otherwise, by mapping the
geological conditions of the bench, such as bedding and strike and dip, representative
samples may be taken from nearby.
It is very important to avoid weathered rock!
When rock conditions vary, it may be difficult to find representative rock samples. Two
or three samples should then be taken.
A minimum laboratory test survey should reveal the following rock features:
DRITM (Drilling rate index)

BWI (Bit Wear Index)
CLI (Cutter Life Index)
VHNR (Vickers Hardness Number Rock)
For details see [6].

Other laboratory tests exist and are used to describe the same rock characteristics. See
[xx] for collaboration between the parameters above and the following rock parameters:
Uni-axial Compressive Strength (UCS)

103
5. DRILLING STUDIES
5.2 Registrations
E-module
Point Load Strength
Brazillian Tensile Strength
Cerchar Abrasiveness Index (CAI)
Equivalent Quartz Content
5.26 Documentation
A final report should be made of the study results. The report should contain all
information gathered in the survey, along with location of the site, date of measurements
and the drilling contractor.
Photographs of the following objects should be taken:
Drill rig
Bench top terrain
Bench face
Drill bits
Manometers during drilling
104
6. STUDY RESULTS
6.1 Introduction
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The following sections illustrate how the net penetration rate varies as a function of:
Drillhole depth
Drillhole diameter
Drill rod diameter
Drill rod length
Drill bit design
Air pressure
Thrust and rotary speed
The results are also presented in Chapter 3, however, then in a normalized form due to
the structure of the prognosis model.
Some drillhole deflection results are also presented in the following, as a function of:
Drillhole depth
Drill bit diameter
Drill rod diameter
Drill bit design
Button design
Pressure settings
The studies presented in this report are mainly recorded in the field during ordinary
production drilling.
105
6. STUDY RESULTS
6.2 NET PENETRATION RATE

6.21 Drillhole Depth
Top Hammer Drilling
In top hammer drilling, the impact energy from the piston is reduced on its way through
the drill string to the drill bit. The energy loss is due to coupling threads and cross section
changes, along with elastic waves and heat. Since the net penetration rate is proportional
to the transmitted energy, it will decrease with drillhole depth. In general, the net
penetration rate decreases with 3 to 4 % over each coupling.
Measurements show that the decrease in net penetration rate cannot be explained by
energy loss alone. Insufficient flushing capacity will reduce it as well. Friction energy
between the drill string and the hole wall is low, however, in very long holes it may be
significant.
In principle, pneumatic machines operate with the same flushing pressure as the machine
operating pressure, i.e. the flushing pressure is constant and independent from drillhole
depth. The weight of cuttings between the rod and the drillhole wall increases with the
drillhole depth. The flushing capacity may decrease as a result of the increased drillhole
depth.
Hydraulic drills are equipped with a separate compressor for flushing air. All modern rigs
can increase the flushing pressure with increasing hole depth. Thereby, up to the capacity
of the rig, an acceptable flushing capacity can be obtained for increased hole depths.
Figure 6.1 illustrates how the penetration rate may decrease with increasing drillhole
depth for different top hammer drills. The figure indicates that the effect is more
significant for rock drills with lower energy output and less flushing capacity. The figure
is based on in situ testing, and the drop from the first to the second rod is larger than the
rest due to more fracturing close to the rock surface.
The net penetration rate in this report is given in percent of the second rod, presupposing
that the machines are drilling with optimal bit diameter. The net penetration rate is
assumed to be constant over the rod length and the graphs represent an average for each
rod. This gives the stepped curve in Figure 6.1.
106
6. STUDY RESULTS
%
120
110
100
90
HL 1000
80
COP 1036 &
pneumatic
70
Rod number
Figure 6.1
Idealized net penetration rate in percent of second rod, based on in situ testing and
machinery from 1990.
In reality, the net penetration rate measurements vary more than the results shown in
Figure 6.1. The rock mass conditions will be dominant, and often the average over many
holes must be analyzed to see the decreasing trend. Figure 6.2 shows an example on how
the results from a test may look.
[cm/min]
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
12
14
16
Hole depth [m]
Figure 6.2
Net penetration rate measured as an average over every 60 cm for four holes.
Atlas Copco Roc D7, Cop 1850. Hole diameter = 89 mm.
107
6. STUDY RESULTS
Figure 6.3 shows how the drilling capacity varies with the hole depth for a top hammer
rig drilling 64 mm diameter holes. Fixed times are as in Table 2.1. The graph illustrates
the importance of designing the bench height according to the rod length.
The graph shows a theoretical curve and should be used with caution. Drill rod pullback
and uncoupling is not independent from the hole depth. In addition, various kinds of
trouble may occur when drilling longer holes. However, the drilling capacity decreases
substantially for each rod change and the final rod should be drilled at least half its
length.
dm/eh
50
2. rod
3. rod
4. rod
5. rod
40
10
12
14
16
Hole depth, m
Figure 6.3
Drilling capacity as a function of drillhole depth.

Zoomtrak DHA 600/HL 645, d = 64 mm.
108
6. STUDY RESULTS
Coprod Drilling
The Coprod system, developed by Atlas Copco, is unique in the market. The rotary and
thrust forces are separated from the percussion power. The rotation and thrust are
transferred through the outer tubes, and the percussion through the rods inside the tube.
The rods are not connected by threads. Guides (ears) inside the tube keep the rods in
the correct position.
Loss of percussion energy is reduced through the drill string and the penetration rate
reduction is measured to be about 1% for each extension rod.
Down-the-Hole Drilling
Initially, the loss of energy in drill rods and couplings was the reason for developing
DTH drills. Since the rock drill is mounted in front of the drill string, the piston strikes
directly onto the drill bit through the entire hole. The rods transfer rotation and thrust,
thereby energy loss is reduced.
In theory, the penetration rate is independent from the drillhole depth. However,
registrations show decreasing drilling rates similar to that of top hammer drills for low air
pressures. The net penetration rate reduction is due to reduced flushing capacity and air
loss in the rod couplings.
The modern DTH machines use so called super-high air pressures (25 bars). Studies
indicate that these new machines work as intended for DTH drilling, and that the net
penetration rate is nearly independent from the drillhole depth.
Figure 6.4 shows how the net penetration rate decreases for DTH drilling using different
operating pressure. Compared to the stepwise loss of net penetration rate for top
hammers, the DTH drilling loses its net penetration rate steadily down the hole.
109
6. STUDY RESULTS
%
10.0 bar 3.05m rods
17.5 bar 3.05m rods
25.0 bar 7.63m rods
110
105
100
95
90
85
5
2
Rod number
Figure 6.4
Net penetration rate in percent of second rod for DTH drilling. Study from 1990.
Rotary Drilling
For rotary drilling, the energy transmission is very simple. Energy is transferred by
rotating the drill rod with a suitable number of revolutions per minute and pressing the
bit against the bottom of the drillhole by the feed force (thrust).
In the Norwegian market, only crushing rotary drilling is of interest.
110
6. STUDY RESULTS
Loss of energy in the drill string is insignificant for rotary drilling. The net penetration
rate is therefore independent from drillhole depth.
This theory is supported by registrations of drilling performance, although large
variations as to net penetration rates for a drillhole have been observed. Rock mass
fracturing is the most likely cause of variation in penetration. There are no observations
of systematic decrease in the net penetration rate.
6.22 Drill Bit Diameter
As presented in the figures in Section 3.2, the correlation between net penetration rate
and drill bit diameter is evident. Figure 6.5 illustrates how the net penetration rate varies
with the drill bit diameter and optimum machine type. The net penetration rate is given in
percent of net penetration rate for the second rod for a 76 mm bit. This curve should be
used with caution, since most machines operate efficiently only within a section of the
curve.
Figure 6.5
Optimal net penetration rate for second rod as a function of drill bit diameter.
Dotted lines illustrate drilling performance curves for optimal drilling equipment at
respectively 64 mm, 89 mm and 115 mm drillhole diameter.
111
6. STUDY RESULTS
6.23 Optimal Bit Diameter

If the flushing capacity is insufficient, the drill cuttings will not be removed properly
during drilling and the net penetration rate will decrease. The bit rod diameter ratio will
affect the flushing capacity. If increasing the bit diameter while keeping constant rod
diameter, the volume between the rod and the hole wall will increase, and the drill cutting
velocity will be reduced. If the flushing capacity is at a critical level, the net penetration
rate will decrease.
Figure 6.6 shows an example of how the net penetration rate decreases with varying bit
diameter for a specific machine and a fixed rod diameter.
%
120
110
100
89mm
90
102mm
115mm
127mm
3
12
Hole depth, m
Figure 6.6
Net penetration rate, in percent of second rod as a function of drillhole depth and bit
diameter. Cop 1038 HB. Rod length 3.66 m, rod diameter 45 mm.
A similar effect may be found for all drilling methods. The effect will be reduced if the
maximum flushing capacity is increased.
112
6. STUDY RESULTS
Observations indicate that each rod diameter has an optimal bit diameter. If the bit
diameter is small compared to the rod diameter, cuttings are transported at high velocity
and may give a turbulent flow, causing problems when passing the couplings. If the bit
diameter is large compared to the rod diameter, cuttings will be transported at a lower
velocity, building a heavy column of cuttings between the rod and the drillhole wall. The
effect increases for deeper holes.
An illustration on how the ratio influences the net penetration rate for the fifth rod is
shown in Figure 6.7.
%
38mm rod diameter
100
95
90
32mm rod diameter
50
45mm rod diameter
100
51mm rod diameter
150
Drillhole diameter, mm
Figure 6.7
The net penetration rate progress for the fifth rod, illustrated as a function of the
variation of the bit rod diameter ratio. Study from 1990.
6.24 Drill Rods

For top hammer drilling, energy is lost in the couplings and in each variation in the cross
section. See Section 6.21. If the number of couplings is reduced, i.e. using longer rods, a
reduction in energy losses and an increase in net penetration rate should be expected.
113
6. STUDY RESULTS
However, some registrations indicate the opposite. A possible explanation is that longer
and more slender rods and bits of relatively larger diameters cause larger flections of the
rods, which give loss of energy in the drill string as vibrations. A coupling in the
middle of the rod used as a stabilizer will reduce the vibrations. Energy losses due to
changes in cross section are less than losses due to vibrations in the drill string.
An example of how the net penetration rate decreases with the use of 3.66 m versus 6.10
m rods is shown in Figure 6.8. Both rod lengths have a rod diameter of 45 mm.
A similar relation has been observed for other machines and rod lengths, though studies
of different rod lengths in the same rock formation have not been done. The effect may
be reduced with increased rod diameter.
%
120
110
3.66m rods
6.10m rods
100
89mm
90
102mm
89mm
80
102mm
70
12
Hole depth, m
Figure 6.8
Net penetration rate, in percent of the average net penetration rate 4 m depth, for 3.66
m and 6.10 m drill rods. Cop 1038 HB. Rod diameter 45 mm.
114
6. STUDY RESULTS
6.25 Bit Design

Selecting the right bit type is very important to the net penetration rate and drilling costs.
In the Norwegian market, 99 % of all percussion drill bits are those with button bits.
Traditional chisel bits (cross- or X-type) are used only in exceptional conditions, e.g.
where very hard rock tends to cause a high rate of button breakage or extreme gauge
wear. Studies of the two types of drill bits indicate that button bits have at least a 20 %
higher net penetration rate than the chisel bits.
The introduction of various bits designs has had a great impact on the net penetration rate
and the drilling capacity. Drop centre bits have good flushing characteristics and retrac
bits can drill backwards. Normally, percussion bits have both these features. Drill
string jamming due to fault zones, filled joints etc. are substantially reduced when using
retrac bits.
The button tip shape also influences the net penetration rate. Ballistic buttons, in relation
to spherical buttons, will generally increase the net penetration rate. Study results imply
an average increase of 8 % to 9 % using semi ballistic button bits compared to spherical
button bits.
Figure 6.9 shows another study on ballistic button bits versus spherical button bits. The
example shows that the ballistic button bit has a higher net penetration rate than the
spherical button bit. Additionally, the observations indicate that this effect increases
slightly over the hole depth.
115
6. STUDY RESULTS
cm/min
Ballistic
180
Spherical
160
140
120
130 bar
Figure 6.9
140 bar
Comparison of net penetration rate second rod for ballistic and spherical button bits, at
two pressure levels. Unused bits produced by the same manufacturer. DRITM = 57.
Pantera 1000, HL 1000. Hole diameter 89 mm.
Rotary Drilling
In the Norwegian market, only bits with tungsten carbide inserts are considered. When
drilling in rock of poor drillability, button bits are the only alternative. In rock conditions
of medium to good drillability, milled tooth bits may be of interest.
In the areas where milled tooth bits can be used, measurements show that better results
for net penetration are achieved. Figure 6.10 illustrates the difference of net penetration
rate as a function of rock drillability for the two types of bits. The curves do not apply for
all types of rock formations.
116
6. STUDY RESULTS
cm/min
Button bits
Milled tooth bits
50
40
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
DRI
Figure 6.10 Net penetration rate for different types of rotary drill bits depending upon drillability.
Machinery from 1990.
117
6. STUDY RESULTS
6.26 Bit Wear

Hammering Drill Bits
As the drill bits get worn, their initial quality features will be diminished. For example,
the flushing holes may be deformed and the drop centre design will be less prominent,
resulting in less flushing capacity. The buttons may not be ideally grinded, and the
protruding depth may be reduced. Figure 6.11 shows the results from a study comparing
new bits and worn bits in soft rock formations. The difference may be reduced in harder
rock formations.
[cm/min]
200
180
160
140
120
100
NewBit
WornBit
80
60
40
20
0
Test1
Test2
Figure 6.11 Net penetration rate difference, comparing new and worn bits (approx 50 % of life).
Drill bit diameter 89 mm. Drop centre and semi ballistic buttons. DRITM respectively 62
and 66. Roc F7, Cop 2050.
118
6. STUDY RESULTS
Rotary Drill Bits

The rotary drill bits are not ground, but used until total wear or fatigue appear. The net
penetration rate for the rotary bits changes over the life.
Figure 6.12 illustrates how the net penetration rate changes over the life for a milled
tooth bit. It is apparent that the net penetration rate increases at first, with a steady
decline towards the end of the bit's life.
%
Average penetration rate
100
80
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
dm
Figure 6.12 Net penetration rate as a function of bit wear (rotary drill bits)
119
6. STUDY RESULTS
6.27 Percussion Pressure

Pneumatic Top Hammer Drills
There is a close relation between operating air pressure and recorded net penetration rate
for pneumatic top hammer drills. Field observations show large variations of operating
air pressure, from 4.5 to 7 bars. To ensure that observations are comparable, a correction
of the net penetration rate for varying air pressures is necessary.
The correction factor for pneumatic top hammer drills is shown in Figure 6.13. The net
penetration rate is more or less proportional to the operating air pressure.
%
120
100
80
5.0
6.0
7.0
Air pressure, bar
Figure 6.13 Correction factor for net penetration rate as a function of varying air pressure.
Pneumatic top hammer drills from 1990.
Down-the-Hole Drills
DTH drills require higher operating air pressures than pneumatic top hammer drills.
A correction factor for air pressure is shown in Figure 3.7. The curves are based on
Figure 6.13 and adjusted according to results obtained from construction and mining
operations.
120
6. STUDY RESULTS
Earlier studies (1990) of the super-high pressure rock drills indicate that the net
penetration rate was proportional to the operating pressure.
An explanation of the observations is probably the machine size. The smaller
conventional DTH rigs have little thrust. When the percussion pressure increases over a
certain level, there is not enough weight in the rig to utilize the increase of percussive
effect. Increased percussive energy is therefore lost as strain wave reflections in the drill
rods and the rig. Super-high pressure machines have larger thrust available and may
therefore utilize the increased percussive energy.
6.28 Thrust and Rotary Speed
All crushing rotary drilling requires high thrust and low rotary speed. The relation
between the two parameters will vary with changing rock conditions. In rock formations
of good drillability, relatively low thrust and high rotary speed is favourable. For poor
drillability, high thrust and low rotary speed is necessary.
If the rotary speed is kept constant, the net penetration rate will vary almost
proportionally to the thrust. An example of this is shown in Figure 6.14.
For rock masses with good drillability, an acceptable net penetration rate will be reached
for low thrust levels. However, if increasing the thrust, gain in the net penetration rate
will be relatively low (i.e. slant slope value). For poor rock mass drillability, high thrust
levels must be applied to get acceptable net penetration rates, however, the response of
increasing the thrust is better regarding the net penetration rate (i.e. steep slope value).
In both good and poor drillability conditions, a maximum level will be closely reached
and the net penetration rate levels out for increased thrust levels. The theory is complex.
Simplified, the reason is as follows: In hard rock, the thrust demand is higher than the
bearing capacity, and increased thrust will cause drill bit fatigue. In softer rock, the
height of the buttons is the limiting factor for the net penetration rate. Higher thrust will
only make the drill bit body steel come in contact with the rock.
These rock breaking mechanisms are well proven when boring with TBMs and raise
boring equipment.
Net penetration rate is also influenced by rotary speed. Generally, the net penetration rate
increases with increased rotary speed. Studies indicate, however, that an optimum rotary
121
6. STUDY RESULTS
speed may be found. If the rotary speed is increased further, the net penetration rate will
decrease. See Figure 6.15.
Figure 6.14 Net penetration rate as a function of thrust for rotary drilling.
cm/min
20
10
40
50
60
70
80
90
Rotary speed, rpm
Figure 6.15 Net penetration rate as a function of rotary speed for Bucyrus Erie 45R. Thrust 27 tons.
122
6. STUDY RESULTS
6.3 HOLE DEVIATION FEATURES

6.31 Collaring and Alignment Deviation
In general, the incidental collaring deviation is less than 200 mm.
Alignment deviation values less than two percent (i.e. 20 mm/m) are considered as good.
However, alignment errors larger than 50 mm/m are not uncommon. These large
alignment deviations can easily be avoided with current available instrumentation of the
drilling rigs. Hence, such large deviation values are mainly caused by poor
craftsmanship.
A study carried out by the Swedish Rock Engineering Research SveBeFo [11] of a
particular seam boring operation, requiring a high degree of accuracy, shows that the
alignment deviation was doubled, from 1.3 % to 2.5 %, when the required distance
between the holes was increased from 40 cm to 80 cm. Further, the study shows that the
production holes in the same blast, with less alignment demands, again doubled the
alignment deviation to 5 %. Both these results indicate that the operator motivation is
very important in reducing deviation.
GPS assisted drilling is more and more usual in the Norwegian quarrying industry, and
this will improve the overall collaring and alignment deviation results.
6.32 Deflection
Generally in quarries and open pit mines, with bench heights less than 20 m, deflection
problems are relevant for top hammer drilling only. DTH and Coprod drilling with the
smallest applicable diameters (89 to 102 mm) will experience some of the same problems
described in the following. However, in hard rock, such equipment set up is seldom used.
Principally, the study results below will be related to top hammer drilling
Hole Length
Studies show that the relative deflection increases with the drillhole length. Dependent
upon the load conditions on the drill string, the deflection will increase by a power of two
or three, according to Eulers principle loading formulas.
In average, the drillhole deflection spreads from 20 to 70 mm/m in aggregate quarries
with top hammer drilling of 76 mm through 102 mm hole diameters. In some extreme
cases, the total deflection has been measured to 20 % of the drilled length.
123
6. STUDY RESULTS
Figure 6.16 shows the deflection results of a study carried out in an aggregate quarry. It
shows how the deflection increases down the hole, and varies from hole to hole.
2
1,8
1,6
Deflection[m]
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0
10
12
14
16
Drillholelength[m]
Figure 6.16 Deflection measures as a function of drillhole length.

Roc D7, Cop 1850. Drillhole diameter 89 mm diameter, rod diameter 51 mm.
In directional drilling, a rule of thumb gives a practical minimum curve radius of 60 m

for a 51 mm drill string. Sharper bends are possible, but the material fatigue will increase
radically below this radius, as proven from experience.
Figure 6.17 compares the most deflecting drillhole in a study of approximately 500 holes
in various rock conditions, with the above rule of thumb.
Deflection[cm/m]
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Holedepth[m]
Figure 6.17 Maximum measured deflection (dotted lines) of 500 holes, compared to the maximum
designed deviation (solid line) with a radius of 60 m. Rod diameter 51 mm. Bit 89 mm.
124
6. STUDY RESULTS
Drill Bit and Rod Diameter

The rod diameter is one of the most important parameters concerning drillhole deflection.
Increased rod diameter gives less deflection. By increasing the drill bit diameter without
increasing the rod diameter, the relative stiffness of the drill string will decrease and the
bit may start wobbling. More deflection may also arise due to higher free bending of the
rod in the hole.
Figure 6.18 illustrates how the deflection varies according to drill bit and rod diameter.
The curves are based on a limited set of data. The different rod diameter curves indicate a
wobbling effect of 10 to 15 %.
Bitdiameter
140%
102mm
120%
89mm
100%
76 mm
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
35
40
45
50
55
Roddiameter[mm]
Figure 6.18 Deflection as a function of drill bit and rod diameter.

38 mm rod and 76 mm bit set as 100 %.
Bit Design
The button shape influences the deflection. More aggressively shaped gauge buttons have
less deflection than rounder buttons. A study carried out in soft rocks (high elasticity and
low surface hardness) proves a significant difference between spherical, semi ballistic
and ballistic button bits. The semi ballistic button bits seem to reduce the deflection
compared to the spherical button bits by up to 50 %. Further, the fully ballistic button bits
seem to reduce the deflection by approximately 25 % more.
Bits with a guided skirt deflect less than standard bits without a guided skirt. In bench
drilling, the standard bits are seldom used. One study shows that a 102 mm standard
skirted bit has considerable more deflection than two other 102 mm bits with a guided
skirt. See Figure 6.19.
125
6. STUDY RESULTS
18%
Testbit
16%
Ref.bit1
14%
Ref.bit2
Deflection
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
Figure 6.19 Deflection in bottom of hole. Drill bit diameter 102 mm. Rod 51 mm.
Hole depth 15.5 m. Test bit with standard skirt. Reference bits with guided skirts.
Error bars represent maximum and minimum measurements.
In theory, drop centre bits compared to flat front bits, drill straighter holes. One study
shows a decreasing tendency using drop centre compared to flat front bits. The study
implies an effect of about 20 % deflection reduction.
Pressure settings
Normally the pressure settings are adjusted to obtain optimal net penetration rate
features. If the drilling accuracy becomes the dominant success criteria, a reduction in
percussion pressure and feed force will improve hole straightness. Less energy is
transmitted from the bit to the rock, and the deflection forces will be reduced.
Figure 6.20 presents the results from a test with reduced percussion energy.
The trend is obvious, though the level of the deflection reductions may be incidental.
126
6. STUDY RESULTS
6%
5%
190bar
195bar
4%
Deflection
140 bar
140bar
165bar
3%
2%
120bar
1%
0%
TEST1
TEST2
Figure 6.20 Reduced deflection due to lower percussion pressure. Optimal thrust adjustments.
Ranger 700, HL 700. Test 1, bit diameter 70 mm. Test 2, bit diameter 76 mm.
Minor deflection reduction may be achieved by optimizing rotation speed and feed,
independent from the percussion pressure.
127
6. STUDY RESULTS
6.4 Drill Steel Life
6.4 DRILL STEEL LIFE

Drill Bit
The drill bit button shape affects the life of the drill bits. Round buttons have longer lives
than more aggressively shaped buttons. In rotary drilling, where milled tooth drill bits
can be used, studies indicate that the life is increased.
Figure 6.21 shows the wear results of six bits, used over the same total length (350 375
drm), and under equal rock conditions. The grinding intervals were also the same (in total
seven times).
Wearrate[mm/100drm]
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Spherical
Semiballistic
Ballistic
Figure 6.21 Bit diameter wear and button shape.

Original bit diameter 90 mm.
Drill string
The drill rod life is very dependent upon the deflection down the hole. All efforts
reducing deflection will improve the life of the drill rods.
Larger rigs should not be used on smaller equipment than applicable. Too high energy
impacts will give unfavourable stress waves which will cause high temperatures and
reduced drill rod lives.
128
APPENDICES
A. Previous Editions
A.PREVIOUSEDITIONS
PreviouseditionsoftheROCKQUARRYINGBenchDrillingreport,includingprojectgroup
members.
779
BenchDrillingPerformanceandCosts
ysteinKristiansen
NorvaldSkjoldi
PetterSyverud
PaulJohannessen
O.T.Blindheim
RolfRisdal
OddJohannessen
1190
FinnHvoslef
EivindK.Opedal
SigurdEriksen
ArneLislerud
AmundBruland
RoarBardal
OddJohannessen
12C00
SveinEirikAune
JrgenMoger
ElinHermanstad
VegardOlsen
OddJohannessen
129
APPENDIX
B. Research Partners
B.RESEARCHPARTNERS
Researchpartnerscontributingwitheconomicalsupportandresourcesduringthework
ofthisreport.
AtlasCopcoRockDrillsAB
SandvikAS
OricaMiningServices
PublicRoadsAdministrationofNorway
130
APPENDIX
C. List of Parameters
C.LISTOFPARAMETERS
Theparametersusedinthereportarelistedinthefollowing.Thelistisaccordingto
whentheparameterfirstisexplainedortreated.
Page
Unit
Parameter
Explanation
23
BWI
Bitwearindex
23
CAI
Cercharabrasionindex
23
Cutterlifeindex
CLI
6
mm
Drillholediameter
d
55
NOK
Depreciationbasis
Db
TM
23
Drillingrateindex
DRI
60
m
Drilledmetres
drm
24
Wearindex
F
24
Netpenetrationrate
i
55
Downtimefactor
k
34
Correctionfactorforairpressure
ka
70
NOH/eh
Interestcostovereconomicusefullife
lu
70
%
Rateofinterest
r
69
%
Residualvalue
R
60
m
Rodmetres
rm
22
Brittlenessvalue
S20
22
Sievers'Jvalue
SJ
87
Blastabillity
SPR
54
eh
Economiclife
tl
54
eh
Technicallife
tt
54
eh
Economicusefullife
tu
70
eh
Effectivehoursperyear
ty
70
NOK/eh
Fixedrepaircost
VF
23
Vicker'shardnessnumberrock
VHNR
70
NOK/eh
Totalrepaircost
V T
70
NOK/eh
Variablerepaircost
VV
2
55
NOK/eh
Dependentrepaircostfactor
131
APPENDIX
D. Conversions
D.CONVERSIONS
DRILLBITDIAMETER
Inches
Inches
25
mm
130
5 /2
140
5 /8
29
32
152
35
165
6 /4
171
1 /8
1 /4
3
1 /8
6 /2
38
41
178
45
191
7 /8
200
1 /2
1 /8
3
1 /4
2
51
2 /4
7 /2
57
203
64
8 /2
216
70
229
76
241
2 /2
2 /4
3
1
TableD.1
mm
9 /2
3 /2
89
9 /8
251
102
10
254
4 /2
115
12 /4
311
127
15
381
Convertinginchestomillimetresforcommondrillbitdiameters.
RODLENGTH
Feet
3
4
5
6
8
TableD.2
m
0.92
1.22
1.53
1.83
2.44
Feet
10
12
13
20
25
m
3.05
3.66
4.01
6.10
7.63
Convertingfeettometresforcommonrodlengths.
132
APPENDIX
E. Vickers Hardness Number Rock
E.VICKERSHARDNESSNUMBERROCK
VickershardnessVHNforcommonrockminerals[6].
MINERAL
VHN[kg/mm2]
Corundum
2300
Quartz
1060
Garnet
1060
Olivine
980
Hematite
925
Pyrite
800
Plagioclase
800
Diopsid(clinopyroxene)
800
Magnetite
730
Orthoclase(alkalifeldspar)
730
Augite(clinopyroxene)
640
Ilmenite
625
Hypersthene(orthopyroxene)
600
Hornblende(amphibole)
600
Chromite
600
Apatite
550
Dolomite
365
Pyrrhotite
310
Fluorite
265
Pentlandite
220
Sphalerite(zincblende)
200
Chalcopyrite(copperpyrite)
195
Serpentine
175
Anhydrite
160
Calcite
125
Biotite
110
Galena(leadglance)
85
Chalcosite
65
Chlorite
50
Gypsum
50
Talc
20
Halite(rocksalt)
17
Sylvite
10
133
APPENDIX
F. Sites Visited
F.SITESVISITED
Inthefollowingalistoftheequipmentinvestigatedsincethefirstreportarepresented.
Correspondentmines,quarries,projectsandcontractorsasgoodaspossibleaccording
tothesources.Eachreportisgroupedindividually.Deviationmeasurementsarenot
included.
Sites/contractorsandequipmentinreport779
RanaGruberA/SMine,MoiRana,Norway
BucyrusErie40R,BucyrusErie45R,Hausherr
SydvarangerA/SMine,Kirkenes,Norway
BucyrusErie60R
VassfjelletQuarry,Trondheim,Norway
Geita/Tamp.L400
RepparfjordQuarry,XXX,Norway
G.DPTH1050JR
JotunQuarry,Sandefjord,Norway
Zoomtrak/Tamp.L750,ROC701/COP150
BondkallQuarry,Ringerike,Norway
Krupp,hydraulic
EkebergCaverns,Oslo,Norway
I.R./CM350,ROC601/COP130
FranzefossBrukQuarry,Trondheim,Norway
ROC601/BBE57
BergQuarry,XXX,Norway
ROC701/COP150
RlingQuarry,XXX,Norway
ROC302/BBE120
NorcemDalenQuarry,Porsgrunn,Norway
I.R/CM350,ROC820/COP1038HD
TitaniaMine,Tellnes,Norway
BucyrusErie40R,ROC601/COP6,ROC606/COP6
FjordsteinQuarry,XXX,Norway
G.D.HDGEPR143,I.R.T4W/DHD360
VinterbroQuarry,Ski,Norway
G.DPR123J
FeiringBrukQuarry,Lrenskog,Norway
ROC601/BBE57,ROC601/COP130,Rotamec2200
SteinskogenQuarry,Oslo,Norway
ROC601/BBE57
Tammerfors,Finland
Zoomtrak/L750,Fixtrack/HL438,Fixtrack/HL844
bjra,st,XXX,Norway
ROC810/COP1038HD
Vatnedalsvatn,XXX,Norway
ROC810/COP1038HD,Fixtrack/HL844
EidsfjordProjects,DamSysen,Norway
I.R./DM4B,Rotamex2200
Cimescaut,Belgium
I.R.T4BH/DHD360
Lemay,Belgium
I.R.T4BH/DHD360
UllaFrreProjects,DamOddatjrn,Norway
BucyrusErie45R
Sites/contractorsandequipmentinreport1190
UllaFrreprojects
DamStorvatn,Norway
BucyrusErie45R
Galleberg&Eckhoff
TheRingerikeRoad,Norway
ROC712/COP1036
Ing.F.Selmer
LiaQuarry,Norway
ROC712/COP1036
FranzefossBruk
VassfjelletQuarry,Norway
ROC712/COP1036
134
APPENDIX
F. Sites Visited
LeonardNilsen&Snner StangnesSouth,Norway
ROC712/COP1036
Zoomtrak/HLR438
ROC810/COP1038
VestfoldRockDrilling
LierskogenQuarry,Norway
ROC712/COP1238
A.BergQuarry,Norway
Zoomtrak/HLR438
NorwegianHyperit,Norway
DHA600/HL645
ByggeteknikkA/S
DamSkorovatn,Norway
Zoomtrak/HLR438
KorenBlastingService
HeggeatKvam,Norway
Zoomtrak/HLR438
FillanQuarry,Norway
DHA600/HL645
TromsdalenQuarry,Norway
DHA1000/HL1000
StatensVegvesen
Ringnes,Norway
ROC712/COP1238
Dal,Norway
Zoomtrak/HLR438
AlbertK.Hhre
FranzefossBruk,Sandvika,Norway
DHA500/HL538
FranzefossBruk,Bonkall,Norway
DHA600/HL645
BjrdalenQuarry,Norway
DHA600/HL645
FeiringBruk,Skrer,Norway
DHA1000/HL1000
FranzefossBruk,Steinskogen,Norway
DHA1000/HL1000
TamrockLaurinojaQuarryFinland
Herbert2000/HL2000
NorcemKjpsvikQuarry Kjpsvik,Norway
ROC812/COP1550
RoadHighwayAdministration
DHA500/HL538
Siilinjrvi
Telemark,Norway
Finland
Herbert/HL4000
Towertrak/HL1000
Sitesandequipmentinreport12C00
AITIK,Gllivare,Sweden
ROC942CR/COP4050CR
BallastNordAB,Bjrkdalsgruvan,Kge,Sweden
ROC942HP/COP4050CR
BrnnyKalk,Akselberg,Norway
ROC748HC/COP1838
CarriresdeVoutr,Voutr,France
ROCL7CR/COP4050CR
CarriresetFoursChauxdeDugnyS.A,
DugnysurMeuse,France
FranzefossBruk,LiaQuarry,Norway
ROCF7CR/COP1850CR
ROC748HC/COP1838
ROCF7/COP1838
FranzefossBruk,VassfjelletQuarry,Norway
ROCF7/COP1838
HanyRiggboring,NodestGaupsen,Norway
ROCF7/COP1838
HarzburgerGabbro,Harzburg,Germany
ROC942HP/COP1850CR
JegtebergFjellboring,HalsvikAggregatesAS,Norway
ROCF7/COP1838
MaskinogAnleggA/S,Silsand,Norway
Ranger700/HL700
135
APPENDIX
F. Sites Visited
NorcemA/S,Kjpsvik,Norway
ROC748HC/COP1838
ROC942CR/COP4050CR
Bjrntvedt,Norway
NordhaugA/S,VisnesKalkA/S,Norway
ROCF7/COP1838
NordkalkStorugnsAB,Gotland,Sweden
ROCC2(Prototype)/COP1838CR
OlaRaaenA/S,HvringenSewageTreatmentPlant,Norway
PowerTrakRanger500/HL500
Ranger700/HL700
Robertsen&Slotnes,Kgen,Norway
ROCF7/COP1840
RolfJrgensen,E8Seljelvnes,Norway
Pantera1100/HL1000
Pantera800/HL700
StatkraftAnleggA/S,SvartisenProjects,Norway
ROC748HC/COP1838
BucyrusErie45R
TamrockCHA1100/HL1000
TamrockCHA500/HL500
TamrockDHA600/HL600
TversMaskin, FossbergaQuarry,Norway
BysenElevatedwaterbasin,Skogn,Norway
Lellosewagetreatmentplant,Norway
Ranger700/HL700
VestfoldFjellboring,OsterAggregates,Norway
Ranger700/HL700
VisnesKalkA/S,Norway
TamrockCHA660/HL600
VestfoldFjellboring,FranzefossSkien,Norway
Ranger500/HL500
VSGruppen,Garderfjell,Norway
ROC748HC/COP1238
ROC642HC/COP1238
Sitesandequipmentincludedinreport12C08
AFGruppen,MelkyaLNGplant,Hammerfest,Norway
SandvikRanger700/HL700
AtlasCopcoROCD7/COP1838
FeiringBruk,Lrenskog,Norway
Ranger700/HL700
Titon500/Mission30
FranzefossBruk,LiaQuarry,Trondheim,Norway
AtlasCopcoROCF7/COP1838
FranzefossBruk,VassfjelletQuarry,Trondheim,Norway
AtlasCopcoROCL8CR/COP1850CR
FranzefossBruk,FossbergaQuarry,Stjrdal,Norway
FranzefossKalk,TromsdalenQuarry,Verdal,Norway
SandvikRanger700i/HL800
KjellFossAS,RoadcutE6Assurdalen,Ski
136
APPENDIX
F. Sites Visited
KorenSprengningsservice,Industrypark,Frya,Norway
SandvikRanger780/HL800T
MaskineierWillyMelbyeAS,Roadcutrv.21,Skotterud,
NewBoliden,Aitik,Sweden
AtlasCopcoROCL8/COP54
BucyrusErie49R
NorskSteinAS,Suldal,Norway
AtlasCopcoROCL8/COP54
NorthCapeMinerals,Stjernya
SkanskaAS,RoadcutE6Larvik
TitaniaAS,Tellnes
Bucyrus49HR
VisnesKalkA/S,Eide,Norway
yvinddegrdFjellboringAS,RoadcutE6Skjeberg
AtlasCopcoROC748/COP1838
137
APPENDIX
G. List of References
G.LISTOFREFERENCES
[1]
Tamrock(1986).HandbookofUndergroundDrilling.
[2]
SinkalaT.(1989).Holedeviationsinpercussiondrillingandcontrolmeasures:
theoreticalandfieldstudies.DoctorialThesisno.1989:74D.DivisionofMining
EquipmentEngineering,LuleUniversityofTechnology,Sweden.
[3]
BrochE.andNilsenB.(1996).RockEngineeringGeology.Compendium.
DepartmentofEngineeringgeologyandRockMechanics,NTNU.
[4]
OlsenV,BrulandA.(2008).RockDrillingSafetyBenchTopCleaningversus
BlastedRockDebrisDrilling.BlastingandFragmentationJournal.
[5]
AtlasCopcoRockDrillsAB(2004).SurfaceDrillingSecondEdition.Atechnical
referenceedition.
[6]
NTNUAnleggsdrift(1998).ProjectReport13A98DrillabilityTestMethods.
[7]
NTHAnleggsdrift(1992).ProjectReport15A92HeavyConstructionMachinery
Costs,PerformanceandManagementControl.
[8]
SpillingE.(2004).BlastHoleDeviationControl.Masterthesis.DepartmentofCivil
andTransportEngineering,NTNU.(PublishedinNorwegian).
[9]
StedenfeldtM.(2007).TerrainDrillingCapacityStudies.Masterthesis.
DepartmentofCivilandTransportEngineering,NTNU.(PublishedinNorwegian).
[10] OlsenV.(2009).RockQuarrying,PredictionModelsandBlastingSafety.Doctorial
Thesis.DepartmentofCivilandTransportEngineering,NTNU,Norway.
[11] OuchterlonyF.(2002).Drillholedeviationsinaroadcutperimeter,experiences
frommeasurementsatSdertlje.SveBeFoRapport53.Stockholm.ISSN1104
1773.(PublishedinSwedish)
138
ISBN 978-82-471-1572-5 (printed ver.)

ISBN 978-82-471-1573-2 (electronic ver.)
ISSN 1503-8181

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NTNU

Thesis for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor

BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.1 Drilling Methods

2.2 Drillhole Deviation

2.3 Practical Issues

3.2 Net Penetration Rate

3.3 Fixed Times

3.4 Drilling Capacity Model

3.5 Examples of Application

4.2 Life of Drilling Equipment

4.3 Drilling Cost Model

4.4 Drilling Cost Estimations

4.5 Examples of Application

Continues next page

6.2 Net Penetration Rate

6.3 Hole Deviation Features

6.4 Drill Steel Life

Vickers Hardness Number Rock

ROCK QUARRYING Quarry Design

A considerable amount of information concerning rock quarrying has been systemized

Placement and design of rock quarrying

Trondheim, December 2008

Local conditions in the quarry (terrain, bench, geology)

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.1 Drilling Methods

2.1 DRILLING METHODS

Top hammer drilling

The principles of the breaking forces are shown in Figure 2.1

Illustrations of the drilling methods principles.

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.1 Drilling Methods

Breaking principle of the rock by drilling [1].

2.12 Top Hammer Drilling

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.1 Drilling Methods

2.13 Down the Hole Drilling

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.1 Drilling Methods

DTH drilling rigs.

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.1 Drilling Methods

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.1 Drilling Methods

2.15 Rotary Drilling

Rotary drilling rig. Sandvik DR460.

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.1 Drilling Methods

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.2 Drillhole Deviation

2.2 DRILLHOLE DEVIATION

Diagrammatic representation of collaring dc, alignment da, deflection dd and vertical

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.2 Drillhole Deviation

2.22 Collaring and Alignment Deviation

Instability of the drilling rig

Rock mass and site properties

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.2 Drillhole Deviation

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.2 Drillhole Deviation

Informally, an acceptable maximum deflection level is set to be approx. 50 mm/m, which

2. BENCH DRILLING BASICS

2.2 Drillhole Deviation