Readnng Essentials in Science

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Reading Essentials
An Interactive Student Workbook
green.msscience.com
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Glencoe Science
To the Student
In todays world, knowing science is important for thinking critically, solving problems, and
making decisions. But understanding science sometimes can be a challenge.
Reading Essentials takes the stress out of reading, learning, and understanding science. This
book covers important concepts in science, offers ideas for how to learn the information, and
helps you review what you have learned.
In each chapter:
Before You Read sparks your interest in what youll learn and relates it to your world.
Read to Learn describes important science concepts with words and graphics. Next to the
text you can find a variety of study tips and ideas for organizing and learning information:
The Study Coach offers tips for getting the main ideas out of the text.
Foldables Study Organizers help you divide the information into smaller, easierto-remember concepts.
Reading Checks ask questions about key concepts. The questions are placed so you
know whether you understand the material.
Think It Over elements help you consider the material in-depth, giving you an
opportunity to use your critical-thinking skills.
Picture This questions specifically relate to the art and graphics used with the text.
Youll find questions to get you actively involved in illustrating the concepts you
read about.
Applying Math reinforces the connection between math and science.
Use After You Read to review key terms and answer questions about what you have
learned. The Mini Glossary can assist you with science vocabulary. Review questions
focus on the key concepts to help you evaluate your learning.
See for yourself. Reading Essentials makes science easy to understand and enjoyable.
Copyright by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United
States Copyright Act, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Send all inquiries to:
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill
8787 Orion Place
Columbus, OH 43240
ISBN 0-07-867186-8
Printed in the United States of America
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Table of Contents
Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
To the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
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Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
The Nature of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Earth in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Lifes Structure and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Cell Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
Cell Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Heredity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Adaptations over Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Circulation and Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Digestion, Respiration, and Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
Support, Movement, and Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Regulation and Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
Interactions of Living Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295
Conserving Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
Properties and Changes of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
Substances, Mixtures, and Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
Newtons Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
Energy and Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
chemical property: characteristic that cannot be observed
without changing a substance
physical property: characteristic that can be observed

without changing or trying to change the substance
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain in your own words
the difference between chemical properties and physical properties.
2. Fill in the Venn diagram below to compare and contrast physical and chemical
properties. Include examples of each type of property.
Ways to
Describe Objects
Physical
Properties
Chemical
Properties
Denition
Examples
Example
3. At the beginning of the section, you were asked to make a quiz about the main ideas and
vocabulary terms. How did you decide what the main ideas were?
End of
Section
Properties and Changes of Matter
Visit msscience.com to access your textbook, interactive

games, and projects to help you learn more about physical and
chemical properties.
Denition
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chapter
31
The Nature of Science
1
section
How Science Works
Before You Read

Imagine you found a strange-looking coin in the soil in
your backyard. How could you find out what it is? List the
different tools, resources, or methods you could use.
Read to Learn
Groundbreaking News
It was Friday morning, and the students in Ms. Garcias
science lab at York Middle School were going on a field trip.
They were going to the north end of the school to visit the
construction site for the new school gym. The students in
group 4Ben, Emily, Maria, and Juanlooked out the
window. They saw trucks and bulldozers pull up to the
school. The class hiked out to the site. They watched huge
shovels move giant scoops of dirt from one spot to another.
What Youll Learn
about the science of

archaeology
the difference between
science and technology
Underline Main Ideas

As you read, underline the tools,
resources, and methods that the
students and scientists used in
this section.
Is that buried treasure?

All of a sudden, one of the workers noticed something in
the hole he was making. A piece of broken pottery was
sticking out from the dirt. He called some other workers
over. One worker thought the pottery might be a piece of
trash that was buried when the school was built. Another
worker wasnt so sure. He thought it could be an ancient
piece of art. A decision was made to stop the digging, at
least for the moment.
The students went back to the classroom. They all talked
excitedly about the find. This, they all agreed, was real
science. Science, they knew, is a process of trying to
understand the world.
A Find Main Ideas Make
the following Foldable to help

you identify the main ideas as
you read about how science
works.
Reading Essentials
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What is an archaeologist?
1.
Infer Which of the

following is NOT an artifact?
a.
b.
c.
d.
fossil
pottery
arrowhead
jewelry
Ms. Garcia reminded the students that the pottery might

just be a piece of trash that wasnt very old. To find out, the
schools principal called an archaeologist at the local college.
Archaeologists are scientists who learn about ancient cultures
by studying the things these cultures have left behind. Ancient
objects, such as tools, weapons, rock drawings, buildings, or
pottery, made by humans are called artifacts. The archaeologist,
Dr. Lum, would look at the pottery on Monday.
Before Dr. Lums visit, the students researched the history
of their area. This would help them understand any ancient
cultures that once lived in the area. They could also
compare what they learned with what Dr. Lum told them.
Juan used an encyclopedia to find out that archaeology is a

branch of science that studies human artifacts and cultures.
There are two major branches of archaeology. Some
archaeologists study groups of people who lived before
history was written. Other archaeologists study cultures that
have existed since people began writing down things. Juan
also discovered that archaeology covers a time span of more
than 3 million years. About 3.5 million years ago, the first
ancestors of humans are thought to have appeared on Earth.
Ben found out that many scientists hypothesize that the
first humans came to North America from Asia about
12,000 years ago. The map below shows how they may have
traveled. Over thousands of years, these people moved to
different parts of the continent. Emily and Maria read that
the area around their city was settled about 2,000 years ago.
As they read, the students took notes on all the information
they gathered. They also wrote down questions they had
about the pottery and the science of archaeology.
Picture This
2.
Bering Strait
Identify A land bridge

connected Asia to North
America more than 13,000
years ago. What waterway
now separates the two
continents?
SIBERIA
NORTH
AMERICA
Pacific Ocean
Researching the Past
How would experts study the site?

On Monday, Dr. Lum visited the school. She explained
that scientists would use several kinds of technology to
study the area. Technology is the use of knowledge gained
through science to make new products or tools people can
use. Cameras and computers are common types of
technology. Dr. Lum said that scientists would do a radar
survey at the site. This type of technology helps scientists
see whats beneath the ground without disturbing a site.
Other experts would probably be called on as well. For
instance, geologists, scientists who study Earth processes,
could help study the soil.
Dr. Lum and the students walked to the site. Dr. Lum
used her hand lens to observe the piece of pottery carefully.
After she examined it, she announced that she thought the
pottery was old. She also thought that an archaeological dig
should take place. Dr. Lum said the students would be
welcome to help with the dig.
3.
Explain What kind of

technology could scientists
use to see underground?
Digging In
The radar surveys took weeks to complete. The students
spent that time learning about how an archaeological dig is
done. They learned that holes and ditches were being dug
around the site. They also learned that it was important to
disturb the site as little as possible.
The day came for students to help with the dig. Each
student was given a small hand shovel, a soft paintbrush,
and a pair of gardening gloves. Every student was paired
with a college student working with Dr. Lum. Everyone
involved in the dig was told to work slowly and carefully.
What happened to artifacts found at a site?

Many pieces of pottery, along with some tools, were
found at the school site. Before the artifacts were removed,
the college students working with Dr. Lum took pictures or
made drawings of each piece. They also made maps showing
the exact location and depth of each artifact.
Each artifact was numbered and its location in the soil
was recorded. Then the artifacts were taken to the lab.
There, they were cleaned, studied, and stored for future
study. Scientists would also study the chemical makeup of
some artifacts to determine their age. Dr. Lum thought the
site was at least several thousand years old.
4.
Infer Why do you think

soft paintbrushes are used
on a dig?
Reading Essentials
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
science: process of trying to understand the world
technology: use of knowledge gained through scientic

thinking and problem solving to make new products
or tools
1. Review the terms and their definitions above. Use one or both terms to describe one way
that technology is used to help humans understand the world.
2. Complete the flowchart below to show the sequence of events of the archaeological dig
in this section. Use the following terms: artifact, lab, archaeologist, brushes, maps, research.
An object is found at the site.
A scientist called an ____________________________ is contacted to study the object.
The expert determines if the object is an ____________________________ from a past culture or a piece of trash.
Hand shovels and ____________________________ are used to uncover artifacts.

As artifacts are found, scientists take pictures or make drawings. These are used to make
____________________________ showing the exact location of each artifact.
Artifacts are carefully removed from the soil, numbered, and recorded.
All artifacts are taken to the ____________________________, where they are cleaned, studied, and stored.
End of
Section
Visit green.msscience.com to access your textbook,

interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about
how science works.
Students do ____________________________ to learn about their areas history.
chapter
31
2
section
Scientic Problem Solving
Before You Read

On a hot day, you and your friend pour some iced tea. You
add sugar to yours, but your friend does not. You both put
your glasses in the freezer and go outside. A little later, you
notice that your friends iced tea has a layer of ice on it, but
yours does not. Can you guess what happened?
Read to Learn
Scientific Methods
Several steps were taken to learn about the piece of
pottery found at York Middle School. When the pottery was
found, a decision was made to stop construction at the site.
One adult guessed that the pottery was old. An expert was
called in to see if that guess was true or not. Based on what
the expert knew and more testing, it was concluded that the
pottery was from a prehistoric culture, or a culture that
existed before history was written.
What Youll Learn
the steps in scientic

methods
scientic variables and
constants
how a control is used in
an experiment
Study Coach
Apply Information Divide

a piece of paper into two
columns. As you read this
section, write the methods for
scientic problem solving in the
left column. In the right column,
use the information to write the
steps you could take to test your
guess about sugar and water.
What are the steps in a scientific method?

Solving any problem takes several steps. Scientific methods
are the steps used to solve problems or answer questions in
a scientific way. The basic steps used to solve a problem
scientifically are shown on the next page. The steps can vary
depending on the problem. They arent always done in the
same order. Look at each step in the chart. For now, well be
looking at the steps in a scientific method in this order.
B Organize Information
Make the following Foldable to

help you identify the scientic
steps taken to solve problems.
Reading Essentials
Picture This
1.
Identify Number and list

each of the four main steps
shown in the gure.
One day, Ben noticed that the plant on his windowsill was
droopy. He quickly watered the plant. Later in the day, Ben
saw the plant had perked up. He decided to water the plant
every day.
After a few weeks, Ben noticed that the leaves on his plant
had turned yellow and brown. He knew that plants needed
water, so why was this plant not doing well? He talked to his
teacher about the plant. She thought his problem might
make a good project for the science fair.
Ben had already completed the first step in using a
scientific approach to solving a problemhe recognized a
problem. A scientific problem is a question that can be
answered using scientific methods.
To solve his problem, Ben did research on his plant. He
used sources of information such as the Internet and
encyclopedias, as shown below. He identified his plant as a
fig. He drew a picture and listed some facts about the plant
in his science journal.
Picture This
2.
Prepare Name another

source of information
students might use when
planning a science project.
10
Recognize the Problem
Observe and Infer Next, Ben made and wrote down

careful observations about his plant. Observations can be
bits of information you gather with your senses. You can
make observations with your senses of sight, hearing, touch,
taste, and smell. Ben observed that many of the leaves had
fallen off his plant. Parts of the stem were peeling. He
noticed that some white, smelly powder was covering the
soil. Ben stuck his finger in the soil. The soil was wet.
Observations can lead to inferences. An inference is a
conclusion about an observation. If someone walked in the
door with a wet umbrella, you might infer that it was raining
outside. Ben inferred that he was watering his plant too often.
Form a Hypothesis After a problem is recognized, a scientist

might make a hypothesis (hi PAH thuh sus). A hypothesis
is a statement that can be tested. It is based on observations,
research, and what is already known about a problem.
Sometimes a scientist may have more than one
hypothesis.
Ben used his inference about watering too often as his
hypothesis. His hypothesis was: Fig plants grow best when
they are watered only once a week.
3.
List What senses did Ben

use to make his
observations?
4.
Define What is a
hypothesis?
Test Your Hypothesis Bens next step was to test his

hypothesis. He planned to do an experiment with three
plants. An experimental investigation is a series of carefully
planned steps to test a hypothesis. In any experiment, its
important to keep everything the same except for the item,
or variable, you are testing. That way, you will know which
variable caused the results. The one factor that you change
in an experiment is called the independent variable. In
order to keep track of what changes in variables affect an
experiment, it is important to keep good notes about the
experiment, as shown below.
5.
Draw Conclusions
Why is it important for
scientists to keep accurate
records?
Reading Essentials
11
7.
Identify What was the

independent variable in
Bens experiment?
Explain Why was it

important that all of Bens
plants were given the same
amount of sunlight?
Plan the Experiment Its important to test only one

variable at a time. Thats why scientists often use constants.
Constants are factors in an experiment that stay the same.
In his experiment, Ben planned to use the same species and
size of plants. Each pot would be the same and would be
filled with same kind and amount of soil. The plants would
also get the same amount of light. The amount of light
would also be a constant. Some experimental investigations
also have a control. A control is a standard, or known
outcome, to which other outcomes can be compared.
Do the Experiment In his science journal, Ben wrote down
the plan for his experiment. He would use three fig plants.
Plant A would be watered only once, at the beginning of the
experiment. Plant B would get watered every day. Plant C
would get watered once a week. His experiment would last
one month.
Ben made a table to record his data. In the table, he
would write down how many times each plant was watered,
the heights of the plants at the end of each week, and other
observations. His data would include the color of each
plants leaves and the number of leaves it dropped.
Effect of Watering on Bens Plants
Picture This
8.
Interpret Which of Bens

plants seems to be in the
best condition?
Plant C
Plant B
Plant A
12
6.
In Bens experiment, the independent variable was the

number of times he watered each plant in a week. He
planned to observe how well each plant grew. The growth of
the plant was the dependent variable in Bens experiment.
The dependent variable is the factor, or outcome, that will
be measured in an experiment.
Analyze Your Data

In any science experiment, results, or data, are collected.
Some data are numbers, like the height of Bens fig plants.
Other data are observations that may use words like faster,
smaller, or greener. It is important to record and studyor
analyzeall these results before drawing a conclusion.
By the end of the month, Ben had observed that the leaves
on the plant he watered only once were brown and wrinkled.
This plant had lost most of its leaves. The plant that was
watered every day had a few leaves left, but those leaves did
not look healthy. White, smelly stuff covered the soil. The
plant that was watered once a week had grown the tallest. It
had many healthy green leaves. The illustration on the
previous page shows the condition of each of Bens plants.
Draw Conclusions and Communicate

After studying his data, Ben was ready to draw some
conclusions. A conclusion is a statement based on what was
observed. Ben concluded that for a fig plant, the best
schedule of those tested was to water the plant once a week.
Not watering a plant enough causes the leaves to dry out
and die. Watering a plant too much causes the leaves to die.
To make sure his conclusions were valid, or correct, Ben
repeated the experiment. The results were the same, so Ben
was confident about his conclusion. He had supported
his hypothesis.
Bens next step was to share, or communicate, his
results with others. He entered his project in the science
fair. He used a table like this one to show the results of
his experiment.
9.
Determine How did Ben

make sure the results of the
experiment supported his
hypothesis?
Applying Math
10.
Plant Heights (cm)

Week
Plant A
Plant B
Plant C
10.5
10.3
10.8
10.7
11.2
12.6
9.2
12.0
14.6
5.1
12.4
15.5
Calculate According to
the table, how many
centimeters did Plant C
grow in four weeks? Show
your work.
Reading Essentials
13
After You Read

Mini Glossary
constant: factor that stays the same through all phases of
an experiment
control: standard used for comparison in an experiment
dependent variable: factor that will be measured in
an experiment
hypothesis: statement that can be tested in an experiment
independent variable: single factor in an experiment that

the experimenter changes
inference: conclusion drawn from an observation
observation: bit of information gathered using the senses
scientic methods: step-by-step procedures of scientic
problem solving, which can include identifying the
problem, forming and testing a hypothesis, analyzing
the test results, and drawing conclusions
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use one or more terms to
write a sentence describing something that might be done during an experiment.
2. The flowchart on the left shows the steps of a scientific method. Find the statement on
the right that shows this step in Bens experiment. Write the number of the step in the
space provided. Step 1 is done for you.
1.
Recognize the problem

Observe and infer
1.a.
_______ Plant C grew the tallest and had the healthiest leaves.
Form a hypothesis
1.b.
_______ Ben shared the results of the experiment in a science fair.

1.c.
Test your hypothesis

(Plan and do experiment)
_______ Leaves had fallen off Bens plant. Parts of the stem were peeling.
The soil was wet. Maybe the plant was getting too much water.
Analyze the data
2.
3.
Draw conclusions
4.
Communicate
_______ Put three same-sized g plants in identical pots with the same soil
and the same amount of sunlight. Water Plant A once, Plant B once
a day, and Plant C once a week.
_______ Hypothesis: Fig plants grow best when watered once a week.
_______ Bens plant was not doing well.
End of
Section
14

scientic problem solving.
_______ Conclusion: The best schedule for watering g plants is once a week.
chapter
23
Minerals
1
section
Minerals
Before You Read

Think about a diamond that you have seen. Describe what
the diamond looked like on the lines below.
Read to Learn
What is a mineral?
You use minerals every day. In fact, minerals are all
around you. The diamond you wrote about is a mineral.
The glass in your windows is made from a mineral. The
pencil lead, or graphite, you write with is also a mineral.
A mineral is a solid, non-living substance that is found in
nature. A mineral is made up of atoms that are arranged in
a certain, set way.
What Youll Learn
what all minerals have

in common
how minerals form
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes As you

read, organize your notes in two
columns. In the left-hand
column, write the main idea of
each paragraph. Next to it, in the
right-hand column, write details
about it.
How are minerals alike?

There are about 4,000 different minerals on Earth. All
minerals have four things in common. First, all minerals are
formed by natural processes. These processes occur on or
inside the Earth with no help from humans. For example,
diamonds are formed by the pressure deep within Earth.
Second, minerals are inorganic, or not living. They are made
from non-living substances, like the material that makes up
a diamond. Third, minerals are made up of one element or
a combination of elements. The finest diamonds, for
example, are made up of one elementcarbon. The mineral
halite is made up of two elementssodium and chlorine.
Fourth, all minerals are solids. A solid keeps a set shape.
Minerals are a special type of solid because their atoms are
arranged in a specific way.
A Identify
Make a four tab

Foldable to identify the four
characteristics of minerals.
Reading Essentials
15
Picture This
1.
Draw In the box below,

draw at least 10 dots that
show how the atoms in a
crystal might be arranged.
Each dot is one atom.
How are atoms in minerals arranged?

Atoms in a mineral are arranged in an orderly pattern
that repeats itself over and over again. This repeated pattern
of atoms is called a crystalline pattern. For example, the
atoms in the mineral graphite are arranged in layers. All
true minerals are crystalline solids. But not all solids are
minerals. Opal, for example, is not a true mineral because
its atoms are not arranged in a definite repeating pattern. In
the first box below, the atoms are scattered. In the second
box the atoms are arranged in a crystalline pattern.
Scattered Pattern
Crystalline Pattern
All minerals are crystals. A crystal is a solid that has atoms

arranged in an orderly, repeating pattern. For example, a
diamond is a crystal. A diamond has many flat sides, or
faces. The flat faces are evidence for the orderly arrangement
of atoms in the diamond.
2.
Determine How are the

atoms arranged in a crystal?
16
Minerals
What affects the shape of crystals?

Like diamonds, the crystalline form of quartz can also be
seen. The clear quartz crystal shown in the figure on the left
on the next page has atoms arranged in flat layers. The clear
quartz crystals formed in an open space and their crystalline
form can be seen easily.
Sometimes crystal shapes are not seen so easily. The
second figure shows a block of rose quartz. This rose quartz
looks uneven on the outside. Yet it is a mineral with atoms
arranged in a repeating pattern. The rose quartz crystals
look this way because they formed in a tight space.
Crystals form in many ways. There are two ways in which
crystals form most often from magma and from solution.
The Structure of Minerals
Picture This
3.
Identify Under each

piece of quartz, write tight
space or open space to show
where each mineral formed.
Clear quartz
Rose quartz
How do crystals form from magma?

Magma is the melted rock inside Earth. When magma
rises to Earths surface, it cools. As the magma cools, the
atoms in the magma start to move closer together. The
atoms begin to combine to form compounds. As they
combine, some of the atoms of different compounds form
orderly, repeating patterns. When they are completely
cooled, these atoms have formed crystals.
When magma cools slowly, large crystals form. The crystal
form can be seen easily in these minerals. When magma
cools quickly, smaller crystals form. These small mineral
crystals are much harder to see.
Magma is made of different elements. The type and
amount of the elements that make up magma partly
determine which minerals will form.
4.
Define What is magma?
5.
Explain What is one of

the ways that crystals form
from solution?
How do crystals form from solution?

When minerals dissolve in water, the result is called a
solution. In a solution, the minerals atoms are spread evenly
through the water. As the water evaporates, ions come
together to form crystals. For example, if you place a bowl
of very salty water in the sun, the water soon evaporates.
When the water has evaporated, salt crystals are left at the
bottom of the bowl.
Crystals also may form when there is too much of a
mineral in a solution. Because there is so much of the
mineral, the ions come together and begin to form crystals
in the solution. Minerals can form from a solution in this
way without the need for evaporation.
Reading Essentials
17
Applying Math
Calculate Look at the
46.6%
27.7%
2.8% 2.6% 2.1% 1.5%
Ot
he
r
5.0% 3.6%
Iro
n
Ca
lci
um
So
diu
m
Po
tas
Ma sium
gn
es
ium
8.1%
Ox
yg
en
Sil
i
Alu con
mi
nu
m
graph. Elements other than

silicon and oxygen make up
about what percent of
Earths crust? Show your
work.
Percent abundance
6.
Elements in Earths Crust
Mineral Compositions and Groups

There are ninety elements that make up Earths crust.
About 98 percent of the crust is made up of only eight of
these elements. These common elements are shown above.
There are thousands of known minerals. However, only a
few dozen minerals are common. These common minerals
are made up mostly of the eight most common elements in
Earths crust.
7.
Determine What two

elements always make up
silicates?
18
Minerals
Minerals are often grouped by the elements they are made

of. Silicon and oxygen are the two most abundant elements
in Earths crust. They form the basic building blocks of
most minerals.
The most common rock-forming minerals in Earths crust
are called silicates. A silicate is a mineral made up of the
element silicon, the element oxygen, and usually one or
more other elements. For example, quartz, a silicate, is a
common rock-forming mineral in Earths crust made of
silicon and oxygen. Feldspar, another silicate, is made of
silicon, oxygen, aluminum, and either potassium, sodium,
calcium, or barium.
Another group of rock-forming minerals is the carbonates.
Carbonates contain carbon and oxygen. They can include
other elements. For example, calcite is a carbonate made of
carbon, oxygen, and calcium. Dolomite is a carbonate made
of carbon, oxygen, magnesium, and calcium. Other mineral
groups are also defined according to the elements from
which they are made.
How are minerals grouped?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
crystal: solid in which the atoms are arranged in an orderly,
repeating pattern
magma: hot, melted rock material beneath Earths surface
mineral: solid material made in Earth, whose atoms are

arranged in a set, repeating pattern
silicate: mineral that contains silicon and oxygen and usually
one or more other elements
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence that
explains why all minerals are crystals. Use at least two terms in your sentence.
2. Fill in the boxes to tell how some crystals form.

__________________________________________ cools
__________________________________________ move closer together
compounds form __________________________________________
3. You organized your notes in two columns, one for main ideas and one for details. How
did this strategy help you learn the information?

minerals.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
19
23
Minerals
2
section
Mineral Identication
What Youll Learn
the physical properties

of minerals
how to use physical
properties to identify
minerals
Highlight Key Terms

Highlight the key terms and
their meanings as you read this
section.
Before You Read

Someone hands you a gold ring and a lump of rock salt.
Both gold and rock salt are minerals. On the lines below,
describe the differences between the gold ring and rock salt.
Read to Learn
Physical Properties
You can tell one person from another because people look
different. People or things look different because they have
different physical properties. Height, hair color, eye color,
and face shape are some of a persons physical properties.
Minerals have physical properties, too. You can identify
minerals by their different physical properties.
What do different minerals look like?
B Identification Make a
Foldable from 3 half sheets of
notebook paper. Use it to list
and explain the physical
properties of minerals.
Mineral
Identification
Hardness
Luster
Streak
Cleavage/Fracture
Specific Gravity
20
Minerals
Different minerals may look different in several ways. Some

minerals may have smooth surfaces, while others may be
rough. Different minerals may have different colors. A
minerals appearance is one way to begin to identify a mineral.
Looking only at a minerals color can trick you. For
example, gold is gold colored. Gold is valuable. Pyrite is a
mineral that also has a bright gold color but has little value.
In fact, pyrite is often called fools gold.
To identify a mineral correctly, you need to look at other
physical properties of the mineral. Some other physical
properties to study are a minerals hardness, how a mineral
breaks, and its color when it is crushed into a powder.
chapter
How is the hardness of a mineral measured?

A minerals hardness is a measure of how easily the mineral
can be scratched. Diamond is the hardest mineral known. A
diamond can be scratched only by another diamond.
Diamonds are so hard that they are used to cut through
other materials. They are used often as the blades of saws
that cut through rock.
A minerals hardness has nothing to do with how easily a
mineral will break. Some minerals shatter easily, yet they
still may be very hard.
What is Mohs scale of hardness?

The Mohs scale compares the hardness of different
minerals. In 1824, a scientist named Friedrich Mohs tested
the hardnesses of many minerals. He then listed the minerals
in order. Talc, the softest mineral, was given the number 1.
Diamond, the hardest mineral, was given the number 10. The
hardness of each mineral was compared with the hardnesses
of talc and diamond. Each mineral was given a number. The
higher its number, the harder a mineral is.
1.
Apply What does the

Mohs scale measure?
Mineral Hardness
Mohs
Scale
Haardness of
Common Objects
Haardnesss
Talc (softeest)
Gypsum
fingernail
Calcite
piece of coopper (2.5 to 3.0)
Fluorite
iron nail
(4.5)
Apatite
glass
(5.5)
Feldspar
steel file
(6.5)
Quartz
streak platte
(7.0)
Topaz
Corundum
m
Diamond (hardest)
10
(2.5)
Picture This
2.
Interpret Data Look at

the table on this page. List
three minerals that feldspar
can scratch.
The table above will help you understand the Mohs scale
of hardness. The table shows that topaz has a hardness of 8.
Quartz has a hardness of 7. Topaz is harder than quartz. That
means topaz can scratch quartz, but quartz cannot scratch
topaz. The table also lists the hardnesses of some common
objects.
Reading Essentials
21
How is the Mohs scale used?

Heres how the Mohs scale helps identify minerals. Suppose
you are given a white mineral to identify. You know it is
either fluorite or quartz. Your fingernail does not scratch it.
But, you can scratch it with an iron nail. So the unknown
mineral must have a hardness between 2.5 (your fingernail)
and 4.5 (an iron nail). Now look at the Mohs scale. Because
quartz has a hardness of 7 and fluorite has a hardness of 4,
the unknown mineral must be fluorite.
What is luster?
3.
Explain Why does

graphite have a metallic
luster?
An important physical property that is used to identify

minerals is called luster. Luster is the way a mineral reflects
light. There are two types of luster. A mineral that shines
like a bright piece of metal has a metallic luster. The
mineral graphite has a metallic luster.
A mineral that does not shine like metal has a nonmetallic
luster. A nonmetallic luster may appear to be glassy, pearly,
or dull. The mineral fluorite has nonmetallic luster.
4.
Identify Specic gravity

is the weight of a mineral
compared to the weight of
an equal volume of what?
Picture a one-inch cube of lead and a one-inch cube of

wood. Both cubes are the same size. Yet the cube of lead
weighs more than the cube of wood. Lead has a greater
specific gravity than wood. The specific gravity of a mineral
is the ratio of its weight compared with the weight of an
equal volume of water. A minerals specific gravity is given
as a number.
Specific gravity can be used to tell the difference between
minerals that look similar. Gold and pyrite look alike. Gold
has a specific gravity of 19. That means that gold is 19 times
heavier than water. Pyrite has a specific gravity of 5. It is 5
times heavier than water. If you held equal-sized cubes of
gold and pyrite, the gold would feel much heavier than the
pyrite. The term heft can be used to describe this difference
in weight. Gold has greater heft than pyrite.
How is streak used to identify minerals?

A minerals streak is the color of the mineral in a
powdered form. To find a minerals streak, rub the mineral
across a white, unglazed porcelain tile, and look at the
streak of powered mineral left behind. For example, gold
has a yellow streak and pyrite has a greenish-black streak.
22
Minerals
What is gravity?
When can a streak test be used?

A streak test works only when the mineral being tested is
softer than the porcelain tile. A softer mineral will leave a
streak. A harder mineral will leave a scratch, not a streak. A
streak test cannot be used to identify a diamond because the
diamond is much harder than the tile.
How do minerals break?
Different minerals break apart in different ways. How a

mineral breaks is another way to identify it. Cleavage is the
physical property of minerals that break along smooth, flat
surfaces. The way atoms are arranged in the minerals partly
determines cleavage. The mica shown in the figure below
breaks along flat cleavage surfaces. If you took a layer cake
and separated its layers, you would show that the cake has
cleavage.
Not all minerals have cleavage. Fracture is the property
that causes minerals to break with rough, jagged surfaces.
Quartz, a mineral with fracture, is shown in the figure
below. If you grabbed a chunk out of the side of that cake,
it would be like breaking a mineral that has a fracture.
5.
Observe How does a

mineral with cleavage look
when it breaks apart?
Picture This
6.
Mica
Quartz
Identify Look at the

gure. Circle the mineral
with fracture.
What other physical properties are used to

identify minerals?
Some minerals have interesting physical properties.
Magnetite is a mineral that acts like a magnet. Another
mineral, calcite, affects light. When light passes through
calcite, two separate light rays form. Calcite also fizzes when
hydrochloric acid is placed on it.
Remember, a minerals appearance and color may not be
enough information to identify it. Minerals have other physical
properties to help identify them. You may need to test hardness, luster, specific gravity, streak, and cleavage or fracture.
Reading Essentials
23
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cleavage: physical property of some minerals that causes
them to break along smooth, at surfaces
fracture: physical property of some minerals that causes
them to break with uneven, rough, or jagged surfaces
hardness: measure of how easily a mineral can be scratched
luster: how a mineral reects light from its surface

specic gravity: ratio of a minerals weight compared with
the weight of an equal volume of water
streak: color of a mineral when it is in powdered form
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Think about a time you saw a
glass break. Does glass break with cleavage or with fracture? Explain your answer.
2. Use the table below to identify three mystery minerals that have the following physical
properties:
Minneral
Hardnesss
Streakk
Coppper
2.53
copper-red
Gallena
2.5
dark grray
Golld
2.53
yellow
w
Hem
matite
5.56.5
red to broown
Maagnetite
66.5
blackk
Silvver
2.53
silver-whhite
Mineral is
2. mineral has hardness of 6

mineral has reddish brown streak
Mineral is
3. mineral has hardness of 3

mineral has silver streak
Mineral is
3. This section contained several new vocabulary words. You highlighted the key terms and
their meanings. Describe another strategy to remember definitions of new words.
End of
Section
24
Minerals

the physical properties of minerals.
Properties of Minerals
1. mineral has a hardness of 2.5

mineral has dark gray streak
chapter
23
Minerals
3
section
Uses of Minerals
Before You Read

What do you think of when you hear the word metal? On
the lines below describe things made from metal.
Read to Learn
Gems
Gems are often used in jewelry. A gem is a valuable
mineral that is both rare and beautiful. When it is cut and
polished, a gem has a beautiful color and shine. Most gems
are special types of common minerals. They are clearer,
brighter, or more colorful than common samples of that
mineral.
What Youll Learn
how gems are used

what minerals contain
useful elements
Study Coach
Think-Pair-Share Work
with a partner. As you read the
text, discuss what you already
know about the topic and what
you learn from the text.
Why are some gems important?

All gems are valuable. Sometimes gems are valuable
because of their size. A carat is a unit used to measure the
weight of gems. In 1905, a huge diamond was found in
South Africa. The diamond, called the Cullinan diamond,
was the largest ever discovered. It weighed 3,106.75 carats.
That is equal to 621 grams.
Sometimes gems are valuable because of their unusual color.
Most diamonds are colorless. The Hope diamond, the
worlds most famous diamond, has a slight blue color. In
1830, Henry Hope bought the diamond, which was then
named after him. Today, the 45.52 carat (9 gram) Hope
diamond is on display at the Smithsonian Institution in
Washington, D.C.
C Organize Information
Use two quarter sheets of

notebook paper. On one write
about gems. On the other write
about useful elements in
minerals.
Gems
Useful
Elements
in Minerals
Reading Essentials
25
Which gems are useful?

1.
Infer What physical

property of diamonds
makes them useful for
cutting stone and metal?
Some gems are as useful as they are beautiful. Diamonds

are the hardest minerals which makes them very useful. In
industry, diamonds are used on blades to cut through stone
or metal. Today, most diamonds used in industry are
artificial, or synthetic. They are made by humans. Scientists
have studied the structure of natural diamonds and copied
it to make synthetic diamonds that are just as hard.
Rubies are used to produce laser light. Laser light helps
with many different tasks. It sends television signals, guides
machinery, and even helps doctors in the operating room.
Quartz crystals are used in electronics and in clocks and
watches. When an electric field comes in contact with quartz
crystals, the quartz vibrates steadily. This vibration helps
control electronic devices and keeps timepieces accurate.
Useful Elements in Minerals

Gemstones are perhaps the best-known use of minerals,
but they are not the most important. Look around your
home. How many things made from minerals can you
name? Do you see anything made from iron?
2.
Identify Iron comes from

what ore?
You probably have many things that are made out of iron.
Frying pans, nails, and other objects may contain iron. Iron
is obtained from its ore, hematite. An ore is a mineral or rock
that contains a useful substance that is mined at a profit.
Picture This
3.
Apply another item made

from aluminum.
Aluminum comes from the ore bauxite. Before it can be

used, the aluminum in bauxite must be refined. In the
refining process, aluminum oxide powder is separated from
unwanted materials. The aluminum oxide powder is changed
to aluminum by a process called smelting. Aluminum can
be made into soft drink cans, bikes, cars, airplanes, and
many other useful things. Some items made from aluminum
are shown in the figure above.
26
Minerals
What is an ore?
What are vein minerals?

Under some conditions, metallic elements can dissolve in
liquids. The liquid flows through weaknesses in rocks and
forms mineral deposits. Weaknesses in rocks include natural
fractures or cracks, faults, and surfaces between layered rock
formations. Mineral deposits left behind that fill in the open
spaces created by the weaknesses are called vein mineral
deposits.
Sometimes vein mineral deposits fill in the empty spaces
after rocks collapse. Sphalerite is a mineral that sometimes
fills in spaces in collapsed limestone. Sphalerite is a source
of the element zinc, which is used in batteries.
4.
Describe Where do vein

mineral deposits form?
5.
Infer Why might a tennis
Which minerals contain titanium?

Titanium is a metallic element. It comes from minerals
that contain this metal in their crystal structures. Two
minerals, ilmenite (IHL muh nite) and rutile (rew TEEL),
are sources of titanium. Ilmenite and rutile are found in
rocks that form when magma cools and solidifies.
How is titanium used?

Titanium is used in many products, like the ones shown
below, because it is lightweight, strong, and long lasting. It is
used to make some parts of automobiles and aircraft, frames
for eyeglasses, wheelchair parts, bicycles, golf clubs, and
tennis rackets. It is used in hip or knee replacements.
Titanium is a useful element that improves the lives of
many humans.
player use a racket made of

titanium instead of one
made of wood?
Products Made from Titanium
Reading Essentials
27
After You Read

Mini Glossary
gem: valuable mineral that is both rare and beautiful, often
used in jewelry
ore: mineral or rock that contains a useful substance that can

be mined for prot
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Why do people value
gemstones?
2. Use the Venn diagram below to show how gems and ores are the same and how they are
different. In the outside circles, write how each is different. In the center, write how they
are both the same.
Gems
Ores
3. You and your partner talked about gems and ores. How did this help you understand
what you read?
End of
Section
28
Minerals

uses of minerals.
Both
chapter
33
Rocks
1
section
The Rock Cycle
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
Think about all the different rocks you have seen. Some may
have been shiny, others dull. Describe how the rocks you
have seen are different.
Read to Learn
What is a rock?
Different rocks have different characteristics. Some are
smooth, some are rough, some are striped, and some are
spotted.
what the rock cycle is

how rocks change
Underline As you read,

underline key words and
denitions. Underline ideas and
explanations that help you
understand the text.
What are common rocks?

Most buildings and public monuments are made from
common rock. Rock used for building stone often contains
one or more common materials, called rock-forming
minerals. Two rock-forming minerals are quartz and calcite.
A rock is a mixture of rock-forming minerals and other
materials such as volcanic glass, organic material, or other
natural materials.
A Draw and Label Make

a Foldable from two half sheets
of notebook paper to list facts
about rocks and to describe the
rock cycle.
The Rock Cycle

Scientists have created a model to show how rocks slowly
change over time. The rock cycle shows the processes that
create and change rocks. The three types of rocks shown in
the rock cycle are igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
The rock cycle shows how rocks can change from one type
of rock to another.
ocks
Rock Cycle
Reading Essentials
29
Picture This
1.
The Rock Cycle
Identify Use colored

Sediments
pencils to add information

to the rock cycle. Color
arrows that involve heat
red, weathering and
erosion green, cooling blue,
and compaction brown.
Compaction and
Sedimentary rock
cementation
Weathering
and erosion
Weathering
and erosion
Heat and
pressure
Weathering
and erosion
Igneous rock
Melting
Melting
Heat and
pressure
Metamorphic
rock
Melting
Cooling
Magma
The rock cycle in the figure above shows there are several
processes that change rocks. Weathering breaks down rocks
into tiny mineral grains, or sediments. Erosion moves the
sediments by wind or water. Layers of sediments pile up.
They are compacted, or packed down, by more layers of
sediment piling on top of them. Over time, the pressure of
compaction turns the sediment into sedimentary rock.
Heat and pressure deep inside Earth may change
sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock. The metamorphic
rock can then melt and later cool to form igneous rock. The
igneous rock may then be weathered into mineral grains.
The grains eventually form new sedimentary rock. Any rock
can change into any of the three major types of rock. A
rock can even change into another rock of the same type.
No matter what happens, the mineral material is never lost
or destroyed. It is conserved, or used in other forms.
2.
Determine Is mineral
material in rocks destroyed
or conserved during the
changes?
30
Rocks
Who discovered the rock cycle?

Scottish scientist James Hutton noticed that some rocks
have straight layers, while others are tilted. He saw that
some rocks are weathered, while others are not. Hutton
observed that rocks change constantly over time.
How do rocks change?
504_p01-16_MSS05_RE 6/14/04 4:09 PM Page 3 christ 301:goscanc:Reading Essentials - ES - 1:layouts:
After You Read

Mini Glossary
rock: mixture of rock-forming minerals and other materials
rock cycle: model that shows how rocks slowly change

over time
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence about
the rock cycle that explains how rocks change.
2. Fill in the blanks in the boxes below.
breaks rock into sediment.
moves sediment by wind or water.

Sediment settles and compacts forming
.
Heat and pressure turn it into
which is then broken into sediments by
3. You underlined the main words, facts, and ideas in this section. How did underlining
help you learn about and remember the different types of rocks?

the rock cycle.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
31
33
Rocks
2
section
Igneous Rocks
What Youll Learn
how igneous rocks form

how igneous rocks are
grouped
Study Coach
Map Complete
Definitions Create a
denition map. Write each
vocabulary word, its denition,
and ideas that tell about each
word. Your map should answer
the questions: What is it?
What is it like? and What are
some examples?
Before You Read

Think about an erupting volcano you may have seen on TV
or in the movies. On the lines below, describe what comes
out of an erupting volcano.
Read to Learn
Formation of Igneous Rocks
When a volcano erupts, red-hot material may flow out of
it. The extremely hot material is melted rock, called magma.
Magma flows like a liquid. When magma flows near or onto
Earths surface, it cools and hardens. Igneous rock forms
from the cooled and hardened magma.
How does magma become lava?

B Identification Make a
layered book with two sheets of

notebook paper. Write about
igneous rock as you read this
section. You can complete your
Foldable as you read Sections 3
and 4.
3 Types of Rocks
Igneous
32
Rocks
Inside Earth, the temperature and pressure in certain

places are just right to melt rocks. As a result, magma
forms. Magma can be found at depths ranging from near
Earths surface to about 150 km below the surface. The
temperature of magmas range from about 650C to 1,200C.
Where does the heat come from that melts rock inside
Earth? Some heat comes from the decay of radioactive
elements in rocks. Some heat is left from when Earth was
formed. At first, Earth was very hot, molten material.
Magma is less dense than the solid rock around it.
Because it is less dense, it is forced up toward Earths
surface. When magma reaches Earths surface and flows
from volcanoes, it is called lava.
chapter
What are intrusive igneous rocks?

Magma is melted rock made up of common elements and
liquids. Magma cools as it rises toward Earths surface. As
magma cools, the atoms and compounds in the liquid
rearrange themselves into new crystals called mineral grains.
As cooling continues, mineral grains grow together to form
rocks. Sometimes this process takes place beneath the
surface. Intrusive igneous rocks form from cooling magma
beneath Earths surface, as shown in the figure below. It
takes a long time for magma beneath Earths surface to cool.
Cooling is so slow, mineral grains grow quite large. Intrusive
igneous rock has large mineral grains.
Intrusive igneous rocks can be found on Earths surface.
After many years, the layers of rock and soil that once
covered them are removed by erosion. Erosion occurs when
the rocks are pushed up by forces inside Earth.
1.
Make Connections
The prex in means
inside. Where do intrusive
rocks form?
Lava flow
Picture This
2.
Label Write intrusive rock

where this rock forms. Write
extrusive rock where this
rock forms.
3.
Make Connections
Magma
What are extrusive igneous rocks?

Extrusive igneous rocks form as lava cools on the surface
of Earth, as shown in the figure above. When lava reaches
the surface, it is exposed to air and water, which cools it
quickly. The atoms in the liquid do not have time to
arrange into large crystals. Therefore, the mineral grains in
extrusive igneous rock are quite small.
The prex ex means

outside. Where do
extrusive rocks form?
Reading Essentials
33
What is volcanic glass?

Sometimes, lava that comes out of a volcano cools so
quickly that few or no mineral grains form. A rock that
forms from this quickly cooling lava is called volcanic glass.
Volcanic glass has few or no crystals because the atoms are
not arranged in an orderly pattern.
Obsidian is a volcanic glass that looks like shiny black
glass. Pumice and scoria are also volcanic glasses, but they
do not look like glass. They have lots of holes, or pores.
These materials form from a gooey liquid that contains
pockets of gases. Some of these gases escape and holes are
left where the rock formed around the gas pocket.
Classifying Igneous Rocks

Infer The word igneous
comes from the Latin word
ignis, which means re.
Why is igneous a good
word for this type of rock?
What are basaltic rocks?

Igneous rocks that are dense and dark-colored are
basaltic (buh SAWL tihk). They form from magma
containing a lot of iron and magnesium, but little silica,
which is made of silicon and oxygen. Basalt gets its dark
color from the iron and magnesium it contains. Basaltic lava
is fluid and flows freely.
What are granitic rocks?

Granitic igneous rocks are light-colored and not as dense
as basalt. They form from thick, stiff magma that contains
lots of silica, but smaller amounts of iron or magnesium.
Stiff granitic magma can build up lots of gas pressure. This
pressure is released in violent volcanic eruptions.
5.
Determine What is one

way basaltic and granitic
igneous rocks differ?
34
Rocks
What are andesitic rocks?

Andesitic igneous rocks have mineral compositions
between those of basalt and granite. Like granitic magma,
andesitic magma can produce violent volcanic eruptions.
4.
Igneous rocks can be grouped as either intrusive or

extrusive depending on how they are formed. Igneous rocks
can also be grouped according to the type of magma they
come from. An igneous rock can form from basaltic,
andesitic, or granitic magma. The type of magma that cools
to form an igneous rock affects the properties of that rock.
Some of the chemical and physical properties of a rock are
its mineral composition, density, color, and melting
temperature.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
basaltic: dense, dark igneous rock that forms from magma
containing a lot of iron and magnesium, but little silica
extrusive: igneous rocks that form when lava cools on the
surface of Earth
granitic: light-colored igneous rock that forms from thick
magma containing lots of silica, but little iron or
magnesium
igneous rock: rock that forms as magma or lava cools

and hardens
intrusive: igneous rocks that form beneath the surface
of Earth
lava: molten rock that ows from volcanoes onto
Earths surface
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write one sentence
that explains how igneous rock forms.
2. Fill in the blank boxes with words from this section.
that is dark and dense,

with lots of iron is called
that cools under
the surface is called
IGNEOUS ROCK
that cools on
the surface is called
that is light and less dense,

with lots of silica is called
3. How did using your definition map help you learn and remember the vocabulary words
in this section?

igneous rocks.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
35
33
Rocks
3
section
Metamorphic Rocks
What Youll Learn
how metamorphic rock

forms
how metamorphic rock
is classied
Study Coach
Main Ideas As you read,

write one sentence to
summarize the main idea in each
paragraph. Use vocabulary
words in your sentences.
Before You Read

Think about a time you packed a sandwich for lunch and
placed a can of juice or soda on top of it. Describe how the
sandwich looked at lunchtime and why it looked that way.
Read to Learn
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
Like a sandwich that has been flattened by a can of soda,
rocks can be affected by changes in pressure. Changes in
temperature also can affect rocks. Metamorphic rock is rock
that has been changed because of changes in temperature
and pressure, or the presence of hot, watery fluids. These
conditions may change the rocks form, the material it
contains, or both.
Metamorphic rock may form from sedimentary rocks,
igneous rocks, and even other metamorphic rocks.
How do heat and pressure change rock?
B List and Identify As

you read this section, use your
layered Foldable to list types of
metamorphic rock and to
describe each type.
3 Types of Rocks
Igneous
Metamorphic
36
Rocks
Rocks deep beneath Earths surface are under great

pressure from the layers of rock above them. Temperature
also increases with depth. In some areas, the pressure and
the temperature are just right to melt rock. The melted rock
forms magma. Different types of metamorphic rock may
form from the magma.
In other places deep inside Earth where there is a lot of
liquid, rocks do not melt. Instead, some mineral grains
dissolve in the liquid and then form new crystals. Under
these conditions, minerals sometimes exchange atoms with
surrounding minerals and new minerals form.
chapter
How does shale change to gneiss?

Depending on the amount of pressure and the
temperature under Earth, one type of rock can change into
several different types of metamorphic rock. For example,
shale, a sedimentary rock, will change into slate, a
metamorphic rock. As the temperature and pressure on it
increase, the slate can change into phyllite, then into schist,
and finally into gneiss (NISE).
How do hot fluids change rock?

Hot fluids from magma flow through spaces in and
between underground rocks. The hot fluids are mostly
water, but they also contain dissolved elements and
compounds. These fluids can react with the rock they flow
through and change its composition. As shown in the figure
below, the hot fluid flows into the rock and chemically
changes it into a type of metamorphic rock.
Picture This
1.
Highlight Use a colored

marker or pencil to
highlight the rocks in the
gure that are being
changed by the hot uid
from magma.
2.
Identify Name three

things that cause rocks to
change into metamorphic
rock.
Altered rock
Magma
Classifying Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks form from igneous, sedimentary, or
other metamorphic rocks. Heat, pressure, and hot fluids
cause these rocks to change. The types of metamorphic
rocks that form can be classified based on their composition
and texture.
Reading Essentials
37
What are foliated rocks?

As some metamorphic rocks form, their mineral grains
line up in parallel layers. Metamorphic rocks with a foliated
texture have parallel layers of mineral grains. For example,
slate is a metamorphic rock that forms from shale, a
sedimentary rock. When shale is exposed to heat and
pressure, it changes. Its mineral grains line up in parallel
layers to form slate, a foliated metamorphic rock.
3.
Describe How do the

layers look in a foliated
metamorphic rock?
Slate Slates parallel layers of mineral grains are pressed so

tightly together that water cannot pass between them easily.
Slate also breaks into smooth, flat pieces. Because it sheds
water and splits smoothly, slate is often used for paving
stones and roofing tiles.
Gneiss Gneiss is a foliated rock that forms when granite
and other rocks are changed by heat and pressure. The
foliated texture of gneiss is easily seen in its light and dark
bands. As gneiss forms, the movement of atoms separates
the dark minerals in the rock from the light-colored
minerals in the rock.
Some metamorphic rocks are formed without layers. In
these rocks, the mineral grains grow and rearrange, but do
not form layers. Nonfoliated rocks are metamorphic rocks
that form without a layered texture.
4.
Determine What is the

name of metamorphic rocks
that form without layers?
Sandstone Sandstone is a sedimentary rock made mostly of

quartz grains. When it is heated under a lot of pressure,
sandstone is changed into quartzite. Heat and pressure cause
the sandstones quartz grains to grow larger and lock
together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. The quartz grains in
quartzite are not in layers, so quartzite is a nonfoliated rock.
Marble Another nonfoliated metamorphic rock is marble.
Marble forms from limestone that is under great heat and
pressure. Limestone contains the mineral calcite. Heat and
pressure change the calcite into marble, which does not have
a layered texture. In fact, marbles fine, smooth texture
makes it the perfect material for sculptures and buildings.
38
Rocks
What are nonfoliated rocks?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
foliated: metamorphic rock whose mineral grains are lined
up in parallel layers
metamorphic rock: rock that has been changed by heat,
pressure, or the presence of hot uids
nonfoliated: metamorphic rock whose minerals grow and

rearrange themselves in a nonlayered texture
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that
describes the difference between foliated metamorphic rock and nonfoliated
metamorphic rock.
2. Fill in the blanks in the boxes below to organize the information from this section.
Rocks are changed into
metamorphic rocks
with
layered
mineral
grains
have a
with
nonlayered
mineral
grains
have a
texture
texture
by
3. In this section you were asked to write sentences using the vocabulary words to
summarize the main ideas. How did this help you understand what you read?

metamorphic rocks.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
39
33
Rocks
4
section
Sedimentary Rocks
What Youll Learn
how sedimentary rocks

form
how sedimentary rocks
are classied
Study Coach
Sticky-note Discussion
Use sticky notes to mark places
in the text that you nd
interesting or that you have a
question about. Write your
comment or question on the
sticky note and stick it to the
page.
B Organize Use your
Foldable to help you organize

sedimentary rocks into groups
based on their characteristics.
3 Types of Rocks
Igneous
Metamorphic
Sedimentary
40
Rocks
Before You Read

Imagine you are stacking slices of bread, one on top of the
other. Then you put a heavy book on top of the stack and
leave it there overnight. Describe how the slices of bread
might look the next day.
Read to Learn
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
Weathering breaks down rocks into sediment. Sediment is
the loose material, such as tiny pieces of rock, mineral
grains, and bits of shell, that are moved by wind, water, ice,
or gravity. Sediments come from already-existing rocks that
are weathered and eroded.
Sedimentary rock forms when sediments are pressed and
cemented together, or when minerals form from solutions.
About 75 percent of the rocks you see on Earths surface are
sedimentary rocks.
What do sedimentary rocks look like?

Sedimentary rocks often form as layers, like a stack of
papers. The older layers are at the bottom because they were
deposited first. The newer layers are at the top because they
were deposited later. If sedimentary rock is not disturbed,
the layers will remain in place, with the oldest at the bottom
and youngest at the top.
Sometimes, though, forces within Earth overturn layers of
sedimentary rock. Then, the oldest layers are no longer on
the bottom. The order of the layers is changed.
chapter
Classifying Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks can be made of just about any material
in nature. Sediments come from weathered and eroded
sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rock. Sediments
also can come from the remains of some organisms. The
composition of a sedimentary rock depends on what types
of sediments formed it.
Sedimentary rocks are classified by what they are made of.
They are also classified by the way in which they formed.
Sedimentary rocks are classified as detrital, chemical, or
organic.
1.
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
Identify the three classes

of sedimentary rock.
The word detrital (dih TRI tul) comes from the Latin
word detritus, which means to wear away. Detrital
sedimentary rocks are made from the broken pieces of other
rocks. The tiny pieces are compacted and cemented together
to form solid sedimentary rock.
What are weathering and erosion?
Weathering is the process in which air, water, or ice breaks

down rocks into smaller and smaller pieces. The movement
of weathered material is called erosion.
What is compaction?
Erosion moves sediments to a new place, where they are
deposited in a thin layer. Over time, layer upon layer of
sediment builds up. The weight of the top layers pushes
down on the lower layers. Downward pressure causes small
sediments to stick together and form solid rock. The process
in which layers of sediments are pressed together to form
rock is called compaction. The figure below shows how rock
pieces are compacted to form sedimentary rock.
Picture This
2.
Describe Use a colored

pencil to color in the spaces
between the sediments in
each gure. What happens
to the spaces as the
sediments form rock?
Compaction of Sediments
Reading Essentials
41
Picture This
3.
Cementation
Outline with your pencil

the spaces between
sediments where water and
dissolved minerals move.
What is cementation?
4.
Identify What is
necessary for the process of
cementation to take
placewind, water, or air?
Large sediments, like sand grains and pebbles, cannot

form rock from pressure alone. These large sediments form
rock only if something helps them stick together.
As water moves through rock and soil, it picks up materials
released by the weathering of minerals. The resulting solution
of water and dissolved minerals moves through open spaces
between larger sediments. The solution acts as a kind of
glue that holds the large sediments together. Cementation is
the process in which sediments are held together by
dissolved minerals produced when water moves through
rock. Minerals such as quartz, calcite, and hematite make
the best cement for holding large sediments together.
Detrital rocks have a grainy texture, like grains of sugar.
They are named according to the shapes and sizes of the
sediments that form them. For example, conglomerate and
breccia (BRECH uh) are detrital rocks that form from large
sediments. If the sediments are rounded, the rock is called
conglomerate. If the sediments have sharp angles, the rock is
called breccia. The farther sediments are carried by wind,
water, or ice, the more rounded they become.
5.
Infer Which has probably
What materials are found in sedimentary rocks?
been carried farther by

wind and waterthe
sediment in conglomerate
rocks or breccia rocks?
Conglomerate and breccia are formed from gravel-sized

sediments that are cemented together by quartz or calcite.
These sediments may come from the minerals quartz or
feldspar, or may contain chunks of other rocks, such as
gneiss, granite, or limestone.
Sandstone forms from small sediments. The sand-sized
sediments in sandstone can come from almost any mineral,
though they usually come from quartz and feldspar. Shale is
a detrital sedimentary rock that is made from the smallest
clay sediments.
42
Rocks
What are the shapes and sizes of sediments?
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

When water evaporates from a salt solution, salt grains
remain. In a similar way, when the water in a lake evaporates,
its minerals remain. The remaining mineral deposits form
sediments which, in turn, form rocks. Chemical sedimentary
rocks form when dissolved minerals come out of solution
and form sediments that become rocks.
How does limestone form?
6.
Explain What do
chemical sedimentary rocks
form from?
7.
Determine What do all
Calcium carbonate is found dissolved in ocean water.

Calcium carbonate comes out of solution as the mineral
calcite. Calcite forms crystals, which bond to form limestone,
usually on the bottom of lakes and shallow seas. Long ago,
the central United States was covered with a shallow sea.
Over time, the water evaporated. As a result, much of the
central United States has limestone bedrock.
How does rock salt form?

Some bodies of water contain a lot of dissolved salts. When
the water evaporates, it deposits the mineral halite, or rock
salt. Rock salt is mined. It is used in manufacturing glass,
paper, and soap. It is also made into table salt.
Organic Sedimentary Rocks

Rocks made of materials that were once living things are
called organic sedimentary rocks. One of the most common
organic sedimentary rocks is fossil-rich limestone. It is made
of the remains of once-living ocean organisms. Ocean animals,
such as clams and snails, make their shells out of calcium
carbonate, which eventually becomes calcite. When the
animals die, their shells pile up and become cemented
together to form fossil-rich limestone.
What are other organic sedimentary rocks?

Chalk Chalk is an organic sedimentary rock that is made
up of extremely tiny bits of animal shells. When you write
with chalk, you are crushing and smearing the calcite shell
remains of once-living ocean animals.
organic sedimentary rocks

contain?
Coal Coal is a useful organic sedimentary rock that forms

when pieces of dead plants are buried under other sediments
in swamps. The plant material is chemically changed. The
resulting sediments are compacted to form coal. Today, coal
is a fuel used in power plants to make electricity.
Reading Essentials
43
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cementation: process in which sediments are held together
by dissolved minerals produced when water moves
through rock
compaction: process in which layers of sediments are
pressed together to form rock
sediment: loose material, such as tiny pieces of rock, mineral

grains, and bits of shell, that are weathered from rocks
and carried by wind or water
sedimentary rock: rock that forms when sediments are
pressed and cemented together, or when minerals form
from solutions
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write one or two
sentences that describe how sediments form sedimentary rocks. Use the terms in
your answer.
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
that is made from

broken pieces of rock
is called
that is made from

minerals that come out
of solution is called
forms through
that is made from

once-living things
is called
and
of sediments.
3. You used sticky notes to write comments or questions about this section. How did using
sticky notes help you understand sedimentary rocks?
End of
Section
44
Rocks

sedimentary rocks.
2.
chapter
43
Atmosphere
1
section
Earths Atmosphere
Before You Read

Imagine you are on a spaceship looking down at Earth.
Would the view be perfectly clear? What do you think you
might see surrounding Earth? Write your thoughts on the
lines below.
Read to Learn
Importance of the Atmosphere

Earths atmosphere is a thin layer of gases, solids, and
liquids that surround the planet forming a protective covering.
The covering keeps Earth from getting too hot or too cold.
The atmosphere keeps Earth from absorbing too much heat
from the Sun. It also keeps too much heat from escaping
into space. Without protection from the atmosphere, life on
Earth could not exist.
Makeup of the Atmosphere

Viewed from space Earths atmosphere today has a thin
layer of gases. White clouds usually cover at least half the
planet. Between gaps in the clouds, the blue color of the
ocean waters shows through.
Earths early atmosphere was very different from the
atmosphere we know today. The early atmosphere was
produced by erupting volcanoes. They released nitrogen and
carbon dioxide, but little oxygen. Then, about 2 billion years
ago, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere began to
increase.
What Youll Learn
the gases in Earths

atmosphere
the structure of Earths
atmosphere
what causes air
pressure
Study Coach
Flash Cards Make ash cards

to help you learn more about
this section. Write the question
on one side of the ash card and
the answer on the other. Keep
quizzing yourself until you know
all the answers.
A Organize Make a three
tab Foldable to help you learn

about gases, solids, and liquids
in Earths atmosphere.
Gases
Some
suspended
solids
Some
liquids
Reading Essentials
45
What caused the atmosphere to change?

Early organisms that lived in the ocean used sunlight to
make food. While making food, the organisms released
oxygen into the atmosphere.
The oxygen formed a layer of ozone molecules around
Earth. The ozone layer protects Earth from the Suns harmful
rays. Over time, this protective ozone layer enabled green
plants to grow on land. The green plants released even more
oxygen. Today, many living things on Earth, including
humans, depend on oxygen to survive.
Applying Math
1.
Fractions Which is the

most accurate fraction for
the amount of oxygen
contained in Earths
atmosphereabout 15,
about 23, about 34?
Argon
(0.93%)
Carbon
dioxide
(0.03%)
Neon
Helium
Methane
Krypton Trace 1%
Xenon
Hydrogen
Ozone
21%
Oxygen
78%
Nitrogen
As shown in the figure above, 78 percent of Earths

atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. Oxygen makes up 21
percent of the atmosphere. Small amounts of other gases
make up the remaining 1 percent.
The composition of the atmosphere is changing in small but
important ways. For example, humans burn fuel for energy.
As fuel is burned, carbon dioxide is released as a by-product
into Earths atmosphere. Increasing energy use may increase
the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
What solids and liquids are in Earths

atmosphere?
2.
List three solids found in

Earths atmosphere.
46
Atmosphere
In addition to gases, Earths atmosphere contains small, solid

particles such as dust, salt, and pollen. Dust particles get into
the atmosphere when wind picks them up off the ground.
Salt is picked up from ocean spray. Plants give off pollen
that becomes mixed throughout part of the atmosphere.
The atmosphere also contains small liquid droplets, other
than water droplets in clouds. The atmosphere moves these
liquid droplets and solids from one area to another.
What gases make up Earths atmosphere?
Layers of the Atmosphere

What would happen if a glass of chocolate milk was left
untouched on a kitchen counter? Eventually, a lower layer,
heavy with chocolate, would separate and fall to the bottom
of the glass.
Like a glass of chocolate milk, Earths atmosphere has
layers. There are five layers in the atmosphere, as shown in
the figure below. There are two lower layers: the troposphere
(TRO puh sfihr) and the stratosphere (STRA tuh sfihr). The
three upper layers of the atmosphere are: the mesosphere
(MEZ uh sfihr), the thermosphere (THUR muh sfihr), and
the exosphere (EK soh sfihr). Most of the air is contained in
the troposphere and the stratosphere.
What are the lower layers of the atmosphere?
3.
The troposphere is the layer of Earths atmosphere that is

closest to the ground. It contains 99 percent of the water
vapor and 75 percent of the atmospheric gases. The
troposphere is where clouds and weather occur. It extends
up to about 10 km from Earths surface.
The stratosphere is the layer of Earths atmosphere
directly above the troposphere. As the figure shows, the
ozone layer is found within the stratosphere.
Identify What are the

two lower layers of the
atmosphere?
Layers of the Atmosphere

Satellite
Exosphere
500 km
Space shuttle
Meteor trails
Thermosphere
85 km
Mesosphere
50 km
Ozone layer
Stratosphere
Jet
10 km
Troposphere
Picture This
4.
Interpret In what layer

of the atmosphere do
satellites orbit?
Earth
Reading Essentials
47
5.
Identify Which of these

is the hottest and thickest
layer of the atmosphere:
the mesosphere, the
thermosphere, or the
ionosphere?
The mesosphere is the third layer of the atmosphere. It

extends from the top of the stratosphere to about 85 km
above Earth.
The thermosphere is named for its high temperatures.
The thermosphere is the fourth layer of the atmosphere
and is its hottest and thickest layer. It is found between
85 km and 500 km above Earths surface.
The ionosphere (I AH nuh sfihr) is within the
mesosphere and thermosphere. The ionosphere is a layer of
electrically charged particles that absorbs AM radio waves
during the day and reflects them back at night. Because of
this, daytime listeners cannot hear AM radio broadcasts
from distant stations. When the ionosphere reflects radio
waves at night, listeners can hear the distant stations they
could not pick up during the day.
What causes this night and day difference between how
far radio waves travel? During the day, energy from the Sun
interacts with particles in the ionosphere. The interaction
causes them to absorb AM radio frequencies. At night, the
Suns energy is not available and it does not interact with
the particles in the ionosphere. This is why radio waves can
travel greater distances at night as shown in the figure
below.
The exosphere is the top layer of the atmosphere. The
exosphere is very thin because it contains so few molecules.
Beyond the exosphere is outer space.
Picture This
6.
Radio Waves in the Ionosphere
Determine What is
reected by the ionosphere
at night but not during
the day?
Day
Night
AM radio transmitter
Radio waves
Receiving antenna
ere
Ionosph
Boise
New Jersey
48
Atmosphere
What are the upper layers of the atmosphere?
Atmospheric Pressure
Imagine a football player running with the ball. Suddenly,
six other players tackle him. They pile one on top of the
other. Who feels the weight morethe player on the
bottom holding the ball, or the one on top? The player on
the bottom, of course. Why? A great mass of bodies is
pressing down on him.
What is pressure?
Air Molecules
The molecules that make up human

beings have mass. Atmospheric gases
have mass, too. Atmospheric gases extend
hundreds of kilometers above Earths
surface. Earths gravity pulls these gases
toward its surface. The weight of these
gases presses down on the air below. As
a result, the gas molecules nearer Earths
surface are closer together as shown in
the figure to the right. This dense
air close to the ground exerts more force
than the less dense air near the top of
the atmosphere. Pressure is the force
exerted on an area.
Picture This
7.
Interpret Why do the air

molecules at the bottom of
the gure exert more
pressure than those at the
top?
Air pressure is greater near Earths surface, where

molecules are closer together. Air pressure decreases in air
that is further from Earths surface. In other words, air
pressure decreases with altitude as shown in the graph below.
Picture This
Air Pressure Changes with Altitude

Pressure (millibars)
What affects air pressure?
1000
8.
Estimate What is the air

pressure at an altitude of
5 km?
800
600
400
200
0
10
20
30
Altitude (km)
40
50
Because air pressure decreases with altitude, it is harder to

breathe in the mountains than it is at the seashore. Jet airplanes
maintain an inside air pressure that matches the air pressure
on the ground. If the inside of the plane was not pressurized,
people flying high above Earths surface could not breathe.
Reading Essentials
49
Temperature in Atmospheric Layers

9.
Explain Why do
different layers of Earths
atmosphere have different
temperatures?
Most of the energy on Earth comes from the Sun. This

energy must pass through the atmosphere before it reaches
Earths surface. Some layers of the atmosphere contain gases
that easily absorb the Suns energy. Other layers do not
contain these gases. As a result, different atmospheric layers
have different temperatures as shown in the graph below.
Temperature of the Atmosphere at Various Altitudes
500
11.
Interpret Look at the

graph of atmospheric
temperatures. Does the
temperature in the
thermosphere increase or
decrease with altitude?
Compare Are the air

molecules in the
troposphere warmed
mainly by the Suns heat or
by the heat from Earths
surface?
50
Atmosphere
Molecules that make up the air in the troposphere are

warmed mostly by heat from Earths surface. The Sun warms
Earths surface, which then warms the air right above it. For
every kilometer above Earths surface, the air temperature
falls about 6.5C. As a result, the air at the top of a mountain
usually is cooler than the air at the bottom.
In the stratosphere, molecules of ozone absorb some of
the Suns energy. Energy absorbed by these molecules raises
the temperature. The upper part of the stratosphere has
more ozone molecules than the lower part does. Therefore,
the temperature in this layer rises with increasing altitude.
Like the troposphere, the temperature in the mesosphere
decreases with altitude. The thermosphere and the exosphere
are closest to the Sun. These layers have fewer molecules,
but each molecule has a lot of energy. Temperatures here
are high.
10.
120
110
100
90
Mesosphere
80
70
60
50
Stratosphere
40
Highest
30 concentration
Temperature
of ozone
20
10
Troposphere
0
100 80 60 40 20
0
20 400 600 800
Temperature (C)
Altitude (km)
Picture This
Exosphere
Thermosphere
The Ozone Layer

The ozone layer lies within the stratosphere about 19 km
to 48 km above the ground. Ozone is made of oxygen. All
life depends on the ozone layer.
The oxygen you breathe has two atoms per molecule. An
ozone molecule is made up of three oxygen atoms. The ozone
layer contains a high concentration of ozone and shields
you from the Suns harmful energy. How? Ozone absorbs
most of the ultraviolet radiation that enters the atmosphere.
Ultraviolet radiation is a type of energy that comes to
Earth from the Sun. Too much exposure to ultraviolet
radiation can damage your skin and cause cancer.
12.
Identify What does

ozone absorb?
What are CFCs?

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are chemical compounds
used in some refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosol sprays,
and production of foam packaging. Evidence exists that
CFCs are one type of air pollutant destroying Earths
protective ozone layer.
CFCs can enter the atmosphere in different ways. CFCs
can leak from appliances. Sometimes CFCs escape when
products containing them are not disposed of properly.
Molecules from CFCs can break apart ozone molecules.
Each ozone molecule is made up of three oxygen atoms
bonded together. Each CFC molecule has three chlorine
atoms. When a chlorine atom from a CFC molecule comes
near a molecule of ozone, the ozone molecule breaks apart.
One atom of chlorine can destroy about 100,000 ozone
molecules. As a result, more harmful ultraviolet rays reach
Earths surface.
13.
Explain Name one way

CFCs can enter the
atmosphere.
14.
Recall Where is the
What is the ozone hole?

The destruction of ozone molecules by CFCs seems to
cause a seasonal reduction in ozone over Antarctica called
the ozone hole. Every year beginning in late August or early
September the amount of ozone in the atmosphere over
Antarctica begins to decrease. By October, the ozone
concentration is at its lowest point. Then it begins to
increase again. By December, the ozone hole disappears.
In the mid-1990s, many governments banned the
production and use of CFCs. As a result, there are fewer
CFC molecules in the atmosphere today.
ozone hole located?
Reading Essentials
51
After You Read

Mini Glossary
atmosphere: Earths air, which is made up of a thin layer of
gases, solids, and liquids; forms a protective layer around
the planet and is divided into ve distinct layers
chlorouorocarbons (CFCs): group of chemical compounds
used in refrigerators, air conditioners, production of
foam packaging, and aerosol sprays that may enter the
atmosphere and destroy ozone
exosphere (EK soh shr): top layer of the atmosphere
ionosphere(I AH nuh shr): layer of electrically charged
particles in the thermosphere that absorbs AM radio
waves during the day and reects them back at night
mesosphere (MEZ uh shr): third layer of the atmosphere
that extends from the top of the stratosphere to about
85 km above Earth
ozone layer: layer of the stratosphere with a high

concentration of ozone; absorbs most of the Suns
harmful ultraviolet radiation
pressure: the force exerted on a surface
stratosphere (STRA tuh shr): layer of Earths
atmosphere directly above the troposphere
thermosphere (THUR muh shr): fourth layer of Earths
atmosphere, and its thickest layer; has high
temperatures
troposphere (TRO puh shr): layer of Earths atmosphere
that is closest to the ground
ultraviolet radiation: type of energy that comes to Earth
from the Sun
2. List the layers of the atmosphere in order. Begin with the top layer and end with the
layer closest to Earths surface.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
End of
Section
52
Atmosphere

Earths atmosphere.
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains
why the ozone layer is important.
chapter
43
Atmosphere
2
section
Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
Imagine you are outside on a warm, sunny day. On the lines

below, describe how the Sun feels on your skin.
Read to Learn
what happens to the

Suns energy on Earth
about radiation,
conduction, and
convection
what the water cycle is
Identify the Main Point
Energy from the Sun

The Sun provides most of Earths energy. The energy

from the Sun drives winds and ocean currents. It allows
plants to grow and produce food. Plants, in turn, serve as
food for the animals that eat them. Three different things
can happen to the energy Earth gets from the Sun. Some of
the energy is reflected back into space by clouds, particles,
and Earths surface.
Some of it is
6%
absorbed by the
reflected
by the
atmosphere. Some
atmosphere
of the energy is
absorbed by land
and water on
25%
Earths surface.
15%
reflected
The figure shows
absorbed
4%
from clouds
by the
how much solar
reflected
atmosphere
from
Earths
radiation is
surface
reflected and
absorbed at
Earths surface.
50% directly or indirectly
Highlight the main point in each

paragraph. Highlight in a
different color a detail or
example that helps explain the
main point.
Picture This
1.
Interpret What happens

to most of the Suns
energy?
absorbed by Earths surface
Reading Essentials
53
Heat
B Illustrate and Label
Make a three-tab Foldable to

illustrate and describe radiation,
conduction, and convection.
Radiation
Conduction Convection
Heat is energy that flows from an object with a higher

temperature to an object with a lower temperature. Energy
from the Sun reaches Earths surface and heats it. This heat
is sent, or transferred, through the atmosphere. Heat is
transferred by radiation, conduction, and convection.
What is radiation?
When the sun is out, you can feel it warming your face. It
warms you even though you are not in direct contact with
it. How is this possible?
Energy from the Sun reaches Earth in the form of radiant
energy, or radiation. Radiation is energy that is transferred
in the form of rays or waves. Earth radiates, or sends, some
of the energy it absorbs from the Sun back toward space.
Radiant energy from the Sun warms your face.
Walking barefoot on a hot beach will heat up your feet.
Heat is transferred to your feet because of conduction.
Conduction is the transfer of energy that occurs when
molecules bump into each other. Molecules are always in
motion. But molecules in warmer objects move faster than
molecules in cooler objects. When objects are in contact,
energy is transferred from warmer objects, like hot sand, to
cooler objects, like your feet.
Radiation from the Sun heated the sand. But direct
contact with the sand warmed your feet. In the same way,
Earths surface conducts, or transfers, energy directly to the
atmosphere. When air moves over warm land or water,
molecules in air are heated by direct contact.
What is convection?
2.
Explain How do different

air temperatures form a
convection current?
54
Atmosphere
Convection is another way heat is transferred. It occurs

after the atmosphere is warmed by radiation or conduction.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the flow of material.
Convection circulates, or moves, heat throughout the
atmosphere. How does this happen?
When air is warmed, the molecules in it move apart. The
air becomes less dense. Air pressure decreases because fewer
molecules are in the same space. In cold air, molecules move
closer together. The air becomes more dense and air
pressure increases. Cooler, denser air sinks while warmer,
less dense air rises. This forms a convection current.
What is conduction?
The Water Cycle

Hydrosphere is a term that describes all the water on
Earths surface. As shown in the figure below, there is a
constant cycling of water between the hydrosphere and the
atmosphere. This constant exchange of water helps to
determine Earths weather patterns and climate types.
Picture This
Precipitation
Condensation
3.
Determine Circle the

process which occurs when
water falls as rain, snow, or
sleet. What is the process?
Evaporation
Runoff
Heres how the water cycle works. Energy from the Sun
causes water from lakes, streams, and oceans to change from
a liquid to a gas by a process called evaporation. The gas, or
water vapor, enters Earths atmosphere. If the water vapor
cools enough, it turns back into water. Condensation is the
process that occurs when water vapor cools and changes
back into a liquid.
Clouds form when condensation occurs high in the
atmosphere. Clouds are made up of tiny droplets of water.
As these tiny droplets run into each other, they form larger
drops. As the water drops grow, they become too large to be
held in the air. The drops fall to earth as precipitation, or
rain, snow, or sleet. This completes the cycle of returning
water to the hydrosphere.
4.
Earths Atmosphere is Unique
Identify What process

forms clouds?
Why doesnt life exist on Mars or Venus? The atmosphere

on Mars is too thin to hold much of the Suns heat. As a
result, it is too cold on Mars for living things to survive. On
the other hand, Venus is too hot to support life. Gases in
Venuss dense atmosphere trap far too much heat from the
Sun. Earth is neither too hot nor too cold. Its atmosphere
holds just the right amount of the Suns energy to support life.
Reading Essentials
55
After You Read

Mini Glossary
condensation: process in which water vapor changes to a
liquid
conduction: transfer of energy that occurs when molecules
bump into each other
convection: transfer of heat by the ow of material

hydrosphere: all the water on Earths surface
radiation: energy transferred by waves or rays
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term and use it
in a sentence telling how it affects energy transfer in the atmosphere.
2. Fill in the cycle map below to show the water cycle. Use these words to help you.
Water vapor
precipitation
condensation
clouds
energy
Water vapor
turns back into water in
process called
in _______________ and
form larger drops.
Suns
_______________ causes
water to change to water
vapor.
Water drops
fall to earth as
_______________.
3. Think about what you have learned. How would highlighting the main points and details
help you to study for a test?
End of
Section
56
Atmosphere

energy transfer in the atmosphere.
Water
droplets come together
______________.
_______________
enters atmosphere and
begins to cool.
chapter
43
Atmosphere
3
section
Air Movement
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
why different altitudes

receive different
amounts of solar energy
about Coriolis effect
how air is affected by
land and water surfaces
below it
When you think of the word wind what comes to mind?

Brainstorm some words and write them on the lines below.
Read to Learn
Forming Wind
Earth is mostly rock or land. Three-fourths of Earths
surface is covered by the oceans. These two areas strongly
affect wind systems all over Earth.
Because the Sun heats Earth unevenly, some areas are
warmer than others. Remember that warmer air expands
and becomes less dense than cold air. As a result, air
pressure is lower in areas where air is heated. Wind is the
movement of air from an area of higher pressure to an area
of lower pressure.
Study Coach
State the Main Ideas As

you read this section, stop after
each paragraph and put what
you have just read into your own
words.
What is heated air?

Different areas of Earth receive different amounts of
radiation from the Sun. Why? Because Earths surface is
curved. The equator receives more radiation than areas north
or south of it. The Suns rays hit the equator more directly.
Because air at the equator is warm, it is less dense. So it is
displaced, or moved, by denser, colder air. Remember that
when cooler, denser air sinks while warmer, less dense air
rises, a convection current forms. The cold, dense air comes
from the poles. They receive less radiation from the Sun,
because its rays strike the poles at an angle, spreading out
the energy. The resulting dense, high-pressure air sinks and
moves along Earths surface. However, there is more to wind
than dense air sinking and less dense air rising.
C Classify Make a threecolumn Foldable to help you

understand the main causes of
air movement.
Convection
currents
Polar
jet
stream
Land
breeze
Coriolis
effect
Global
winds
Sea
breeze
Reading Essentials
57
What is the Coriolis effect?
1.
Determine What causes

moving air and water to
appear to turn one way in
the southern hemisphere
and the opposite way in the
northern hemisphere?
What would happen if you threw a ball to a person sitting

across from you on a moving merry-go-round? By the time
the ball got to the opposite side, the other person would
have moved and the ball would appear to have curved.
Like the merry-go-round, the rotation of Earth causes the
Coriolis (kohr ee OH lus) effect. The Coriolis effect causes
moving air and water to appear to turn to their left in the
southern hemisphere (south of the equator) and to turn to
the right in the northern hemisphere (north of the equator)
due to Earths rotation. This effect is illustrated in the figure
below. The flow of air caused by the Coriolis effect and by
differences in the amount of solar radiation received on
Earths surface creates wind patterns on Earths surface.
These wind patterns influence the weather.
N
Equ
ato
r
Path of wind
without Coriolis
effect
Picture This
2.
Explain Do winds turn to

their left or their right north
of the equator?
S
Earth's rotation
Global Winds
3.
Identify What is the

name of the windless, rainy
zone near the equator?
58
Atmosphere
How did Christopher Columbus get from Spain to the

Americas? The Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria had no
source of power other than the wind in their sails.
Early sailors used wind patterns to help them navigate the
oceans. Near the equator, there sometimes was little or no
wind to fill the sails of their ships. It also rained nearly every
afternoon. Why? Because air near the equator has been heated
by the Sun. Warm air rises, creating low pressure and little
wind. The rising air then cools and causes rain. This windless,
rainy zone near the equator is called the doldrums.
Actual path of wind
Picture This
Earths Winds
4.
60N
Polar easterlies
Identify Which winds are

located on either side of the
Equatorial doldrums?
Westerlies
30N
Trade winds
Equatorial doldrums
Trade winds
30S
Westerlies
60S
Polar easterlies
What winds blow near Earths surface?

The figure above shows some of the winds that blow near
Earths surface. These prevailing winds move heat and
moisture around Earth.
Trade Winds Air descending to Earths surface near 30
north latitude and 30 south latitude creates steady winds.
These winds blow in tropical regions. Early sailors liked
them because they moved their ships along quickly. Sailors
named them trade winds because they relied on these winds
to help them sail to many places to trade goods.
Prevailing westerlies Between 30 latitude and 60 latitude
in the northern and southern hemispheres, winds called the
prevailing westerlies blow. These winds blow in the opposite
direction from the trade winds. Prevailing westerlies cause
much of the movement of weather across North America.
5.
Explain Why would

sailors like trade winds?
Polar easterlies Another surface wind, polar easterlies, are

found near the poles. Near the north pole, easterlies blow
from northeast to southwest. Near the south pole, polar
easterlies blow from the southeast to the northwest.
Reading Essentials
59
What winds are in the upper troposphere?
6.
Define What are the

narrow bands of strong
winds that blow near the
top of the troposphere?
Jet streams are narrow bands of strong winds that blow

near the top of the troposphere. The polar jet stream
affecting North America forms along a boundary where
colder air lies to the north and warmer air lies to the south.
It moves faster in the winter because there is a greater
difference between cold air and warm air. As the figure below
shows, the polar jet stream moves in a wavy west-to-east
direction. It is usually found between 10 km and 15 km
above Earths surface.
Cold air
Polar j
et stream
Picture This
Determine Trace with
your pencil the direction of
the polar jet stream. Is it
moving east to west or west
to east?
Warm air
What are the effects of the jet stream?

The jet stream helps move storms across the country from
the west to the east. Jet pilots use information about jet
streams to help them fly. When flying to the east, planes
save time and fuel. Going west, planes avoid the jet stream
by flying at a different altitude. Flying from Boston to
Seattle may take 30 minutes longer than flying from Seattle
to Boston.
8.
Infer Why would it take

longer to y from east to
west than from west to
east?
60
Atmosphere
Local Wind Systems

Major weather patterns for the entire planet are
determined by global wind systems. Local weather is
affected by smaller wind systems. Those who live near large
bodies of water experience two such wind systems. They are
sea breezes and land breezes.
7.
Sea Breeze
Picture This
9.
Interpret What is
happening to the warm air
in both gures?
Land Breeze
What causes sea breezes and land breezes?

Convection currents over areas where the land meets the
sea can cause wind. During the day, the Suns heat warms
the land more than it warms the water. A sea breeze is the
movement of air from sea to land during the day. Air over
the land is heated by conduction. This heated air is less
dense and has lower pressure. Cooler, denser air over the
water has higher pressure and flows towards the warmer,
less dense air above the land. A convection current results,
and wind blows from the sea toward the land.
At night, the land and the air above it cools much faster
than ocean water. Cooler, denser air above the land moves
over the water, as the warm air over the water rises. The
movement of air from land to sea is a land breeze.
10.
Identify What causes

wind over areas where the
land and sea meet?
Reading Essentials
61
After You Read

Mini Glossary
Coriolis (kohr ee OH lus) effect: causes moving air and
water to appear to turn left in the southern hemisphere
and turn right in the northern hemisphere due to Earths
rotation
jet streams: narrow bands of strong winds that blow near
the top of the troposphere
land breeze: movement of air from land to sea at night,

created when cooler, denser air from the land forces
warmer air over the sea
sea breeze: movement of air from sea to land during the day
when cooler air above the water moves over the land
forcing the heated, less dense air above the land to rise
wind: the movement of air from an area of higher pressure to
an area of lower pressure
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then choose one of the
definitions and write it in a sentence in your own words.
2. Fill in the boxes with the correct word, cooler or warmer, to show what occurs in a
sea breeze and a land breeze.
water
_________ air
Land Breeze
_________ air
_________ air
land
water
land
_________ air
3. Think of Earths shape. How does the shape of Earth affect the amount of heat different
areas receive?
End of
Section
62
Atmosphere

interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about air
movement.
Sea Breeze
chapter
53
Weather
1
section
What is weather?
Before You Read

Have you ever flown a kite or watched someone else fly one?
On the lines below, describe how the kite moves in the air.
Read to Learn
Weather Factors
Everybody talks about the weather. It may seem like small

talk, but weather is very important to some people. Pilots,
truck drivers, farmers, and other professionals study the
weather because it can affect their jobs.
What Youll Learn
how pressure, wind,

temperature, and
moisture content of air
affect weather
how clouds form and
how they are classied
how rain, hail, sleet and
snow develop
Study Coach
Think-Pair-Share Work
with a partner. As you read this
section, discuss what you
already know about the topic
and what you learn.
What is weather?
You can look out the window and see that its raining, or
snowing, or windy. But do you really know what weather is?
Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a specific time
and place. Weather describes conditions such as air pressure,
wind, temperature, and moisture content in the air.
How does the Sun affect weather on Earth?

The Sun provides almost all of Earths energy. Energy
from the Sun evaporates water on Earth. Evaporated water
enters the atmosphere and forms clouds. Later, the water
falls back to Earth as rain or snow.
The Sun also heats Earth. Heat from the Sun is absorbed
by Earths surface, which then heats the air above it. Because
of differences in Earths surface, some places in Earths
atmosphere are warmer and other places are cooler. Air
currents and water currents move the heat to different
places around Earth. Weather is the result of heat and
Earths air and water.
A Organize
Use four
quarter sheet note cards to
record information about the
factors that determine weather.
air
pressure
wind
temperature
moisture
in air
Reading Essentials
63
What affects temperature?

Air is made up of molecules that are always moving
randomly, or without any set pattern, even when there is no
wind. Temperature is a measure of the average amount of
motion of molecules. When the temperature is high, air
molecules move rapidly and it feels warm. When the
temperature is low, air molecules move more slowly and it
feels cold.
Determine When the
What causes wind?
temperature is high, how

do air molecules move?
Picture This
2.
Label one side of the

gure high pressure and one
side low pressure.
Have you ever flown a kite? What do you need in order to

get the kite off the ground and into the air? Kites fly
because air is moving. Air that moves in one direction is
called wind. The Sun heats Earth unevenly, but wind helps
spread the heat around.
As the Sun warms the air, the air expands and becomes
less dense. Warm, expanding air has low atmospheric
pressure. Cooler air is denser and sinks, which brings high
atmospheric pressure. Wind is the result of air moving from
areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
The temperature of air can affect air pressure. When air is
cooler, molecules are closer together, creating high pressure.
When air is heated, it expands and becomes less dense. This
creates lower pressure. Beaches are often windy as a result of
air moving from areas of high pressure to areas of lower
pressure, as shown in the figure below.
Molecules in air
Molecules in air
pressure
64
Weather
Pressure
Temperature
Pressure
Temperature
Wind
pressure
1.
What tools are used to measure wind?

Some instruments measure wind direction and others
measure wind speed. A wind vane, sometimes seen on
houses or barns, has an arrow that points in the direction
from which the wind is blowing. A wind sock, another tool
that shows wind direction, has an open end to catch the
wind. The wind sock fills and points in the direction toward
which the wind is blowing.
An anemometer (a nuh MAH muh tur) is an instrument
that measures wind speed. Anemometers have four open
cups that catch the wind and cause the anemometer to spin.
The faster the wind blows, the faster the anemometer spins.
3.
Explain Name one tool

for measuring wind
direction and tell how it
works.
What is humidity?
Heat evaporates water into the atmosphere. Where does

the water go? Water vapor molecules fit into spaces among
the molecules that make up air. The amount of water vapor
held in the air is called humidity.
Air does not always hold the same amount of water
vapor. More water vapor can be present when the air is
warm than when it its cool. At warm temperatures, the
molecules of water vapor in the air move quickly. As a
result, the molecules do not come together easily, as shown
on the left in the figure below.
Picture This
Water
vapor molecules
Water
droplets
4.

gure that shows droplets
of water forming.
At cooler temperatures, the molecules in air move more

slowly. This slower movement allows the water vapor
molecules to stick together. Droplets of liquid water form,
as shown on the right in the figure above. This process of
liquid water forming from water vapor is called condensation.
If enough water is present in the air for condensation to
take place, the air is saturated.
Reading Essentials
65
What is relative humidity?

Weather forecasters report the amount of moisture in the
air as relative humidity. Relative humidity is a measure of
the amount of moisture held in the air compared with the
amount of moisture the air can hold at a given temperature.
If the weather forecaster says that the relative humidity is 50
percent, this means that the air contains 50 percent of the
water needed for the air to be saturated at that temperature.
Dew Point

temperature at which
condensation forms called?
Forming Clouds
Clouds form as warm air is forced upward, expands, and
then cools, as shown in the figure below. When the air
cools, the water vapor molecules in the air come together
around particles of dust or salt in the air. These tiny water
droplets are not heavy enough to fall to Earth. So, they stay
suspended in the air. Billions of these droplets form a cloud.
Picture This
6.
Interpret Trace the

arrows that show moist
warm air rising.
Moist warm air
Heat
Damp earth
66
Weather
5.
When the temperature drops, less water vapor can be

present in the air. If temperatures are low enough, water
vapor will condense to a liquid or form ice crystals. The
temperature at which the air is saturated and condensation
forms is the dew point. Dew point changes as the amount
of water vapor in the air changes.
Youve probably seen water droplets form on the outside
of a can of cold soda. The cold can cooled the air around it
to its dew point. The water vapor in the air condensed,
forming water droplets on the soda can. Something similar
occurs when you see dew. Air near the ground cools to its
dew point, and then water vapor condenses and forms dew. If
temperatures are near 0 C, frost may form.
Classifying Clouds
Clouds are grouped, or classified, by shape and height.
Some clouds are tall and rise high into the sky. Some clouds
are low and flat. Dense clouds can bring snow or rain. Thin
clouds usually appear on sunny days. Three main factors
determine the shape and height of cloudstemperature,
pressure, and the amount of water vapor in the air.
What are the different types of clouds?

Stratus clouds are layered in smooth, even sheets across the
sky and may be seen on fair, rainy, or snowy days. Usually
stratus clouds form low in the sky. Fog is a stratus cloud that
forms when air is cooled to its dew point near the ground.
Cumulus (KYEW myuh lus) clouds are large, white, puffy
clouds that are often flat on the bottom and sometimes
tower high into the sky. Cumulous clouds can be seen either
in fair weather or in thunderstorms.
Cirrus (SIHR us) clouds are thin, white, feathery clouds.
They form high in the atmosphere and are made of ice
crystals. Although cirrus clouds are linked with fair weather,
they sometimes appear before a storm.
7.
Classify What are the

three main cloud types?
8.
Determine When a
How is height used to name clouds?

Cloud names are sometimes given prefixes to describe the
height of the cloud base. Three common cloud prefixes are
cirro-, alto- and strato-. Cirro- describes high clouds. Alto- is
used for clouds that form at middle levels. Strato- is used
for clouds that form closer to the ground.
Cirrostratus clouds are made of ice crystals and form high
in the air. Usually cirrostratus clouds are a sign of fair
weather. Sometimes they signal a storm is on the way.
Altostratus clouds form at middle levels. If these clouds are
not too thick, sunlight can filter through them.
What types of clouds produce rain and snow?

Dark clouds that contain rain or snow are called nimbus
clouds. Nimbus is a Latin word meaning dark rain cloud.
The water content of nimbus clouds is so high that only a
little sunlight can pass through them.
When a cumulus cloud grows into a thunderstorm, it is
called a cumulonimbus (kyew myuh loh NIHM bus) cloud.
These high clouds can tower almost 18 km. Nimbostratus
clouds are layered clouds that usually bring long, steady rain
or snowfall.
cumulus cloud becomes a

thunderstorm, what is it
called?
Reading Essentials
67
Precipitation
B Compare and contrast
Make a four-tab Foldable as

shown. As you read, take notes
on how the four forms of
precipitation are similar and
different.
Rain
Hail
Sleet
Snow
Precipitation is water falling from clouds. Precipitation

occurs when cloud droplets combine and grow large enough
to fall to Earth. The cloud droplets form around tiny
particles like salt and dust in the air.
Why are some raindrops bigger than others?

You have probably noticed that some raindrops are bigger
than others. One reason for this size difference is the
strength of updrafts in a cloud. If strong updrafts of wind
keep drops in the air longer, they can combine with other
drops. As a result, they grow larger.
Another factor which affects raindrop size is the rate of
evaporation as the drop falls to Earth. If the air is dry, the
raindrop will get smaller as it falls. Sometimes the raindrop
will evaporate completely before it even hits the ground.
Air temperature determines what kind of precipitation
will fallrain, snow, sleet, or hail. How air temperature
affects precipitation is shown in the figures below. When the
air temperature is above freezing, water falls as rain. If the
air temperature is so cold that water vapor changes to a
solid, it snows. Sleet forms if raindrops fall through a layer
of freezing air near Earths surface, forming ice pellets.
During thunderstorms, hail forms in cumulonimbus
clouds. Hailstones form when water freezes around tiny centers of ice. Hailstones get larger as theyre tossed up and
down by rising and falling air. Most hailstones are small, but
sometimes they can get larger than softballs. Of all forms
of precipitation, hail causes the most damage.
Picture This
9.
Identify In the gures,

circle the name of each type
of precipitation.
Cloud
droplets
Warm
Raindrops
Ice
crystals Cloud
droplets
Cold
Cloud
droplets
Warm
Snowflakes
Ice
68
Weather
Warm
Cold
Rain
Snow
Cold
Sleet
Ice
crystal
Cloud
droplet
Partial
melting
Hail
Warm
Hail
How does temperature affect precipitation?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
dew point: temperature at which air is saturated and
condensation forms
fog: stratus cloud that forms when air near the ground is
cooled to its dew point
humidity: amount of water vapor held in the air
precipitation: water falling from cloudsincluding rain,
snow, sleet, and hailwhose form is determined by
air temperature
relative humidity: measure of the amount of moisture held

in the air compared with the amount it can hold at a
given temperature
weather: state of the atmosphere at a specic time and
place; determined by air pressure, wind, temperature,
and how much moisture is in the air
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write one sentence
describing todays weather. Use at least two of the terms.
2. Use these words to fill in the blanks and tell about clouds forming and precipitation:
snow, hail, warm moist air, stratus, cumulus, rain, cirrus, sleet, water vapor, clouds
rises, expands, and cools.

condenses into tiny droplets.
Droplets suspend in the air, forming
Three types of clouds are
Four kinds of precipitation come from clouds:

and
.
, and
,
.
,
3. You were asked to discuss and study this section with a partner. Was this a helpful
strategy for learning the information? Why or why not?

weather.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
69
Weather
53
2
section
Weather Patterns
What Youll Learn
how weather is related

to fronts and high and
low pressure areas
about different types of
severe weather
Key Terms Highlight the key

terms and their meanings as you
read this section.
Before You Read

Have you ever gone into a basement or an attic? Describe how
the temperature felt compared to the rest of the building.
Read to Learn
Weather Changes
Sometimes when you leave school in the afternoon, the
weather is different from what it was earlier in the morning.
Weather constantly changes.
What are air masses?
C Classify Make a four-tab
Foldable as shown. As you read,

take notes on the four different
fronts.
warm
fronts
cold
fronts
occluded
fronts
stationary
fronts
70
Weather
An air mass is a large body of air that has the same

temperature and moisture content as the area over which it
formed. For example, an air mass that develops over land is
drier than one that develops over water. An air mass that
develops in the tropics is warmer than one that develops
over northern regions. When weather changes from one day
to the next, it is because of the movement of air masses.
How does air pressure affect the weather?

Pressure in the atmosphere varies over Earths surface. You
may have heard a weather forecaster talk about high- and
low-pressure systems. Low-pressure systems are masses of
rising air. When air rises and cools, clouds form. Thats why
areas of low pressure usually have cloudy weather. But
high-pressure air masses have a sinking motion. As a result,
its hard for air to rise and for clouds to form. So, high
pressure usually means nice weather.
chapter
What are cyclones and anticyclones?

Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low
pressure. In the northern hemisphere, when wind blows into
a low-pressure area, Earths rotation causes the wind to swirl
in a counterclockwise direction. These large, swirling areas
of low pressure are called cyclones. Cyclones are associated
with stormy weather.
Winds blow away from an area of high pressure. In the
northern hemisphere, Earths rotation causes these winds to
swirl in a clockwise direction. High-pressure areas are
associated with fair weather and are called anticyclones.
1.
Describe What type of

weather are cyclones
associated with?
Fronts
A boundary between two air masses that have different
temperature, density, or moisture is called a front. There are
four main types of fronts, including cold, warm, occluded,
and stationary.
What is a cold front?

A cold front occurs when cold air moves toward warm air,
as shown on the left in the figure below. The cold air goes
under the warm air and lifts it. As the warm air is lifted, it
cools and water vapor condenses, forming clouds. If there is
a large difference in temperature between the cold air and
the warm air, thunderstorms and tornadoes may form.
What is a warm front?

Warm fronts form when lighter, warmer air moves over
heavier, colder air, as shown on the right in the figure
below. In a warm front, wet weather may last for days.
Picture This
2.
Identify Color the arrow

showing cold air movement
in the cold front blue. Color
the arrow showing warm air
movement in the warm
front red.
Warm air
Cold air
Warm air
Cold air
Cold Front
Warm Front
Reading Essentials
71
What is an occluded front?

Most fronts involve two air masses. But occluded fronts
involve three air massescold air, cool air, and warm air. An
occluded front, as shown in the figure below, may form when a
cold air mass moves toward cool air with warm air in between.
The cold air forces the warm air up. The warm air is then
closed off from the surface. The term occlusion means closure.
Picture This
3.
Interpret Color the

arrows red that show where
the warm air is closed off
from the surface in the
occluded front.
Warm air
Cool air
Cold air
Occluded Front
A stationary front occurs when a boundary between air

masses stops moving, as shown in the figure below. Stationary
fronts can stay in the same place for several days. Often
there is light wind and precipitation at the stationary front.
Picture This
4.
Identify Circle the area

in the stationary front
where neither the cold air
nor warm air is moving.
Warm air
Cold air
Stationary Front
Severe Weather
You usually can do your daily activities regardless of the
weather. However, some weather conditions, like blizzards,
tornadoes, and hurricanes, can force you to change your plans.
72
Weather
What is a stationary front?
What causes thunderstorms?

During thunderstorms, heavy rain falls, lightning flashes,
and thunder rumbles. Hail might fall. What causes these
weather conditions?
Thunderstorms occur in warm, moist air masses and
along fronts. Warm, moist air is forced up. It cools and
condensation begins, forming cumulonimbus clouds. When
rising air cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets
or ice crystals. Smaller droplets collide and form larger
ones. The larger, heavier droplets fall through the cloud
toward Earths surface. The falling droplets collide with
more droplets and get bigger. Raindrops cool the air around
them. The cool, dense air sinks. Sinking, rain-cooled air
and strong updrafts of warmer air cause the strong winds
that often come during thunderstorms. Hail may form as
ice crystals fall.
What damage do thunderstorms cause?
5.
Explain How do water

droplets falling out of a
thundercloud get bigger as
they fall toward Earths
surface?
6.
Determine What causes
Sometimes thunderstorms stall in one area, causing heavy

rains. When streams can no longer hold all the water
running into them, flash floods occur. Because they occur
with little warning, flash floods are dangerous.
Thunderstorms often bring strong winds that can cause
damage. If a thunderstorm has winds over 89 km/h, it is
called a severe thunderstorm. Hail from thunderstorms can
dent cars, break windows, and flatten crops.
What causes lightning?

Inside a storm cloud, warm air is lifted rapidly as cooler
air sinks. This movement of air can cause different parts of
a cloud to have opposite charges. When an electrical current
runs between areas with opposite charges, lightning flashes.
Lightning can occur between two clouds, inside one cloud,
or between a cloud and the ground.
What causes thunder?

Thunder comes from the rapid heating of air around a
bolt of lightning. Lightning can reach temperatures of about
30,000 C. Thats five times hotter than the surface of the
Sun. This heat causes air around the lightning to expand
rapidly. Then the air cools quickly and shrinks. Because of
the sudden expanding and shrinking, molecules in the air
move more rapidly. The rapid movement of molecules
creates sound waves. Thunder is the sound waves you hear.
different parts of a cloud to

have opposite charges?
Reading Essentials
73
What are tornadoes?
7.
Identify What is a
violently rotating column of
air that touches the ground
called?
Some severe thunderstorms produce tornadoes. A tornado

is a violently rotating column of air that touches the
ground. Severe thunderstorms produce wind at different
heights which blow at different speeds and in different
directions. This difference in wind speed and direction is
called wind shear. Wind shear creates a rotating column
parallel to the ground. Updrafts in a thunderstorm can tilt
the rotating column upward, creating a funnel cloud. If the
funnel cloud touches the ground, it is called a tornado.
The figure below shows a diagram of a tornado. Notice
the different levels of winds and the rotating updraft. The
strong updraft usually forms at the base of a type of
cumulonimbus cloud called a wall cloud.
Upper-level
winds
Mid-level
winds
Wall cloud
Picture This
8.
Identify Find the updraft

and trace over it with your
pencil.
Dust envelope
Main inflow
How much damage can a tornado do?

Winds from tornadoes can rip apart buildings and tear
trees from the ground. If the winds of a tornado blow
through a house, they can lift off the roof and blow out the
walls. It can look as though the building exploded. In the
center of a tornado is a powerful updraft. The updraft can
lift animals, cars, and even houses into the air. Tornados do
not last long, but they are very destructive. In May of 1999,
thunderstorms produced more than 70 tornadoes in Kansas,
Oklahoma, and Texas. These tornadoes caused 40 deaths,
100 injuries, and more than $1.2 billion in damage.
74
Weather
Rotating updraft
How are tornadoes ranked?

As you have read, winds from tornadoes can cause severe
damage. Theodore Fujita, a tornado expert, created a scale
to describe and rank tornadoes. The scale, named the Fujita
Scale after him, is shown below. The Fujita Scale ranks
tornadoes based on how much damage they cause.
Tornadoes range from F0 which cause only light damage to
F5 which cause incredible damage. Luckily, only about one
percent of all tornadoes are in the category of F4 and F5.
The Fujita Scale
Rank
F0
F1
F2
F3
F4
Wind speed (km/h)

<116
116180
181253
254332
333419
F5
420512
Damage
Light: broken branches and chimneys
Moderate: roofs damaged, mobile homes upturned
Considerable: roofs torn off homes, large trees uprooted
Severe: trains overturned, roofs and walls torn off
Devastating: houses completely destroyed, cars picked up
and carried elsewhere
Incredible: total demolition
Picture This
9.

category that describes
severe damage.
What is a hurricane?
The most powerful storm is a hurricane. A hurricane is a
large, low-pressure system that forms over the warm Atlantic
Ocean and has winds of at least 119 km/h. It is like a
machine that turns heat energy from the ocean into wind.
Similar storms are called typhoons in the Pacific Ocean and
cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
Hurricanes are similar to low-pressure systems over
landonly stronger. In the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,
low-pressure systems sometimes develop near the equator.
In the northern hemisphere, winds around this low pressure
rotate counterclockwise. As the storms move across the
ocean, they gain strength from the heat and moisture of
warm ocean water.
10.
Identify What are two

storms similar to
hurricanes?
What happens when a hurricane reaches land?

Hurricanes can strike land with great force. The high
winds sometimes produce tornadoes. Heavy rains and high
waves cause large amounts of damage. Sometimes floods
follow the heavy rains and cause additional damage.
Hurricanes can destroy crops, tear down buildings, and kill
humans and animals.
Reading Essentials
75
What happens to the hurricane on land?

As long as the hurricane remains over water, it gets
energy from the warm moist air rising from the ocean. In
the figure below, small rising arrows show the movement of
warm air from the water below. Cool air goes down through
the eye, or center, of the hurricane. The storm needs this
energy from the ocean water. When a hurricane reaches
land, it loses its energy supply and the storm loses its power.
Picture This
11.
Identify Highlight
Outflow
all the arrows moving

counterclockwise.
Descending air
Warm moist air
Eye
What is a blizzard?
Severe storms also can occur in the winter. If you live in
the northern United States, you may have experienced the
howling wind and blowing snow of a blizzard. A blizzard is
a winter storm with conditions that include very cold
temperatures, high winds, and blowing snow that makes it
difficult to see. A blizzard usually lasts at least three hours.
How can you stay safe during severe storms?
12.
Explain What does a

weather watch tell you?
76
Weather
When severe weather approaches, the National Weather

Service issues a watch or a warning. A watch tells you that
even though the weather isnt dangerous yet, it may become
dangerous soon. During a watch, stay tuned to a radio or
television station that is reporting the weather.
When a warning is given, the weather is already severe.
During a severe thunderstorm or tornado warning, go to a
basement or to a room in the middle of the house away
from windows. When a hurricane or flood watch is given,
be prepared to leave home. During a blizzard, stay indoors.
Spiral rain bands
After You Read

Mini Glossary
air mass: large body of air that has the same characteristics
of temperature and moisture content as the area where
it formed
blizzard: severe winter storm with temperatures below
12 C, winds of at least 50 km/h, and blowing snow
that causes poor visibility that lasts at least three hours
front: boundary between two air masses with different

temperature, density, or moisture
hurricane: large, severe storm that forms over tropical
oceans and has winds of at least 119 km/h
tornado: violently rotating column of air in contact with
the ground
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence
explaining how hurricanes get and keep their strength.
2. Write the name of the correct weather front above each description.
warm front, stationary front, occluded front, cold front
Cold air goes under warm air.

Warm air is lifted.
3 air masses: cold, cool, warm

Warm air closed off from Earth.
Neither warm nor cold air is moving.
Lighter, warmer air moves over cold air.
3. Did highlighting key terms and their meanings help you learn the information about
weather patterns? Would you use this study strategy again?

weather patterns.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
77
53
Weather
3
section
Weather Forecasts
What Youll Learn
how data are collected

for weather maps and
forecasts
what symbols are used
on a weather map
Study Coach
Sticky Notes As you read

this section, mark the pages you
nd interesting or where you
have a question. Share these
pages with another student or
with the teacher.
Before You Read

How good are you at predicting the weather? On the lines
below, list things you consider when youre deciding what
the days weather might be like.
Read to Learn
Weather Observations
By looking at the thermometer or at clouds in the sky, you
can tell things about the weather. Certain things about weather
you know just from where you live. For example, if you live in
Florida, you know that it will probably be warm and sunny.
What does a meteorologist do?
C Organize
Make a
Foldable like the one shown
below to help you learn about
weather forecasts.
78
Meteorologist
Weather
Symbols
Weather Map
Weather
Instruments
Weather
A meteorologist (mee tee uh RAH luh jist) studies the

weather. A meteorologist gathers information about
temperature, air pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation.
By using tools like computers, Doppler radar, satellites, and
weather balloons, a meteorologist makes weather maps and
forecasts the weather.
Forecasting Weather
Meteorologists gather information and make predictions
about weather in the future. Because storms can be dangerous,
it is important to know if a storm is coming. The National
Weather Service uses two sources to predict the weather.
They collect information, or data, from the upper
atmosphere. They also collect data from Earths surface.
chapter
Station Models Meteorologists gather data from Earths

surface. Then this data is recorded on a map. A station
model shows weather conditions at a specific location using
symbols on a map. Information coming from station models
and from instruments in Earths atmosphere is put into computers and helps forecast weather.
1016
1032
HIGH
1024
Legend
Cold front
Warm front
Occluded front
Stationary front
Isobar
Precipitation
41 269
Duluth
35 16
1016
1008
1000
1024
Locate Find the low

pressure area by Portland
and trace over the circle.
HIGH
1032
1024
LOW
75
130
67
4 Portland
2.
58
Denver 76 183
57 0
1024
HIGH
100
8
LOW
Springfield
79 125
64 227 76 20 84 134Columbia
Little Rock
Nashville 5 8
7
0
71 217 54 1
HIGH
ss
6
101
sssssssss
sss
s
San Diego 76 194

70
89 1
2
72
HIGH
28 4 Tucson
LOW
074
54 26
1016
sss
ss
1008
1008
Picture This
1000 1008
1000
Describe What does a

station model show?
s
sss
s
sss
Weather maps have lines that connect locations with the

same temperature or the same pressure. An isotherm
(I suh thurm) is a line that connects places with the same
temperature. Iso means same. Therm means temperature.
You may have seen isotherms on weather maps on TV.
Weather maps, like the one below, also have isobars. An
isobar is a line that connects two places with the same
atmospheric pressure. Isobars show how fast wind is blowing
in an area. When isobars are drawn close together, there is a
big difference in air pressure. This means a strong wind is
blowing. When isobars are drawn farther apart, there is little
difference in pressure. Winds in this area are gentler. Isobars
also show locations of high- and low-pressure areas.
On the weather map below, the pressure areas are drawn
as circles with the word High or Low in the middle of the
circle. Fronts are drawn as lines and symbols. This
information helps meteorologists forecast the weather.
1.
sss
s
s
s
sss
s
How do maps show temperature and pressure?
4
102
Dallas 68 6
LOW
101
6
1024
LOW
1016
Miami
1024
4
85 24
4
75
HIGH
Reading Essentials
79
After You Read

Mini Glossary
isobar: line drawn on a weather map that connects two
places with the same atmospheric pressure
isotherm: line drawn on a weather map that connects
locations with the same temperature
meteorologist: person who studies the weather and uses

information from Doppler radar, weather satellites,
computers, and other instruments to make weather
maps and provide forecasts
station model: indicates weather conditions at a specic
location by using symbols on a map
explaining the difference between an isobar and an isotherm.
2. Arrange the following events in order to show how a meteorologist studies weather and
uses information.
A meteorologist:
forecasts weather
gathers data on weather conditions
makes weather maps
First
Second
Third
End of
Section
80
Weather

weather forecasts.
chapter
63
Climate
1
section
What is climate?
Before You Read

What do you think of when you hear the word climate? On
the lines below, describe the climate where you live.
Read to Learn
Climate
Imagine you are wandering through a rain forest. You see
beautiful pink and purple flowers under towering trees.
Unusual birds fly through the air, and animals leap through
the tree branches. All of these organisms grow well in hot
temperatures with plenty of rainfall. Rain forests have a hot,
wet climate. Climate is the pattern of weather that occurs in
an area over many years. An areas climate determines which
plants and animals can survive and how people live.
What Youll Learn
what climate is and

what determines a
regions climate
how latitude, oceans,
and other factors affect
climate
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes As you

read, organize your notes in two
columns. In the left-hand
column, write the main idea of
each paragraph. Next to it, in the
right-hand column, write details
about the main idea.
Latitude and Climate

Latitude is a measure of how far north or south of the
equator a place is. A places latitude affects its climate.
How does latitude affect climate?

Areas nearest the equator, the tropics, have warmer
temperatures than areas farther away from the equator. The
tropics are the climate zones that get the most radiation
from the Sun, or solar radiation. The tropics are located
between latitude 23.5 N and latitude 23.5 S. This area
receives the most direct solar energy. The tropics have
temperatures that are always hot, except in the mountains.
A Classify Make a half-book
Foldable as shown. Record

information about the different
zones as you read this section.
Polar
Temperate
Tropics
Temperate
Polar
Reading Essentials
81
Where are the polar and temperate zones?

B Cause and Effect
Divide one sheet of paper into

three parts and label as shown.
As you read, write down the
effect that oceans, mountains,
and large cities have on weather.
Effect on Weather
Oceans
There are two polar zones. The north polar zone stretches
from latitude 66.5 N to the north pole. The south polar
zone stretches from latitude 66.5 S to the south pole. A
polar zone receives solar radiation at a low angle and is
never warm.
There are also two temperate zones. A temperate zone is
located between the tropics and the polar zones and has a
climate with moderate temperatures. Most of the United
States is in a temperate zone.
Mountains
Large
Cities
Other Factors
Besides latitude, other factors influence a regions climate.
Some natural features that affect climate are large bodies of
water, ocean currents, and mountains. Large cities also can
change weather patterns and affect local climate.
1.
Explain How does a

large body of water affect
the climate of nearby land?
Water takes longer to heat up than land. Water also cools

down more slowly than land. Large bodies of water affect
the climate of nearby areas by absorbing and giving off
heat. In general, areas near a large body of water are warmer
in the winter and cooler in the summer than areas that are
not near a large water body.
Find San Francisco on the map below. Now look inland
and find Wichita, Kansas. Although these two cities are at
the same latitude, they do not have the same temperatures.
San Francisco is warmer in winter and cooler in summer
because it is near the ocean.
The climate along the northwest coast of

the United States is affected by the ocean.
C
Average
Yearly
Precipitation
(cm)
Pacific
Ocean
Picture This
2.
Label On the map, mark

the region where you live.
Does any large body of
water affect your climate?
82
Climate
U N I T E D
San Francisco
37N
Jan. 9C
July 16C
San Franciscos climate is
affected by the nearby ocean.
S T A T E S
Over 150
100149
5099
2549
Under 25
Atlantic
Ocean
Wichita
37N
Jan. 1C
July 27C
How do large bodies of water affect climate?
How do ocean currents affect climate?

Ocean currents affect climates near the coast. Warm ocean
currents begin near the equator. From the equator, they flow
toward the north and south poles, warming the land areas
they pass. As they near the poles, the currents cool off. The
cool currents flow back toward the equator, cooling the air
and climates of nearby land.
Winds blowing from the sea are often moister than those
blowing from land. The moist sea air passes over the land,
bringing rain. The sea air gives coastal areas a wetter climate
than inland areas far from the sea. Look again at the map
on the previous page. The northwest coast of the United
States, including Washington, Oregon, and northern
California, has a wet climate. This area receives a lot of
moisture from the Pacific Ocean.
How do mountains affect climate?

At the same latitude, the climate is colder in the
mountains than at sea level. Radiation from the Sun heats
Earths surface. Heat from Earth then warms the
atmosphere. Thin mountain air has fewer molecules to
absorb heat than air near sea level. As a result, mountain
air tends to be cooler than air at sea level.
Mountain ranges have a windward side which faces the
wind and a leeward side which faces away from the wind.
On the windward side of a mountain range, air rises, cools,
and then drops its moisture on the land. On the leeward
side, air flows down, heats up, and dries the land. Deserts
are common on the leeward side of mountains because of
this warm, dry air.
How do large cities affect climate?

Streets, parking lots, and buildings in large cities absorb
the Suns rays and heat up. The heat is transferred to the air
where air pollution traps it. This trapped heat creates what
is known as the heat-island effect. Temperatures in large
cities can be 5C higher than in the nearby countryside.
3.
Explain Why does

mountain air absorb less
heat than air at sea level?
4.
Identify Is the leeward

side of a mountain the wet
side or the dry side?
Reading Essentials
83
After You Read

Mini Glossary
climate: pattern of weather that occurs in an area over many
years
polar zone: climate zone that gets the least solar radiation
and is never warm
temperate zone: climate zone with moderate temperatures

that is located between the tropics and the polar zones
tropics: climate zones that get the most solar radiation and
are always hot, except at high elevations
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence that
explains the difference between the tropics and the polar climate zones.
2. Write a sentence in each box to explain how mountains affect climate.

The cool air releases moisture as rain or snow on the windward side of the mountain.
The dry air passes over the mountain to the leeward side.
The dry air ows down the leeward side of the mountain and heats up.
Moist air ows toward a mountain and is forced upward, where it cools.
How Mountains Affect Climate
Second
Third
Fourth
3. You organized your notes in two columns, one for main ideas and one for details. How
did this help you understand climate?
End of
Section
84
Climate

climate.
First
chapter
63
Climate
2
section
Climate Types
Before You Read

Imagine that you and your family move to Death Valley, one
of the hottest deserts on Earth. Describe what you might do
to adapt to this climate.
Read to Learn
Classifying Climates
How would you classify the climate in your region? Is it
warm most of the time, or is it usually wet and cold? Humans
classify many things around them. For example, music can
be classified as rap, rock, pop, jazz, country, and others.
What Youll Learn
how climates are

classied
how organisms adapt
to a climate
Highlight Highlight the key

terms and their meanings as you
read this section.
How are Earths climates classified?

You have read about Earths climates and what affects
them. Climatologistspeople who study climatesusually
use a system developed by Wladimir Kppen in 1918 to
classify Earths climates.
Kppen observed that the types of plants found in a certain
area depended on that areas climate. Kppen studied the
average temperature and average precipitation in different
regions around the world. He then studied the types of plants
that grew in the different areas. Based on the information
he gathered, Kppen classified the worlds climates into six
main groupstropical, mild, dry, continental, polar, and
high elevation. Each group is divided further into types. For
example, dry climates are broken down into semiarid (partly
dry) and arid (very dry). The map on the next page shows
regions of each climate group on Earth.
C Main Ideas Make a
two-tab Foldable as shown to

help you understand how
organisms are adapted to
different climates.
Structural
adaptations
Behavioral
adaptations
Reading Essentials
85
90N
60N
30N
30S
60S
90S
Dry
Mild
Continental
Warm Summer
Cool Summer
Subarctic
Marine West Coast

Mediterranean
Humid Subtropical
Semiarid
Arid
Polar
Tundra
Icecap
High Elevation
Highlands
Uplands
Adaptations
Picture This
1.
Locate and Label Find

your region on the map of
North America. Label your
region with the name of its
climate classication.
Kppen observed that an areas climate determines the

types of plants that grow there. For example, there are no
cacti in rain forests or fir trees in deserts. Living things grow
best in certain climates.
Organisms are adapted to their environment. An adaptation
is any structure or behavior that helps an organism survive
in its environment. Organisms that are adapted to a particular
climate may not be able to survive in other climates.
What are structural adaptations?

Structural adaptations are physical characteristics that are
inherited. They develop over a long period of time. Fur on
mammals is a structural adaptation. Fur keeps animals warm
in cold climates. A cactus has a thick, fleshy stem that prevents water in the cactus from evaporating. This structural
adaptation helps the cactus survive in hot, dry climates.
86
Climate
Tropical
Tropical Wet
Tropical Wet & Dry
What are behavioral adaptations?

Some organisms have behavioral adaptations that help
them survive. Rodents and other mammals, such as bears,
hibernate in winter. Hibernation is a period in which an
animals activity is greatly reduced, its body temperature
drops, and body processes slow down. Factors such as cooler
temperatures, shorter days, and lack of food are thought to
trigger hibernation.
Other animals have adapted differently. In cold weather,
bees gather together in a ball to stay warm. On hot, sunny
days, desert snakes rest under rocks. At night, when its
cooler, the snakes come out to search for food.
2.
Apply Think of an animal.

What is one structural or
behavioral adaptation that
helps this animal survive?
3.
Explain What happens

to an animals body
processes during
estivation?
What is estivation?
During periods of extreme heat or dryness, some animals

enter a state called estivation (es tuh VAY shun). Body
processes slow down during estivation. Lungfish live in
small lakes or ponds. During the long, hot, dry months of
summer, the lake or pond water may evaporate. Then the
lungfish burrows into mud at the bottom of the lake. When
the dry season is over and the lake again fills with water, the
lungfish emerges from the mud. The figure below shows a
lungfish during estivation.
Picture This
4.
Identify Trace the

outline of the lungshs
body as it estivates in the
mud.
What adaptations do humans have?

Like lungfish and hibernating rodents, humans have
adaptations that help them adjust to their environment. In
hot weather, you sweat. Sweat glands release water onto your
skin. When the water evaporates, it takes some heat with it
and cools you off. In cold weather, you may shiver. Shivering
moves your muscles and this action helps warm you.
Reading Essentials
87
After You Read

Mini Glossary
adaptation: any structural or behavioral change that helps
an organism survive in its particular environment
hibernation: behavioral adaptation for winter survival in

which an animals activity is greatly reduced, its body
temperature drops, and its body processes slow down
explaining what kind of adaptation hibernation is. Name one animal that hibernates.
2. Animals have both structural and behavioral adaptations that help them survive in their
environment. Fill in the boxes below with examples of how animals adapt.
Adaptation
Structural Adaptations
3. You highlighted the key terms and their meanings as you read this section. How did this
help you understand climate types and adaptations?
End of
Section
88
Climate

types of climate and adaptations.
Behavioral Adaptations
chapter
63
Climate
3
section
Climatic Changes
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
what causes the

seasons
what are the possible
causes of climatic
change
If you lived in an extremely hot desert climate, could you be

active outdoors during the summer? Explain your answer.
Read to Learn
Earths Seasons
Weather changes as the seasons change. In temperate
zones, people can play softball in the summer and go
sledding in the winter. Seasons are short periods of climatic
change caused by changes in the amount of solar radiation
an area receives.
Why does the amount of sunlight an area receives change?
Earth is tilted on its axis. As Earth revolves around the Sun,
different parts of the planet are tilted toward the Sun. Areas
tilted toward the Sun get more solar radiation than areas
tilted away from the Sun. This gives Earth its seasons.
Study Coach
Authentic Questions As
you read this section, write
down questions or comments
you have about the text. Discuss
them with your class after you
have nished this section.
Are seasons the same all over the world?

Some areas of the world experience extreme changes at
different seasons, but other parts of the world do not. The
tropics are near the equator. As a result, they get a fairly
constant amount of solar radiation all year long. The tropics
do not experience seasonal changes in temperature.
Temperate areas in middle latitudes get different amounts
of solar radiation during different parts of the year. When
a temperate area is tilted toward the Sun, it is summer.
When it is tilted away from the Sun, it experiences winter.
Temperate zones experience seasonal differences in
temperature.
D Explain Make a four-tab

Foldable as shown to help you
learn about seasons and climate
changes.
Seasons
El Nio
Ice Ages and

Interglacials
Greenhouse
Effect
Reading Essentials
89
During autumn and

spring, neither pole is 23.58
tilted toward the Sun.
During the northern

hemisphere summer,
the north pole is tilted
toward the Sun.
Autumn
Summer
Sun
147,000,000 km
152,000,000 km
Winter
Picture This
1.
Locate Use a marker to

highlight the tilt of Earths
axis during each season as
Earth revolves around the
Sun.
2.
Determine When it is
summer at the north pole,
what part of Earth is tilted
toward the Sun?
Spring
Why do high latitudes have extreme

seasonal changes?
High latitudes near the north and south poles experience
huge changes in temperature and in the number of daylight
hours. During summer in the northern hemisphere, the
north pole is tilted toward the Sun all the time. The Sun
does not set for about six months and temperatures are
fairly warm. When it is winter in the northern hemisphere,
the north pole is in complete darkness for about six months
and temperatures are extremely cold. Find the north pole in
the figure above. Notice that its tilt toward the Sun changes
completely from summer to winter.
The seasons at the south pole are the opposite of those at
the north pole. When the north pole gets months of
sunlight, the south pole is in frozen darkness. Both poles
are at high latitudes and experience seasonal extremes.
El Nio and La Nia

El Nio (el NEEN yoh) is a climate event that involves
the tropical Pacific Ocean and the atmosphere. El Nio, and
its opposite, La Nia, affect weather. Both of these climate
events can disrupt normal temperature and precipitation
patterns around the world.
90
Climate
During the northern

hemisphere winter,
the south pole is tilted
toward the Sun.
How does El Nio affect weather patterns?

During normal years, strong trade winds blow east to
west along the equator. These normal winds push warm
water west across the tropical Pacific Ocean and away from
South America. Cold water is forced up from the ocean
depths along the coast of South America.
During an El Nio, the east-to-west blowing winds
weaken. Sometimes the winds even blow in the opposite
direction, and then warm water flows east toward South
America. Cold water is no longer forced up along the South
American coast. The water temperature of the Pacific Ocean
off the coast of South America becomes unusually warm,
rising between 1C and 7C above normal.
El Nio can affect weather patterns, such as the jet stream
that carries weather from west to east across North America.
Wind and rainfall patterns around the world are affected.
This can cause droughts in Australia and Africa and floods
in South America.
3.
Describe In what
direction do trade winds
blow normally?
4.
Explain How can fossils

show that Earths climate
has changed?
How does La Nia affect weather patterns?

La Nia is the opposite of El Nio. During La Nia, the
winds that blow from east to west across the Pacific Ocean
are stronger than usual. As a result, warm water gathers in
the western Pacific. The water in the eastern Pacific Ocean
near South America becomes cooler than usual. La Nia
also affects weather patterns in North America. It can cause
drought in the southern United States and heavy rain
storms in the northwestern United States.
Climatic Change
If you explored the south pole, you might find a
3-million-year-old fossil of a tropical plant or animal. Today,
the south pole is far too cold for tropical organisms to
survive. This fossil tells you that over millions of years,
Earths climate has changed. Scientists now know that at one
time, the planets climate was much warmer than it is today.
At other times, the worldwide climate was much colder than
todays climate.
Reading Essentials
91
What is an ice age?

Applying Math
5.
Calculate If our present

interglacial period lasts
15,000 years, about how
many years will it be until
the next ice age? Use the
box to show your work.
Sediments in many parts of the world show that several

times in the past 2 million years, large sheets of ice, or
glaciers, covered much of Earths surface. These times are
called ice ages. During ice ages Earths climate was much
colder than it is today. Ice ages seem to last between 60,000
and 100,000 years.
Ice ages are followed by warm periods, when much of
Earth has a tropical climate. These warm periods, called
interglacial periods, last between 10,000 and 15,000 years.
Today, we are in an interglacial period that began about
11,500 years ago.
What other evidence exists

for climatic change?
What causes climatic change?
6.
Infer How could the

eruption of a huge volcano
affect Earths climate?
92
Climate
Earths climate changes for many reasons. Terrible events,

such as large volcanic eruptions or meteorite collisions, can
affect Earths climate over short periods of time, such as a
year or several years. These events change climate by adding
solid particles and liquid drops to the upper atmosphere.
The amount of energy given off by the Sun also affects
Earths climate. Over a short or a long period of time, the
amount of solar energy given off may change. Because the
Suns energy warms Earth, any changes in the amount of
solar energy Earth receives may change its climate.
Changes in Earths movements in space affect climate over
many thousands of years. The movement of Earths tectonic
plates can also result in climate change over millions of
years. All of these factors can work separately or together to
change Earths climate.
Other evidence shows that climate can change even

more quickly. Ice coressamples of ice drilled out of
glaciersreveal information about climate change the way
tree rings reveal information about yearly rainfall. Scientists
have drilled ice cores through glaciers in Greenland. These
ice cores show that during the last ice age, some cold
periods lasted only 1,000 to 2,000 years. They were followed
by warmer periods lasting about the same length of time.
Where do atmospheric solids and liquids

come from?
Earths atmosphere normally contains small solid and
liquid particles. Some of these particles enter the
atmosphere naturally from volcanic eruptions, soot from
fires, and wind eroding the soil. Other particles enter the
atmosphere as pollution from car exhaust and smokestacks.
Picture This
7.
direction did the ash from

Mt. Pinatubo travel as it
circled the globe?
Mt. Pinatubo
W
Determine In what
How do atmospheric solids and liquids

affect climate?
Particles in the atmosphere affect how much sunlight hits
Earth. Volcanic eruptions put so many ash particles in the
atmosphere, some sunlight is blocked and Earths climate
cools. The figure above shows how particles from the huge
eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines were carried
around the world in the atmosphere. Meteors crashing into
Earth from space raise enormous clouds of dust and
particles that block the Sun and cool the planet.
In cities, particles that enter the air as pollution can
change the local climate. Particles from pollution may
increase cloud cover near cities. Studies show that pollution
might also reduce rainfall in areas near large cities.
Can sunspots affect Earths climate?

If the amount of radiation from the Sun changes, Earths
climate can change. Sunspots may affect the amount of
energy given off by the Sun. Sunspots are dark spots on the
Suns surface. Sunspots may be related to the cold period
that occurred in Europe between 1645 and 1715. During
this time, few sunspots appeared on the Sun. WARNING:
Never look directly at the Sun. It can damage your eyes.
8.
Predict What might

Europes climate have been
like between 1645 and 1715
if many sunspots had
appeared on the Sun?
Reading Essentials
93
Applying Math
9.
Calculate What is the

difference between Earths
greatest angle of tilt and
smallest angle of tilt?
How does Earths tilt affect climate change?

Some climate changes may result from changes in the tilt
of Earth on its axis. Today, Earths axis is tilted at an angle
of 23.5. At times, the angle of Earths tilt has been about
21.5. At other times, it has been about 24.5. When Earths
angle of tilt is greatest, there probably are more extreme
seasonal changes between summer and winter. Earths tilt
changes about every 41,000 years and may cause its climate
to change.
What other Earth movements affect climate?

Some climate changes may involve Earths movements in
space. Earth wobbles a bit on its axis, like a slowly spinning
top. These wobbles affect how much solar radiation hits
certain areas on Earth, and this affects Earths climate. Also,
the shape of Earths orbit around the Sun changes in cycles
lasting about 100,000 years. Sometimes Earths orbit is more
like a circle, and sometimes its orbit is flatter. The shape of
its orbit affects how much solar energy reaches different
parts of Earth. Changes in Earths wobble and orbit may be
one cause of the growth and shrinking of glaciers over
millions of years.
10.
Draw Conclusions Is
Earths climate the result of
one factor or many factors?
The movement of Earths plates may explain some

long-term climate changes. As continents and oceans move
on their tectonic plates, the transfer of heat around the
globe is altered. The changes in heat transfer affect global
wind and precipitation patterns. Over time, the change in
wind and precipitation patterns can change climate. For
example, the Himalaya Mountains were formed when two
tectonic plates crashed into each other about 40 million
years ago. The formation of these huge mountains changed
Earths climate.
Many theories exist about why Earths climate has
changed over time. Probably all of these things play some
role in changing climates.
Climatic Changes Today

Since 1992, officials from many countries have met to
discuss the greenhouse effect and global climate change.
Some people are concerned that the greenhouse effect is
causing Earths atmosphere and oceans to get warmer.
94
Climate
What effect do Earths plate movements have

on climate?
What is the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is
the natural heating process
that occurs when certain gases
in Earths atmosphere trap
heat. Solar energy heats Earths
surface. Some of this heat is
reflected into space. Certain
gases in Earths atmosphere,
called greenhouse gases, trap
some of the heat and keep it
near Earths surface, as shown
Greenhouse Effect
in the figure.
Water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane are some of
the most important greenhouse gases. Without these
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, life on Earth would be
impossible because the planet would be too cold. However,
if there are too many greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
the climate may get too warm.
Picture This
11.
Identify the arrows that

show the heat trapped near
Earths surface by
greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
Global Warming
Over the last 100 years, Earths surface temperature has
increased by about 0.6C. Global warming is the increase in
the average global temperature of Earth. During this same
time, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have increased
20 percent. Most scientists hypothesize that the rising
carbon dioxide levels are causing global warming. Other
scientists think global warming might be caused by changes
in the amount of energy radiated from the Sun.
What are the effects of global warming?

If global warming continues, many glaciers could melt.
When glaciers melt, extra water enters the oceans, causing
sea levels to rise. If sea levels rise, some low-lying coastal
areas will be covered with water. Some ice caps and glaciers
are already melting, and in some places sea levels are rising.
Studies show that these events are related to global warming.
Organisms are adapted to their environment. How can
organisms cope with rapidly changing environments? In
some tropical waters around the world, warming sea
temperatures are killing coral reefs. The corals cannot
survive in the warmer water. Many organisms that depend
on coral reefs will not be able to survive if the coral dies.
12.
Determine What is the

increase in the average
global temperature of Earth
called?
Reading Essentials
95
Human Activities
Human activities affect the air in Earths atmosphere.
Burning fossil fuels and clearing trees and plants increase
the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Recall that
carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. More carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere may contribute to global warming. Each
year, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
continues to increase.
How does burning fossil fuels increase carbon

dioxide levels?
13.
Identify What
greenhouse gas forms
when fossil fuels are
burned?
Natural gas, coal, and oil are examples of fossil fuels.

When these fuels are burned, carbon dioxide is produced
and enters Earths atmosphere. When there is more carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, more heat is trapped near Earths
surface. The more these fuels are burned, the more carbon
dioxide is added to the atmosphere. Studies show that levels
of carbon dioxide have increased by about 25 percent over
the last 150 years.
14.
Apply What can humans

do to solve the problem of
deforestation?
96
Climate
Deforestation is destroying or cutting down large

numbers of trees. Large areas of forest have been cleared in
every country on Earth. Trees are cut down for roads,
mining, paper, and farming. Every year for the last 20 years,
about one percent of all tropical forests have been cut
down.
Deforestation increases levels of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. As trees grow, they take carbon dioxide out of
the air. When trees are cut down, the carbon dioxide they
could have removed from the air remains in the
atmosphere. After they are cut down, some trees are burned
for fuel. Burning trees produces carbon dioxide, so even
more of this greenhouse gas enters the atmosphere.
How does cutting down forests affect carbon

dioxide levels?
The Carbon Cycle
Picture This
15.

where burning fossil fuels
adds carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere.
16.

main form of carbon that
moves through the carbon
cycle?
The Carbon Cycle

Carbon, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, is
constantly recycled among the atmosphere, oceans, and
organisms. The recycling of carbon in nature is shown in
the figure above. Organisms, such as plants, use photosynthesis
to make their own food. They take in carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and produce and store carbon-based foods.
The plants, and the carbon-based food they contain, are
eaten by animals. Some carbon dioxide is released as food is
broken down to release energy. When organisms die and
decay, some of the carbon in their bodies is stored in the
soil and forms humus. Some carbon dioxide is released into
the air. The constant movement of carbon in nature is
called the carbon cycle.
What happens to carbon in the ocean?

Some carbon dioxide from the atmosphere dissolves in
sea water. Algae and other photosynthetic organisms in the
ocean use the carbon dioxide to make their own food.
Ocean animals give off carbon dioxide, just as you do when
you breathe out. At this time, Earths oceans absorb more
carbon dioxide than they give off.
How does climate affect the carbon cycle?

When Earths climate changes, the amount of carbon
dioxide that recycles among the atmosphere, oceans, and
land also may change. Some people hypothesize that if
Earths climate gets warmer, the oceans and land will absorb
more carbon dioxide. Scientists continue to collect data to
study changes in the carbon cycle.
Reading Essentials
97
After You Read

Mini Glossary
deforestation: destruction or cutting down of large
numbers of trees
El Nio: climatic event that begins in the tropical Pacic
Ocean and can disrupt normal temperature and
precipitation patterns around the world
greenhouse effect: natural process that occurs when certain

gases in Earths atmosphere trap heat near the surface
global warming: increase in the average global
temperature of Earth
season: short period of climatic change caused by the tilt of
Earths axis as Earth revolves around the Sun
explaining how carbon dioxide increases global warming.
2. Explain how each detail supports the main idea.

Main Idea: Several factors cause Earths climate to change.
Detail 2:
El Nio
Detail 3:
Burning fossil fuels
3. As you read this section, you wrote down some questions and comments you had for
later discussion. How did this help you understand the information in this section?
End of
Section
98
Climate

climatic changes.
Detail 1:
Earths movement in space
chapter
73
Earth in Space
1
section
Earths Motion and Seasons
Before You Read

Every day the Sun rises and sets. Seasons change throughout
the year. What causes these changes? Write your ideas below.
Read to Learn
Earths Physical Data
A long time ago, many people thought Earth was flat.

They believed that if you sailed far enough out to sea, you
would fall off the edge of Earth. We now know this is not
true. But what shape does Earth have?
What Youll Learn
how Earth moves

around the Sun
how Earth rotates on its
axis
why Earth has seasons
Study Coach
Outline As you read the text,

outline the facts about Earths
properties and how Earth moves
through space. Use the headings
as part of your outline.
What is Earths shape?

Pictures from space show that Earth is shaped like a giant
ball, or sphere (SFIHR). A sphere is a three-dimensional
object whose surface at all points is the same distance from
its center. Earth is not a perfect sphere. It bulges slightly at
the equator and is somewhat flattened around the poles.
This causes the distance around the equator to be greater
than the distance around the poles.
What is the proof that Earths shape is

a sphere?
Have you ever stood on a dock and watched a sailboat
come in? If so, you may have noticed that the first thing you
see is the top of the boats sail. This occurs because Earths
curved shape hides the rest of the boat from view until it is
closer to you. As the boat slowly comes closer to you, more
and more of its sail is visible. Finally, the entire boat is in
view. This is proof that Earth is a sphere.
A Organize Information
Make the following six-tab

Foldable to help you organize
information about Earths
motion.
Reading Essentials
99
How does gravity affect Earths shape?

Earths round shape is caused by gravity. Gravity is a force
that attracts all objects toward each other. When objects are
farther apart, their gravitational pull is weaker. When an
object is larger, its gravitational pull is stronger.
Large objects in space, such as planets and moons, often
are spherical because of how they formed. At first, particles
collide and stick together without any particular shape.
However, as the object grows larger, its mass increases. It has
a gravitational pull. Particles are pulled to the center of the
object, giving it the shape of a ball.
1.
Draw Conclusions
What force shaped Earth
into a sphere?
What are some of Earths physical properties?

Scientists have measured the distance around Earth
(circumference) and the distance through the center of
Earth (diameter). They have also measured other
properties of Earth. Some of these properties are shown
in the table below.
Applying Math
2.
Interpret Data Use the

table to determine how
much farther across Earths
diameter is at the equator
than at the poles. Show
your work.
Diameter (pole to pole)
12,714 km
Diameter (equator)
12,756 km
Circumference (poles)
(distance around Earth through N and S poles)
40,008 km
Circumference (equator)
(distance around Earth at the equator)
40,075 km
Mass
Average density
(average mass per unit volume)
5.52 g/cm3
Average distance from the Sun
149,600,000 km
Period of rotation relative to stars (1 day)

Solar day
Period of revolution (1 year)
(path around the Sun)
100
Earth in Space
5.98 1024 kg
23h, 56 min
24 h
365 days, 6 h, 9 min
Physical Properties of Earth
Revolution
(orbit) 365 14 days
Axis
N
Rotation
24 hours
Motions of Earth
Have you ever wondered why the Sun appears to rise and
set each day or why the Moon and other objects in the sky
appear to move from east to west? The answer is shown in the
figure above. Earths geographic poles are located at the north
and south ends of Earths axis. The axis is an imaginary line
drawn from the north geographic pole through Earth to the
south geographic pole. Earth spins around this imaginary
line. Rotation is the spinning of Earth on its axis. This is
what causes you to experience day and night.
Picture This
3.
Interpret Scientific
Illustrations How much
time does it take for Earth
to complete one revolution
around the Sun?
What is Earths revolution?

Earth has another type of motion. As it spins on its axis
each day, Earth also moves along a path around the Sun.
Revolution is the motion of Earth around the Sun. It takes
Earth about one year to travel around the Sun. So Earth
rotates on its axis approximately 365 times during one
complete revolution of the Sun. Earths revolution around
the Sun is shown in the figure above.
Reading Essentials
101
What is Earths orbit?

A new year begins. As the weeks pass, you notice that the
Sun remains in the sky later each day. When spring comes,
the weather is warmer, and the number of daylight hours
gradually increases. What causes these changes?
You learned earlier that Earths rotation causes day and
night. Earth also moves around the Sun, completing one
revolution each year. Earths orbit, or curved path around
the Sun, forms an ellipse, or oval shape.
Earths elliptical orbit causes it to be closer to the Sun in
January and farther from it in July. But the total amount of
energy Earth receives from the Sun does not change much
throughout the year. However, the amount of energy that
specific places on Earth receive varies a lot.
4.
Explain Why does Earth

have seasons?
5.
Infer When it is winter in

the northern hemisphere,
what season is it in the
southern hemisphere?
a.
b.
c.
d.
102
spring
summer
fall
winter
Earth in Space
Earth has seasons because it is tilted on its axis. The angle

of the tilt is about 23.5 degrees. You can see Earths tilt in
the figure. This tilt means that as Earth orbits the Sun, the
angle at which sunlight strikes the surface changes.
The hemisphere that is tilted toward the Sun will have
more daylight hours. When Earths northern hemisphere is
tilted toward the Sun, that half of the planet has warmer
temperatures and more daylight hours. Also, sunlight strikes
the hemisphere tilted toward the Sun at a higher angle
during the summer. The Suns rays are more direct, and
they bring more heat. In winter, the opposite happens.
Sunlight strikes the hemisphere tilted away from the Sun at
a lower angle. Less direct sunlight reaches the surface. There
are fewer daylight hours, and the temperatures are colder.
Summer
for northern
hemisphere
Winter
for northern
hemisphere
How does Earths tilt cause seasons?
What causes the solstices?

Because of the tilt of Earths axis, the Suns position to
Earths equator changes. Twice a year, the Sun reaches its
greatest distance north or south of the equator. These times
are known as the summer and winter solstices.
In the northern hemisphere, summer solstice happens on
June 21 or 22, when the Sun is highest in the sky at noon.
Winter solstice happens in the northern hemisphere on
December 21 or 22, when the Sun is lowest at noon. In the
southern hemisphere, the summer solstice is in December;
the winter solstice is in June.
6.
What causes equinoxes?
At an equinox (EE kwuh nahks), the Sun is directly above

Earths equator, and the lengths of day and night are nearly
equal all over the world. During equinox, Earths tilt is
neither toward nor away from the Sun. You can see this in
the figure below. In the northern hemisphere, spring
equinox is March 21 or 22. The fall equinox is September 21
or 22. Because the time it takes for Earth to revolve around
the Sun is not a whole number of days, the dates for
solstices and equinoxes change over time.
Summer solstice
for northern
hemisphere
Draw Conclusions If
the Sun is highest in the sky
at noon during the summer
solstice, when is it lowest?
Spring
equinox
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
Autumn
equinox
Winter solstice
for northern
hemisphere
Picture This
7.
Illustrations The winter
solstice is the rst day of
winter. Draw an arrow
pointing to the position of
Earth on the rst day of
winter in the United States.
What is Earths place in space?

In this section, you have learned that Earth is shaped
much like a sphere. As Earth rotates on its axis, the Sun
appears to rise and set in the sky. Earths tilt and revolution
around the Sun cause seasons to occur.
Reading Essentials
103
After You Read

Mini Glossary
axis: imaginary line around which Earth spins; drawn from
the north geographic pole through Earth to the south
geographic pole
equinox (EE kwuh nahks): twice-yearly time when the
Sun is directly above Earths equator and there are equal
hours of day and night
orbit: a curved path followed by Earth as it moves around
the Sun
revolution: the motion of Earth around the Sun, which takes

about 365 1/4 days, or one year, to complete
rotation: the spinning of Earth on its axis every 24 hours,
which causes day and night
solstice: time when the Sun reaches its greatest distance
north or south of Earths equator
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Choose two of the
terms that are related and write a sentence using both terms.
2. Complete the sentences to compare and contrast Earths revolution and rotation.
Earths ___________ takes ___________ days.
Earth rotates around its ___________.
Earths ___________ takes ___________ hours.
3. As you read this section, you outlined the facts about Earths properties and how Earth
moves through space. Did your outline help you understand more about Earth and how
it moves? What other strategies did you use to help you read and understand this section?
End of
Section
104
Earth in Space

Earths motion and seasons.
Earth revolves around the ___________.
chapter
73
Earth in Space
2
section
Earths Moon
Before You Read

The Moon is Earths only natural satellite. It orbits Earth
and is our closest neighbor in space. What do you know
about the Moon? List what you know below.
Read to Learn
The Moons Surface and Interior

Suppose that on a clear night you take a good look at the
full moon. If you use binoculars or a telescope, you can see
dark- and light-colored areas on the Moons surface. The
dark areas are maria (MAR ee uh). Galileo first named the
dark-colored areas maria, the Latin word for seas. They
reminded Galileo of the oceans.
What Youll Learn
about the Moons

surface features and
interior
the Moons phases
the causes of eclipses
the origin of the Moon
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards Think of

a quiz question for each main
point. Write the question on one
side of a ash card and the
answer on the other side. Quiz
yourself until you know all the
answers.
What are maria?

Maria probably formed when lava from inside the Moon
flowed into large, bowl-like regions on the Moons surface.
These depressions may have formed early in the Moons
history. Rocks from the maria are about 3.2 billion to
3.7 billion years old. They are the youngest rocks found on
the Moon so far.
What are lunar highlands?

The light-colored areas are lunar highlands. They are
several kilometers higher than the maria. The oldest moon
rocks analyzed so far were found in the lunar highlands.
They are about 4.6 billion years old.
Reading Essentials
105
What are craters?

As you look at the Moons surface features, you will see
craters. Craters are depressions formed by large meteorites.
Meteorites are space objects that strike the surface of the
Moon. When meteorites struck the Moon, cracks could have
formed in its crust, allowing lava flows to fill in the large
depressions. Craters help scientists find out how old parts of
a moons or a planets surface are compared to other parts.
The larger the number of craters in a region, the older the
surface is.
Describe what causes
craters on the Moon.
What is the inside of the Moon like?

During the Apollo space program, astronauts left several
seismographs (size muh grafs) on the Moon. A seismograph
is an instrument that measures tremors, or seismic
vibrations. On Earth, these instruments are used to measure
earthquake activity. On the Moon, seismographs are used to
measure moonquakes. Based on the study of moonquakes, a
model of the Moons interior has been designed, as shown
in the figure below.
The first layer of the Moon is the crust, which is about
60 km thick on the side facing Earth and about 150 km
thick on the far side. Below the crust is a solid layer called
the mantle, which may extend 900 km to 950 km farther
down. A soft layer of mantle may continue another 500 km
down. The innermost layer may be an iron-rich, solid core
with a radius of about 300450 km.
Picture This
2.
Rigid mantle
List Use the information

in the gure to list the
layers of the Moon,
beginning with the core.
Non-rigid mantle
Moons crust
Core
The Moons Layers
106
Earth in Space
1.
How is the Moon like Earth?

Like the Moon, Earth also has a dense, iron core.
However, the Moons core is small compared to its total
volume. The Moon is most like Earths outer two layers
the mantle and the crustin density. This supports the idea
that the Moon may have formed mostly from material
ejected from Earths mantle and crust.
3.
Motions of the Moon

The same side of the Moon always faces Earth. You can
prove this by looking at the Moon for several nights in a
row. Youll see that its bright and dark features stay in the
same positions. Does this mean that the Moon doesnt spin
on its axis as it orbits Earth? Read on to explore why the
same side of the Moon always faces Earth.
Identify What layers of

Earth is the Moon most like
in density?
What are the Moons cycles?
The Moon is an average distance of 384,000 km from

Earth. It takes 27.3 days for the Moon to complete one orbit
around Earth. The Moon also takes 27.3 days to rotate once
on its axis. Because these two motions of the Moon take the
same amount of time, the same side of the Moon is always
facing Earth, as shown in the illustration below.
Picture This
4.
Observe What stays the

same about the Moon
during its rotation and
revolution?
North
pole
The Moons orbit
What causes the Moons phases?

If you watch the Moon for several days in a row, you may
notice how its shape and position in the sky change. You
learned that the Moon rotates on its axis and revolves
around Earth. These motions cause the regular cycle of
change in the way the Moon looks to an observer on Earth.
Reading Essentials
107
How does the Sun light the Moon?

You see the Moon because it reflects sunlight. As the
Moon revolves around Earth, the Sun always lights one half
of the Moon. However, you dont always see the entire
lighted part of the Moon. Sometimes you just see half, or
even less, of the lighted part. What you see are phases of the
moon. Moon phases are the changing views of the Moon as
seen from Earth.
Explain Why do we see
the Moon?
What is the new moon?

The Moon phases are illustrated in the figure below. New
moon occurs when the Moon is between Earth and the Sun.
You cant see a new moon. This is because the lighted half
of the Moon is facing the Sun. The new moon rises and sets
with the Sun and never appears in the night sky.
Waxing
gibbous
1st qtr.
Full
Waxing
crescent
Sunlight
New
Earth
Picture This
6.
Identify Highlight the

lighted side of each gure
of the Moon.
Waning
gibbous
3rd qtr.
Waning
crescent
When is the Moon waxing?

Shortly after the new moon, more and more of the side
facing Earth is lighted. The phases are said to be waxing, or
growing in size. About 24 hours after new moon, a thin
sliver on the side facing Earth is lighted. This phase is called
waxing crescent. As the Moon continues its trip around
Earth, half of that side is lighted. This phase is first quarter.
The next phase is called waxing gibbous (GIH bus). Then
comes full moon, when all of the side facing Earth is
lighted. At full moon, Earth is between the Sun and
the Moon.
108
Earth in Space
5.
When is the Moon waning?

After passing full moon, the amount of the side facing
Earth that is lighted begins to decrease.
Now the phases are said to be waning. Waning gibbous
takes place just after full moon. Next comes third quarter,
when only half of the side facing Earth is lighted. This is
followed by waning crescent, the final phase before the next
new moon. The Moon continues to wane until it is time for
the new moon again.
7.
Define What does it

mean when the Moons
phases are waning?
What is the time difference between the

Moons phases and revolution?
The complete cycle of the Moons phases takes about
29.5 days. However, you will recall that the Moon takes
only 27.3 days to revolve once around Earth. Earths
revolution around the Sun cause the time difference. It takes
the Moon about two days longer to align itself again
between Earth and the Sun at new moon. You can see the
time difference between the Moons phases and revolution
in the figure below.
Picture This
8.
Identify On the gure,

circle the end of the cycle of
the Moons phases.
Earths orbit
Day 1
New moon
Sun
Distant
star
Day 29 12
New moon
again
Day
14 34
Full
moon
2 days
Day 27 13
Earth, Moon, and
distant star are
once again aligned.
Reading Essentials
109
Eclipses
B Find Main Ideas Make
the following two-tab Foldable

to help you identify the main
ideas about solar and lunar
eclipses.
solar
eclipse
When the Moon lines up directly with the Sun, it can cast
its shadow all the way to Earth. Earth also can cast its
shadow onto the Moon during a full moon. When shadows
are cast in these ways, eclipses can occur.
Eclipses occur only when the Sun, the Moon, and Earth are
lined up perfectly. Eclipses happen only a few times each year
because the Moons orbit is tilted at an angle from Earths
orbit. This causes the Moons shadow to most often miss Earth.
What is a solar eclipse?

Sometimes the Moon blocks sunlight from reaching a
portion of Earths surface. During new moon, a solar eclipse
occurs if Earth moves into the Moons shadow. Look at the
figure below. It shows how the Moon blocks sunlight from
reaching part of Earths surface. Only areas on Earth in the
Moons umbra, or the darkest part of its shadow, experience
a total solar eclipse. The sky becomes dark and stars can be
seen easily.
Areas that are in the penumbra, or lighter part of the
shadow, have a partial solar eclipse. Because Earth rotates
and the Moon is moving in its orbit, a solar eclipse lasts
only a few minutes in any one location. WARNING: To
avoid harming your eyes, never look directly at a solar eclipse.
Picture This
9.
Earth
of Earth in the Moons

umbra, or darkest part of
the Moons shadow.
Umbra
Sunlight
Moon
Penumbra
110
Earth in Space
lunar
eclipse
What is a lunar eclipse?

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Sun, Earth, and the
Moon are lined up. The full moon moves into Earths
shadow. Earth blocks sunlight from reaching the Moon.
When the Moon is in the darkest part of Earths shadow, a
total lunar eclipse occurs.
During a total lunar eclipse, the full moon darkens. The
Moon appears to be deep red because some sunlight
refracts, or bends, through Earths atmosphere. As the Moon
moves out of the umbra and into the penumbra, or lighter
shadow, you can see the curved shadow of Earth move
across the Moons surface. When the Moon passes partly
through Earths umbra, a partial lunar eclipse occurs.
10.
Compare and
Contrast Why do you
think a lunar eclipse lasts
longer than a solar eclipse?
Origin of the Moon
Before the Apollo space program, several theories were

proposed to explain the origin of the Moon.
The co-formation hypothesis states that Earth and the
Moon formed at the same time and out of the same
material. According to the capture hypothesis, Earth and the
Moon formed at different locations in the solar system.
Then Earths gravity captured the Moon as it passed close to
Earth. The fission hypothesis states that the Moon formed
from material thrown off of a rapidly spinning Earth.
What is the collision hypothesis?

The collection and study of moon rocks brought evidence
to support the collision hypothesis. When Earth was about
100 million years old, a Mars-sized space object may have
collided with Earth. Such an object would have broken
through Earths crust and plunged toward the core. Large
amounts of gas and debris would have been thrown into
orbit around Earth. Within about 1,000 years the gas and
debris could have condensed to form the Moon. The
collision theory is strengthened by the fact that Earth and
the Moon have different densities. The Moons density is
similar to material found in Earths mantle and crust.
11.
Identify Which of these

theories about the origin of
the Moon suggests that the
Moon formed from gas and
debris thrown into orbit
around Earth?
a.
b.
c.
d.
capture hypothesis
co-formation hypothesis
collision hypothesis
ssion hypothesis
Reading Essentials
111
After You Read

Mini Glossary
crater: depression formed by impact of meteorites or comets;
the more craters in a region, the older the surface
lunar eclipse: occurs during a full moon, when the Sun, the
Moon, and Earth line up in such a way that the Moon
moves into Earths shadow
moon phases: changing views of the Moon as seen from

Earth, which are caused by the Moons revolution around
Earth
solar eclipse: occurs during a new moon, when the Sun, the
Moon, and Earth are lined up in a specic way and Earth
moves into the Moons shadow
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose a term and write a
definition of the term in your own words.
2. Complete the concept map to show the four major phases of the Moon.
____________________
____________________
EARTH
New Moon
Moon
____________________
Quarter
3. Think about what you learned. How did making flash cards help you? Describe another
study strategy you could use for this section.
End of
Section
112
Earth in Space

Earths moon.
Quarter
chapter
73
Earth in Space
3
section
Our Solar System
Before You Read

Earth is the third planet from the Sun. Eight other planets
also orbit the Sun. How many of the planets can you name?
List them below.
Read to Learn
Size of the Solar System

Our solar system is extremely large. Our solar system is
made up of the Sun, planets, asteroids, comets, and other
objects that orbit the Sun. How would you measure
something this large? Distances in space are measured by
astronomical units, not kilometers. This is because the
distances are so huge, it is not practical to use kilometers.
Earth, for example, is about 150,000,000 km from the Sun.
This distance is referred to as 1 astronomical unit, or 1 AU.
Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system, is more than
5 AU from the Sun.
At the center of the solar system is a star you know as the
Sun. The Sun is an enormous ball of gas that produces
energy by fusing hydrogen into helium in its core. More
than 99 percent of all matter in the solar system is
contained in the Sun.
What kind of star is the Sun?

Although the Sun is important to life on Earth, it is
much like many other stars in the universe. The Sun is
middle-aged and about average in the amount of light it
gives off.
What Youll Learn
about the inner planets

about how other inner
planets compare and
contrast with Earth
about the outer planets
Study Coach
Create-a-Quiz As you read

the text, create a quiz question
for each subject. When you have
nished reading, see if you can
answer your own question
correctly.
C Compare and Contrast
Make the following two-tab

Foldable to help you compare
and contrast the inner planets
and outer planets.
Reading Essentials
113
The Planets
The planets in our solar system can be classified as inner
planets or outer planets. Inner planets have orbits that lie
inside the orbit of the asteroid belt. The inner planets are
mostly solid and rocky. They have thin atmospheres
compared to the atmospheres of outer planets.
Outer planets have orbits that lie outside the orbit of the
asteroid belt. Four of these are known as gas giants. One is
a small ice/rock planet that seems to be out of place.
Inner Planets
The inner planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
They are known as the terrestrial planets, after the Latin
word terra (earth). The inner planets are similar in size to
Earth and are made up mainly of rock.
List Write the names of
the four inner planets.
Mercury The closest planet to the Sun is Mercury. It is

covered by craters formed when meteorites crashed into its
surface. The surface of Mercury has cliffs, some of which are
3 km high. These cliffs may have formed when Mercurys
molten, iron-rich core cooled and contracted, causing the
outer solid crust to shrink. The planet seems to have shrunk
about 2 km in diameter. Mercury has no atmosphere.
Venus The second planet from the Sun, Venus, is similar in
size and mass to Earth. It is often referred to as Earths twin.
However, the atmosphere of Venus is very different from
that of Earth. Thick clouds surround Venus and trap energy
from the Sun. The figure below shows the clouds in Venuss
atmosphere. This causes the surface temperature on the
planet to reach about 472C. The process is similar to what
occurs in a greenhouse.
Picture This
2.
Describe What type of

acid can be found in clouds
in Venuss atmosphere?
114
Earth in Space
1.
Earth The third planet from the Sun is Earth. It is unique

because temperatures on Earths surface allow water to
exist in three statessolid, liquid, and gas. Ozone, a
molecule of three oxygen atoms bound together, exists in
the layer of Earths atmosphere known as the stratosphere.
This ozone protects life on Earth from the Suns harmful
ultraviolet radiation.
Mars The fourth inner planet from the Sun is Mars. It is

often called the red planet. Iron oxide, the material found in
rust, is found in weathered surface rocks on Mars. This gives
the planet a reddish color. These rocks are similar to some
volcanic rocks found on Earth. A section of the surface of
Mars is shown in the picture below. The largest volcano in
the solar system, Olympus Mons, is found on Mars.
3.
Explain why Earths

surface temperatures are
unique.
Picture This
4.
Describe What does the

surface of Mars look like?
Mars has two polar ice caps that are made of frozen water
covered by a layer of frozen carbon dioxide. These ice caps
change in size between Martian winter and summer.
There are long channels on Mars. It is thought that the
channels may have been carved by flowing water sometime
in the past. The atmosphere of Mars, made up mostly of
carbon dioxide with some nitrogen and argon, is much
thinner than the atmosphere of Earth.
Mars has two moons, Phobos (FOH buhs) and Deimos
(DI mos).
Reading Essentials
115
Outer Planets
The five outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune, and Pluto. Except for Pluto, they are all gaseous
giant planets with dense atmospheres. They are mainly
made up of light elements such as hydrogen and helium.

largest storm on Jupiter?
Saturn The sixth planet from the Sun is Saturn. The gases
in Saturns atmosphere are made up mostly of hydrogen and
helium. Saturn is often called the ringed planet because
of its seven major ring divisions. The rings are made up of
pieces of ice and rock and can be seen in the figure below.
Saturn has at least 31 moons. Saturns largest moon,
Titan, has an atmosphere denser than the atmospheres of
Earth or Mars. The environment on Titan might be similar
to the environment on Earth before oxygen became a major
atmospheric gas.
Picture This
6.
Explain Why is Saturn

called the ringed planet?
116
Earth in Space
5.
Jupiter The largest planet in the solar system, Jupiter, is

about twice the width of Earth. It is the fifth planet from
the Sun and rotates once every six days. Its atmosphere is
made mostly of hydrogen and helium and has many huge
storms. The largest storm, the Great Red Spot, has raged for
more than 300 years.
With its 61 moons, Jupiter is like a miniature solar
system. The four largest moons of Jupiter are Io, Europa,
Ganymede, and Callisto. They are called the Galilean
satellites after Galileo Galilei, who discovered them in 1610.
The moon Io is the most volcanically active body in the
solar system. An ocean of liquid water is thought to exist
beneath the ice crust on the moon Europa. The National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is studying a
mission to launch an orbiting spacecraft in 2008 to study
this moon.
Uranus Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. The

atmosphere of Uranus, made up mostly of hydrogen, also
contains helium and methane. The methane gives the planet
a bluish-green color. This is because methane gas reflects
blue light and absorbs red light. Uranus is thought to have
27 moons, but additional satellites may exist.
Neptune The eighth planet from the Sun is Neptune. It is

thought that Neptunes atmosphere of hydrogen, helium,
and methane gradually changes into a slushlike layer. This
layer is comprised partially of water and other melted ices.
This slushy material is thought to change into an icy solid
toward the interior. This icy layer may surround a central,
rocky core about the size of Earth.
As with Uranus, the methane in Neptunes atmosphere gives
the planet its bluish color. Winds in the gaseous portion of
Neptune exceed speeds of 2,400 km per hour, faster than winds
on any other planet. At least 11 moons have been discovered
so far. Neptunes largest moon, Triton, has great geysers that
shoot gaseous nitrogen into space. A lack of craters on Tritons
surface suggests that the surface of Triton is fairly young.
7.
Explain What gives

Uranus a bluish color?
Pluto Pluto is the farthest planet from the Sun. It is so far

from the Sun that it has completed less than 20 percent of one
revolution around the Sun since its discovery in 1930. It is
totally different from the other outer planets. It is thought to
be made partly of ice and partly of rock. Apparently, a frozen
layer of methane, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide sometimes
covers Plutos surface. But when Pluto is closest to the Sun,
these materials thaw. They become gases and rise, forming a
temporary atmosphere. The surface of Charon, Plutos moon,
appears to be covered by water ice. Charon is so close to Pluto
that it usually cant be detected using ground-based telescopes.
Because of this, Charon was discovered nearly 50 years after
Pluto. The figure below shows Pluto and Charon.
Picture This
8.
Draw Conclusions
Why did it take so long to
discover Charon?
Reading Essentials
117
Other Objects in the Solar System
Explain What do
astronomers use as a
dividing line between the
inner and outer planets?
10.
Infer Why do parts of a

comet turn to vapor as the
comet approaches the Sun?
When comets break up, some of the particles remain in

orbit. When asteroids collide, small pieces break off. Both of
these processes produce small objects known as meteoroids
in the solar system. If meteoroids enter Earths atmosphere,
they are called meteors. If they fall to Earth, they are called
meteorites.
Origin of the Solar System

How did the solar system begin? One theory is that the
Sun and all the planets and other objects formed from a
large cloud of gas, ice, and dust about 5 billion years ago.
This large nebula (NEB yuh luh), or cloud of material, was
rotating slowly in space. Shock waves, perhaps from a
nearby exploding star, might have caused the cloud to start
condensing, or pulling together. As it condensed, it started
rotating faster and flattened into a disk.
118
Earth in Space
9.
Other objects in the solar system are asteroids, comets,

and meteoroids. Asteroids are small, rocky objects that are
most often found in a belt between Mars and Jupiter. The
asteroid belt is used by astronomers as a dividing line that
separates the inner and outer planets. Jupiters tremendous
gravity probably kept a planet from forming from the
material in the asteroid belt.
Comets are made mainly of rocky particles and water ice.
As their orbits approach the Sun, parts of comets turn to
vapor and form tails. A comet, with its tail, is shown in the
picture below. Comet tails always point away from the Sun.
Almost all of the solar systems comets are located in the
Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud. The Kuiper Belt is located
beyond Neptunes orbit, and the Oort Cloud is located far
beyond Plutos orbit.
How might the planets have formed?

Most of the condensing material was pulled by gravity
toward the center to form an early Sun. The rest of the gas,
ice, and dust in the outer areas of the nebula condensed,
collided, and stuck together. This material formed the
planets, moons, and other components of the solar system.
Conditions in the inner part of the cloud caused small,
solid planets to form. Conditions in the outer part of the
cloud were better for the formation of giant, gaseous
planets. Comets are thought to be made up of material left
over from the original cloud. You can see how the solar
system is thought to have formed in the figures below.
11.
Compare and
Contrast How did
conditions in the inner part
of the cloud differ from
conditions in the outer
part?
Picture This
12.
Illustrations What
process is taking place in
the gure?
Reading Essentials
119
After You Read

Mini Glossary
asteroid: small, rocky object found in the asteroid belt
between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars
astronomical unit: unit used to measure distances in the
solar system; 1 AU equals 150,000,000 km
comet: space object made of rocky particles and ice that

forms a tail when orbiting near the Sun
nebula: cloud of gas and dust particles in interstellar space
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Then write a sentence
comparing two of the objects described.
2. Complete the concept map to show the formation of the solar system.
____________________
condensed
into
____________________
System
Sun
____________________
Comets
3. As you read this section, you wrote a quiz question for each subject. After reading, could
you answer your questions? If not, did you go back and review the part of the section
that you did not understand?
End of
Section
120
Earth in Space

our solar system.
Nebula
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chapter
83
Lifes Structure and Classication
1
section
Living Things
Before You Read

On the lines below, list four ways you have changed since
you were born.
Read to Learn
What are living things like?

What does it mean to be alive? If you walked outside and
looked to the sky, you might see birds flying and clouds
moving across the sky. You would see living and nonliving
things that share many characteristics. For example, birds
and clouds move. Birds are living things and clouds are
nonliving things. Any living thing is called an organism.
Organisms come in different sizes and are found just about
everywhere. All organisms have some features in common.
These features include cells, the ability to grow and reproduce,
and a need for energy.
What is the smallest unit of an organism?

One feature of living things is that they have one or more
cells. A cell is the smallest unit of an organism that carries
on the functions of life. Cells use materials from their
surroundings in many ways. Each cell has an orderly
structure. Each cell contains the instructions for cellular
organization and function in its hereditary material.
What Youll Learn
the differences
between living and
nonliving things
what living things need
to survive
Study Coach
Read-and-Say You and a

partner read a paragraph to
yourselves. Then discuss
together what you learned in
the paragraph. Repeat this
process until you have nished
the section.
A Describe Make a six-tab
book, as shown below. Describe

the features that all organisms
have in common.
Cells
Use energy
Reproduce
Respond
Maintain
homeostasis
Grow and
develop
Reading Essentials
121
How do living things grow and develop?
1.
Identify What is
development?
Growth in a one-celled organism is because of an increase

in the size of the cell. Growth in a many-celled organism is
because of an increase in the number of cells. For example,
the number of cells increases as a puppy grows into an
adult dog.
Organisms change as they grow. These changes are called
development. Puppies cant see or walk when they are born.
In eight or nine days, their eyes open and their legs become
strong enough to hold them up. Consider all the ways you
have changed since you were born. These changes are part
of your development.
The length of time an organism is expected to live is
called its life span. Some bristlecone pine trees have been
alive more than 4,600 years. A humans life span is about
80 years. A mayfly lives only one day.
Why do living things respond to stimuli?
How do living things maintain homeostasis?

Living things also must respond to stimuli that occur
inside them. For example, an organism makes internal
changes to maintain the right amounts of water and food in
its cells. The regulation of an organisms internal condition
that keeps it alive despite changes in its environment is
called homeostasis (hoh mee oh STAY sus). Homeostasis is
a trait of all living things.
2.
Explain Why is
homeostasis important to
organisms?
122
Why do living things need energy?

An organism needs energy to live. Carrying on activities
like finding food requires energy. The energy used by most
organisms comes directly or indirectly from the Sun. Plants
and some other organisms use the Suns energy, carbon
dioxide, and water to make food. You and many other
organisms cannot directly use the Suns energy. Instead, you
eat food as a source of energy. Organisms that do not get
energy directly from the Sun must take in oxygen to release
the energy in foods.
A living thing must interact with its surroundings.

Anything that causes a change in an organism is a stimulus
(plural, stimuli). The reaction to a stimulus is a response.
Often, that response results in movement. An organism
must respond to stimuli to carry on its daily activities and
to survive.
Why do living things reproduce?

All living things reproduce to make more of their own
kind. Some bacteria reproduce every 20 minutes. A pine tree
may take two years to produce seeds. Living things
reproduce in many different ways.
Without reproduction, living things would not exist to
replace those individuals that die. An individual cat can live
its entire life without reproducing. However, if cats never
reproduced, all cats soon would disappear.
3.
Analyze What is the

purpose of reproduction?
What do living things need?

A Place to Live All organisms need a place to live that
meets their unique requirements. Organisms need enough
space to grow and develop. When weeds grow in a flower
bed, they take over the space needed by the flowers. The
flower bed becomes a poor place for the flowers to live.
Water All living things need water. It performs many functions,
including helping move materials between cells. Organisms take
in water from their surroundings as shown in the figure below.
Picture This
4.
Infer how a corn plant

takes in water.
All organisms take in and give off large amounts of water

each day. Homeostasis balances the amount of water exchanged.
Food Sources All organisms need a food source to live.
Living things are made up of materials such as proteins,
fats, and sugars. Animals take in these materials when they
eat. Plants and some bacteria make their own food. When
organisms die, the materials in their bodies are broken
down and released into the soil or air. The materials can
then be used again by other living organisms.
Reading Essentials
123
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
cell: the smallest unit of an organism that carries on the
functions of life
homeostasis: the regulation of an organisms internal
condition that keeps it alive despite changes in
its environment
organism: any living thing
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence explaining
the relationship between a cell and an organism.
2. Complete the concept map below to show what all living things have in common. Items
1 and 5 have been completed for you.
2.
3.
What All Organisms
Have in Common
4.
5. need a place to live, water, and food
6.
7.
End of
Section
124

living things.
1. organized into cells
chapter
83
2
section
How are living things classied?
Before You Read

On the lines below, name the make and model of three cars.
Describe two other ways that cars can be classified.
Read to Learn
Classification
People classify cars by make, model, or model year. In the
same way, people have grouped together similar organisms
for thousands of years. Many different systems were used to
group organisms. In the late 1700s, a Swedish naturalist,
Carolus Linnaeus, developed a new system of grouping
organisms. Most scientists accepted and used his system. His
classification system was based on looking for organisms
with similar structures. For example, plants that had a
similar flower structure were grouped together. Linnaeus also
developed a scientific naming system that is still used today.
What system is used to name organisms?

The two-word scientific naming system used to name
various organisms is called binomial nomenclature
(bi NOH mee ul NOH mun klay chur). The first word of
the two-word name identifies the genus of an organism. A
genus is a group of similar species. The second word usually
describes a feature of an organism. This two-word name is
an organisms species. Organisms that can reproduce fertile
offspring belong to the same species. Latin is the language
used for these scientific names.
What Youll Learn
how early scientists

classied living things
the system of binomial
nomenclature
how to use a
dichotomous key
Identify Main Ideas

Underline the main idea of each
paragraph. Then, circle the details
that support the main idea.
B Describe Make a two-tab
Foldable as shown below. Use

the Foldable to take notes about
scientic classication and
phylogeny.
Binomial
Nomenclature
Phylogeny
Reading Essentials
125
Example of a Species Name The scientific name of the

salamander shown below is Ambystoma tigrinum. Notice the
stripes on the salamander. They look something like tiger
stripes. This feature is described in the second word of the
name of this species of salamander.
Picture This
1.
Identify Circle the parts

of the salamander that give
it its name.
There are four reasons for using scientific names to

classify organisms. First, they help avoid mistakes. Many
organisms have similar common names, or one organism
may have several common names. Second, organisms with
similar evolutionary histories are classified together. This
shows that organisms in the same genus are related. Third,
scientific names describe a species. Fourth, scientific names
allow information about organisms to be organized easily
and efficiently.
2.
Identify one of the

reasons for using scientic
names to classify
organisms.
126
What is the basis for modern classification?

Modern scientists use similarities in structure to classify
organisms. They also study fossils, hereditary information,
and early stages of development. All of this information is
used to determine an organisms phylogeny (fi LAH juh nee).
Phylogeny is the history of how an organism has changed
over time.
The figure on the next page shows the modern
classification system for a bottle-nosed dolphin. Notice that
in todays classification system the smallest group is a
species and the largest group is a kingdom.
Why are scientific names used?
Bottle-nosed Dolphin Classication
Picture This
3.
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Identify the family and

class of a bottle-nosed
dolphin.
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Cetacea
Delphinidae
Tursiops
Species Tursiops truncatus
Tools for Identifying Organisms

Scientists use dichotomous (di KAH tuh mus) keys and
field guides to identify organisms. Field guides have
descriptions and illustrations of organisms and information
about where each organism lives. A dichotomous key is a
detailed list of identifying characteristics of an organism.
The list includes the scientific name. The table below is a
dichotomous key of mice of North America. To read the
key, you select one answer, either a or b at the first step.
You are then directed how to continue down the key until
you have identified the mouse species.
Mice of North America
Picture This
4.
1. Tail hair
a. no tail hair; scales show plainly; house mouse;

Mus musculus
b. hair on tail, go to 2
2. Ear size
a. ears small and nearly hidden in fur, go to 3

b. ears large and not hidden in fur, go to 4
3. Tail length
a. less than 25 mm; woodland vole,

Microtus pinetorum
b. more than 25 mm; prairie vole, Microtus ochrogaster
Classify Use the

dichotomous key shown in
the table to identify the
common name and the
scientic name of the mouse
with the following features:
hair on tail, ears large and
not hidden in fur, tail color is
sharply dark above.
4. Tail coloration a. sharply dark above; deer mouse,

Peromyscus maniculatus
b. slightly dark above; white-footed mouse,
Peromyscus leucopus
Reading Essentials
127
462_p01-20_MSS05_RE 6/11/04 4:28 PM Page 8 dsmith 301:goscanc:Reading Essentials - LS:layouts:
After You Read

Mini Glossary
binomial nomenclature (bi NOH mee ul
NOH mun klay chur): the two-word scientic naming
system used to name organisms
genus: a group of similar species
kingdom: the largest classication group

phylogeny ( LAH juh nee): the history of how an
organism has changed over time
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write two sentences that
explain the differences between genus and kingdom.
2. Complete the graphic organizer below to show the classification system used today.
1. Kingdom
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
End of
Section
128

how living things are classied.
chapter
83
3
section
Cell Structure
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
the development of the

cell theory
the names and
functions of each part
of a cell
the importance of a
nucleus in a cell
about tissues, organs,
and organ systems
Think about your school. List four parts of the school on

the lines below. Next to each part listed, explain the
function of that part.
Read to Learn
Viewing Cells
Until microscopes were invented, scientists did not know
what cells looked like, or even that they existed. The first
microscope was made in the late 1500s. It was two
magnifying glasses put together in a tube. In the mid 1600s,
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek made a simple microscope with a
tiny glass bead for a lens. Microscopes used today are much
more powerful than early microscopes.
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards Write

each vocabulary word or term
on one side of a ash card and
the denition on the other side.
Keep quizzing yourself until you
know all of the vocabulary words
and terms. This will help you
learn more about the section.
Development of the Cell Theory

In 1665, Robert Hook looked at a thin slice of cork under
a microscope. He thought the cork looked like it was made
up of empty little boxes, which he named cells.
In the 1830s, Matthias Schleiden used a microscope to
study plants. He concluded that all plants are made of cells.
Theodor Schwann observed different animal cells. He
concluded that all animals are made of cells. These two
scientists put their ideas together and concluded that all
living things are made of cells.
1.
Cause and Effect How

did the invention of the
microscope change
scientists view of the world?
Reading Essentials
129
Cell theory proposed Rudolf Virchow hypothesized that

cells divide to form new cells. Virchow proposed that every
cell came from a cell that already existed. Virchows ideas
about cells and those of other scientists are called the
cell theory, which is described in the table below.
2.
Describe Rudolf
Virchows contribution to
the cell theory.
The Cell Theory

All organisms are made up
of one or more cells.
An organism can be one cell or many

cells. Most plants and animals have
many cells.
The cell is the basic unit of

organization in organisms.
Even in complex organisms, the cell

is the basic unit of structure and
function.
All cells come from cells.
Most cells can divide to form two

new cells that are identical.
C Identify Make a two-tab
book using notebook paper, as

shown below. Identify the
features of prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.
Scientists separate cells into two groups, as shown in the

figure below. A prokaryotic (proh kayr ee AH tihk) cell has
no membrane-bound structures within the cell. A cell
with membrane-bound structures within it is a eukaryotic
(yew kayr ee AH tihk) cell.
Prokaryotic
Prokaryotic
cells
Gel-like capsule
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Eukaryotic
cells
Flagellum
Hereditary material
Ribosomes
Eukaryotic
Picture This
3.
Nucleolus
Cell membrane
Identify Circle the

features that are the same
in both types of cells.
Organelles
130
Nucleus with
hereditary material
Ribosomes
Cellular Organization
What is the function of a cell wall?

Cell walls are tough, rigid outer coverings that protect
cells and give them shape. The cells of plants, algae, fungi,
and most bacteria have cell walls.
A plant cell wall is mostly composed of a carbohydrate
called cellulose. Cellulose allows water and small particles to
pass through. Cell walls may contain pectin and lignin.
Pectin helps cells grow and develop. It also aids in defense
and gives the cell wall strength. Humans use pectin to give
jams and jellies their thick texture. Lignin is a compound
that makes cell walls rigid. Plant cells responsible for
support, such as those in the stem, have more lignin in their
walls than other plant cells.
What does the cell membrane control?
4.
Explain the function of

lignin.
The protective layer around all cells is the cell membrane.

The cell membrane is made up of a double layer of fatlike
molecules. If a cell has a cell wall, the cell membrane is
inside the cell wall. The cell membrane controls what
happens between a cell and its environment. Nutrients enter
and waste products leave through the cell membrane.
What makes up cytoplasm?

Cytoplasm (SI toh pla zuhm) is a gelatinlike material that
fills the cell. Cytoplasm constantly flows inside the cell
membrane. Most of a cells life processes occur here. In
prokaryotic cells, the hereditary material is found in the
cytoplasm. Cytoplasm has a framework called the
cytoskeleton, which helps the cell keep or change its shape.
The cytoskeleton is made up of thin, hollow tubes of
protein and thin, solid protein fibers.
How do cells make proteins?

One substance that takes part in nearly every cell activity is
protein. Proteins are part of cell membranes and are needed
for chemical reactions that take place in the cytoplasm.
Cells make their own proteins on small structures called
ribosomes. All ribosomes in prokaryotic cells, and some
eukaryotic cells, are made and float freely in the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes receive directions from the hereditary material
on how, when, and in what order to make specific proteins.
The figure on the next page shows the structures of both
plant and animal cells. Locate the ribosomes in each type
of cell.
5.

cytoskeleton?
Reading Essentials
131
Picture This
6.
Identify Circle the

structures that are in a
plant cell but not in an
animal cell.
Animal Cell
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER)
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER)
Ribosome
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Mitochondrion
Cytoskeleton
Cell membrane
Free ribosome
Golgi bodies
Lysosome
Plant Cell
Central vacuole
Chloroplast
Free ribosome
Cell wall of adjacent cell
Nucleus
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER)
Ribosome
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER)
Golgi bodies
Mitochondrion
Cell membrane
Cell wall
What are organelles?

7.
Identify What organelle

is not surrounded by a
membrane?
132
Within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells are structures

called organelles. Some organelles process energy. Others
make materials needed by the cell or other cells. Some
organelles move materials, while others act as storage sites.
Most organelles are surrounded by a membrane. Ribosomes
are organelles but are not membrane-bound.
Nucleolus
Why is the nucleus important?

The nucleus directs all cell activities. The nucleus is usually
the largest organelle in a cell. Materials enter and leave the
nucleus through openings in the membrane. The nucleus
contains hereditary material made of DNA. DNA is the
chemical that contains the code for the cells structure and
activities. A structure called a nucleolus is found in the
nucleus. It is where most ribosomes are made in a
eukaryotic cell.
How do organelles process energy?
8.
Describe What is the

function of the nucleus?
9.
Explain Why are there

more mitochondria in
muscle cells than in other
kinds of cells?
Cells need energy to process food, make new substances,

eliminate wastes, and communicate with each other. In plant
cells, food is made in green organelles called chloroplasts
(KLOR uh plasts). Chloroplasts contain a green pigment, or
coloring, called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll captures light
energy that is used to make a sugar called glucose, and
turns this light energy into chemical energy. Many cells,
including animal cells, do not have chloroplasts for making
food. They must get their food from their environment.
The energy in food is stored until it is released by
organelles called mitochondria (mi tuh KAHN dree uh)
(singular, mitochondrion). Energy is released when food is
broken down into carbon dioxide and water. Muscle cells
are more active than other types of cells. As a result, they
have larger numbers of mitochondria.
What other jobs do organelles perform?

The endoplasmic reticulum (en duh PLAZ mihk
rih TIHK yuh lum) or ER, is a series of folded membranes in
which materials can be processed and moved around inside the
cell. The ER extends from the nucleus to the cell membrane.
The ER may be rough or smooth. Ribosomes are
attached to areas on the rough ER. The ribosomes make
proteins that are moved out of the cell or used within the
cell. ER that does not have ribosomes attached is called
smooth ER. Smooth ER processes materials such as lipids
that store energy.
The Golgi (GAWL jee) bodies are stacked and flattened
membranes that sort proteins and other cellular materials
and put them into structures called vesicles. Vesicles deliver
the cellular materials to areas inside the cell and to the cell
membrane where they are released. Cells have
membrane-bound spaces called vacuoles, which store
cellular materials, such as water, wastes, and food.
Reading Essentials
133
Which organelles recycle cell materials?

Active cells break down and recycle materials. Organelles
called lysosomes (LI suh sohmz) contain digestive chemicals
that help break down materials in the cell. Lysosomes also
break down viruses and bacteria taken into a cell. The
lysosomes membrane stops the digestive chemicals from
leaking into the cytoplasm and destroying the cell.
Many-Celled Organisms
sheets of notebook paper, as
shown below, to write notes
about tissues, organs, organ
systems, and organisms.
Tissues
Organs
Organ
systems
Many-celled
organisms
Many one-celled organisms function by themselves. A cell

in a many-celled organism, however, performs its own work
and depends in some way on other cells in the organism.
The figure below shows how a many-celled organism is
organized. Similar cells grouped together to do one job
form a tissue. Each cell works to keep the tissue alive.
Tissues are organized into organs. An organ is a structure
made up of two or more types of tissue that work together.
For example, your heart is an organ that is made up of
cardiac tissue, nerve tissue, and blood tissue.
An organ system is a group of organs that work together
to perform a specific function. Your cardiovascular system is
made up of your heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. Organ
systems work together to keep a many-celled organism alive.
Cell
Tissue
Picture This
10.
Organ system
Organ
organs in the gure that

make up the labeled
organ system.
Organism
134
D Identify Use quarter
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cell membrane: the protective layer around a cell, which controls what happens between a cell and its environment
cell theory: the summary of ideas that all organisms are made
up of one or more cells; the cell is the basic unit of organization; and all cells come from cells that already exist
cell wall: a tough, rigid outer covering that protects the cell
and gives it shape
chloroplast (KLOR uh plast): a green organelle that makes
food in plant cells
cytoplasm (SI toh pla zuhm): gelatinlike material inside
every cell
endoplasmic reticulum (en duh PLAZ mihk
rih TIHK yuh lum): a series of folded membranes in
which materials can be processed and moved around
inside of the cell
Golgi (GAWL jee) bodies: stacked, attened membranes

that sort proteins and other cellular substances and package them into membrane-bound structures called vesicles
mitochondrion (mi tuh KAHN dree uhn): an organelle
where energy is released from breaking down food into
carbon dioxide and water
nucleus: usually the largest organelle in a cell that directs all
cell activities
organ: a structure made up of two or more different types of
tissues that work together
organ system: a group of organs that work together to
perform a function
organelle: a structure within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell
ribosome: a small structure where a cell makes its own proteins
tissue: a group of similar cells that work together to do one job
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term that
describes a cell structure and write a sentence that explains its function.
2. Complete the concept web below to show the organization of an organism.

1.
2.
3.
4.
Organism

cell structure.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
135
83
4
section
Viruses
What Youll Learn
how a virus makes

copies of itself
how vaccines help
people
some uses of viruses
Study Coach
Keep a Journal As you read

the section, write a question for
each paragraph. Answer the
questions with information from
the paragraph. Make a list of
questions you have about the
section that are still unclear.
Reread the section to nd the
answers to these questions.
E Explain Use a half sheet
of notebook paper, as shown

below, to write notes about the
form and function of viruses.
Virus Form
136
Virus Function
Before You Read

Think about the things you do to keep from getting sick.
On the lines below, write down some of the preventative
methods that you follow.
Read to Learn
What are viruses?
Cold sores, measles, chicken pox, and AIDS are some
diseases caused by nonliving particles called viruses. A virus
is a strand of hereditary material surrounded by a protein
coating. A virus makes copies of itself with the help of a
living cell called a host cell. Viruses dont have a nucleus,
other organelles, or a cell membrane. They have a variety of
shapes and are too small to be seen with a light microscope.
Scientists hypothesized that viruses existed long before they
could see them. Today, electron microscopes allow scientists
to see viruses.
What happens when a virus is active?

Once a virus enters a host cell, it can be active or latent,
which is an inactive stage. When a virus enters a cell and is
active, it causes the host cell to make new viruses. This
process destroys the host cell. Follow the steps in the figure
on the next page to see one way that an active virus works
inside a cell.
chapter
An Active Virus
New viruses are released
as the host cell bursts
open and is destroyed.
The virus attaches to
a specific host cell.
New viruses form
inside of the host cell.
Virus
Host cell
Nucleus
The viruss
hereditary
material
enters the
host cell.
The viruss hereditary material

causes the cell to make viral
hereditary material and proteins.
Viral hereditary
material
Viral
proteins
What happens when a virus is latent?

When a latent virus enters a host cell, its hereditary
material becomes part of the cells hereditary material. It
does not immediately make new viruses or destroy the cell.
As the host cell reproduces, the hereditary material of the
virus is copied. A virus can be latent for many years. Then,
at any time, certain conditions inside or outside the body
can make the virus active. For example, if you have a cold
sore on your lip, a latent virus in your body has become
active. When the cold sore goes away, the virus is latent
again, but it is still in your bodys cells.
How do viruses affect organisms?

Viruses can infect most organisms, including animals,
plants, fungi, and protists. Most viruses can infect only one
host species or specific kinds of cells. For example, the potato
leafroll virus damages only potatoes. A few viruses can infect a
broad range of host species or many kinds of cells. An
example of this is the rabies virus. Rabies can infect humans
and many other animal hosts.
Picture This
1.
Sequence What
happens after new viruses
form inside the host cell?
2.

to a latent virus as the host
cell reproduces?
Reading Essentials
137
How does a virus infect an organism?

A virus cannot move by itself. There are several ways it can
reach a host cell. For example, a virus can be carried onto a
plants surface by the wind or can be inhaled by an animal. In
a viral infection, the virus first attaches itself to the surface of
the host cell. The virus and the place where it attaches on the
host cell must fit together exactly. This is why most viruses
attack only one kind of host cell. Viruses that infect bacteria
are called bacteriophages (bak TIHR ee uh fay juhz).
3.
Explain How can a virus

reach a host cell?
Treating and Preventing Viral Diseases
What is natural immunity?

One way your body can fight viral infections is by making
interferons. Interferons are proteins that protect cells from
viruses. Interferons are produced quickly by virus-infected
cells and move to noninfected cells in the host. They cause
the noninfected cells to make protective materials and
prevent the virus from spreading to these cells.
What are vaccines?
4.
Describe What are

viruses made from?
138
Vaccines are made

from weakened virus
particles. They cause
your body to produce
interferons to fight the
infection. Vaccines, like
the one the child is
receiving in the photo
to the right, can be
used to prevent many diseases, including chicken pox,
measles, and mumps.
Antibiotics do not work against viral diseases. Antiviral

drugs can be given to an infected patient to help fight a virus.
However, they are not widely used because they have harmful
side effects. Prevention is the best way to fight viral diseases.
People can get vaccinated against some viral diseases.
Improved sanitary conditions can prevent the spread of
viruses. People who have viral diseases can be kept away from
healthy people. Animals that spread disease can be kept under
control. Yellow fever was wiped out completely in the United
States through mosquito-control programs. Annual rabies
vaccines keep pets and farm animals free from the disease.
This also prevents the infection from spreading to humans.
How was the first vaccine developed?

Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine in 1796. He
injected a weakened form of the cowpox virus into healthy
people, which protected them from smallpox. Jenner did not
know how the virus worked, or that smallpox and cowpox
were related viruses.
Research with Viruses

Scientists are discovering helpful uses for some viruses.
One use, called gene therapy, substitutes normal hereditary
material for a cells defective hereditary material. The new
hereditary material is enclosed in viruses and enters the cells
and replaces the defective hereditary material. Using gene
therapy, scientists hope to find a cure for cancer.
5.
What is HIV/AIDS?
HIV stands for human immuno-deficiency virus. HIV is a
virus that attacks the immune system. The immune system
is the system that protects your body from disease. In time,
this virus can lead to Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome, or AIDS. A person with AIDS cannot easily fight
infections, like pneumonia and certain types of cancer. AIDS
occurs worldwide, with 95 percent of the cases in developing countries. The table below shows recent calculations of
those infected with HIV and AIDS. Currently, there is no
cure for AIDS. Scientists are researching HIV/AIDS for
better treatments, a vaccine, and a cure.
Picture This
HIV/AIDS in the World
6.
Adults age 1549 with HIV/AIDS, 2001
37,100,000
New HIV infections in 2001
5,000,000
Adult HIV frequency, 2001
1.20%
Women age 1549 with HIV/AIDS, 2001
Identify What is one

goal of gene therapy?
Calculate How many

males aged 1549 were
infected with HIV/AIDS
in 2001? Show your
calculations.
18,500,000
Children with HIV/AIDS, 2001
3,000,000
AIDS deaths, 2001
3,000,000
Source: UNAIDS
Reading Essentials
139
After You Read

Mini Glossary
host cell: a living cell that a virus enters to make copies of
itself
virus: a nonliving particle that causes a disease; a strand of

hereditary material surrounded by a protein coating
describes how a virus can enter a host cell.
2. Choose one of the question headings in the Read to Learn section. Write the question in
the space below. Then write your answer to that question on the lines that follow.
3. How does keeping a journal help you learn about viruses?
End of
Section
140

viruses.
Write your question here.
chapter
93
Cell Processes
1
section
Chemistry of Life
Before You Read

On the lines below, list five things that are in the room
around you. Then write something that these items have
in common.
Read to Learn
The Nature of Matter

Look at the things around you. What are they made of ?
Each item looks different, but all of them are made of
matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
You are made of matter. The chair you sit in is made of
matter. The book you read is made of matter.
Energy holds matter together and breaks matter apart.
Energy is anything that brings about change. The food you
eat is matter. It is held together by chemical energy. When
you cook food, energy in the form of heat breaks some of
the bonds that hold the matter in food together.
What Youll Learn
the differences among

atoms, molecules, and
compounds
how chemistry and life
science are related
the differences
between organic
compounds and
inorganic compounds

Underline the important ideas in
this section. This will help you
remember what you read.
What makes up matter?

Matter exists in three formssolids, liquids, and gases. All
forms of matter are made up of atoms. The oxygen atom
shown on the next page will help you understand the parts
of the atom. The nucleus is the center of the atom. The
nucleus holds the protons and neutrons. Notice that the
protons and neutrons are about the same size. They also
have about the same masses. Protons have a positive charge,
while neutrons have no charge.
A Describe Make a two-tab
book, as shown below. Write

notes about matter and energy.
Reading Essentials
141
Where are electrons found?

Electrons are outside the atoms nucleus. They have a
negative charge. It takes about 1,837 electrons to equal the
mass of one proton. Electrons are the part of the atom that
is involved in chemical reactions.
Look at the figure of the oxygen atom again. It shows that
most of the atom is empty space. Energy holds the parts of
an atom together.
Picture This
1.

electrons. Circle the nucleus
containing the protons and
neutrons.
Neutron
When something is made up of only one kind of atom, it

is called an element. An element cant be broken down into
a simpler form by chemical reactions. The element oxygen is
made up of only oxygen atoms. Hydrogen is made up of
only hydrogen atoms. Scientists give each element its own
one- or two-letter symbol.
All matter is made up of elements. Most things, including
all living things, are made up of a combination of elements.
Six elements make up 99 percent of living matter
oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S).
What are compounds?

2.
Determine What two

elements make up the
compound water?
142
Cell Processes
Water is a compound made up of two elementsoxygen

and hydrogen. Compounds are made up of two or more
elements in set ratios. For example, the ratio of hydrogen and
oxygen in water is always two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen
atom. Compounds have properties different from the elements
they are made of. There are two types of compounds
molecular compounds and ionic compounds.
What are elements?
What is a molecule?
The smallest part of a molecular compound is a molecule.
A molecule is a group of atoms held together by the energy
of chemical bonds. When chemical reactions occur, chemical
bonds break and the atoms move around to form new
bonds. The molecules formed after the reaction are different
from those that began the reaction.
How do molecular compounds form?

Molecular compounds form when different atoms share
their electrons that are farthest from
Water
the nucleus. Water is a molecular
molecule
compound that has two hydrogen
ygen
atoms and one oxygen atom. The two
tom
hydrogen atoms each share one electron
on one oxygen atom. This molecular
compound is shown in the figure at
Hydrogen
atoms
the right.
Water does not have the same properties as oxygen and
hydrogen. Oxygen and hydrogen are gases. Yet, water can be
a liquid, a solid, or a gas. When hydrogen and oxygen
combine, a change occurs and a new substance forms.
Applying Math
3.
Use Numbers Write a

simple addition problem
that shows how the
compound water is formed.
4.
Explain What are ionic

compounds?
What are ions?

Atoms also combine when they become negatively or
positively charged. Most atoms have no electric charge. They
are neutral. When an atom loses an electron, it has more
protons than electrons. Protons have a positive charge so the
atom becomes positively charged. When an atom gains an
electron, it has more electrons than protons. This creates a
negatively charged atom. These electrically charged atoms
positive or negativeare called ions.
How do ionic compounds form?

Ions of opposite charges attract each other to form
neutral compounds, or compounds with the same number
of protons and electrons. These neutral compounds are
called ionic compounds.
Table salt is an ionic compound made up of sodium (Na)
and chlorine (Cl) ions. When sodium and chlorine atoms
combine, the chlorine atom gains an electron from the
sodium atom. The chlorine atom becomes a negatively
charged ion. The sodium atom becomes a positively charged
ion. These opposite charges attract each other. The neutral
ionic compound sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed.
Reading Essentials
143
Why are ions important?

Ions are important to many life processes that take place
in your body and in other organisms. For example, when
you touch something hot, a message is sent from your hand
to your brain to tell you to move your hand. This message
travels along your nerve cells as potassium and sodium ions
move in and out of the nerve cells. Ions also help move
oxygen throughout your body. Some substances could not
move into and out of a cell without ions.
5.
Apply Name two other

mixtures that you have
made.
Not all substances form compounds when combined

together. Some substances do not change each other or
combine chemically when they are put together. A mixture
is a combination of substances in which individual substances
keep their own properties. For example, if you combine sugar
and salt, you create a mixture. No chemical reaction occurs.
You simply have sugar and salt mixed together. Mixtures can
be solids, liquids, gases, or any combination of them.
Most chemical reactions in living organisms take place in
mixtures called solutions. A solution is a mixture in which
substances are mixed evenly. Sweat is a solution of salt and
water.
Living things also contain mixtures called suspensions. A
suspension forms when a liquid or a gas has another
substance evenly spread throughout it. Unlike solutions, the
substances in a suspension eventually sink to the bottom.
For example, if a blood sample is left standing, the red
blood cells and white blood cells will sink to the bottom of
the test tube. In your body, your heart keeps your blood
moving, and the red and white blood cells stay suspended.
Organic Compounds
6.
Determine What do all

organic compounds
contain?
144
Cell Processes
All compounds are classified as organic or inorganic.

Rocks and other nonliving things are made up of inorganic
compounds. Living things such as humans and plants are
made up of organic compounds. Organic compounds
always have carbon and hydrogen atoms. Some nonliving
things also include organic compounds. Coal, for example,
is a nonliving thing that was formed from dead and
decaying plants. It contains organic compounds because the
plants were once living things.
Mixtures
How are organic compounds organized?

Organic molecules contain many atoms that can be
arranged in many different ways. Organic compounds are
organized into four groupscarbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids. The table below describes these groups of
organic compounds.
Elements
Examples
Function
Organic Compounds Found in Living Things

Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
carbon
carbon
carbon
hydrogen
oxygen
oxygen
oxygen
hydrogen
hydrogen
phosphorus
nitrogen
sulfur
sugars
fats
skin
starch
oils
hair
cellulose
supply energy store large
regulate
for cell
amounts of
cell
processes
energy
processes
long
term
short-term
build cell
energy
form
structures
storage
boundaries
around cells
form plant
structures
B Describe Make a four
door book, as shown below.

Write notes about the four
groups of organic compounds.
Nucleic Acids
carbon
oxygen
hydrogen
nitrogen
phosphorus
DNA
RNA
carry
hereditary
information
used to
make
proteins
What are carbohydrates?
Picture This
7.
Analyze Use the table to

answer the following
questions.
a. What organic compound

supplies energy for cell
processes?
b. What elements are found in

all four organic
compounds?
Carbohydrates supply energy for cell processes. Cells use

carbohydrates for energy. Sugars and starches are carbohydrates. Some carbohydrates also are important parts of cell
structures. For example, cellulose is a carbohydrate that is
an important part of plant cells.
What are lipids?

Lipids are organic compounds that do not mix with
water. Fats and oils are lipids that store energy. These lipids
release more energy than carbohydrates. One type of lipid,
the phospholipid, is a major part of cell membranes.
Why are proteins important?

Proteins have many important jobs in living organisms.
They are made up of smaller molecules called amino acids.
Proteins are the building blocks of many structures in living
organisms. Certain proteins called enzymes control most
chemical reactions in cells.
Reading Essentials
145
What are nucleic acids?

Nucleic acids are large molecules that store important
coded information in cells. One nucleic acid is
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNAgenetic material. DNA is
found in all cells at some point in their life. It carries the
information that tells the cell what to do. Ribonucleic acid,
or RNA, is another nucleic acid. It makes enzymes and
other proteins.
Inorganic Compounds
8.
Identify Name an
important inorganic
compound.
Most inorganic compounds are made from elements

other than carbon. They usually have fewer atoms than
organic molecules. Many foods you eat contain inorganic
compounds. Your body needs the elements found in
inorganic compounds. Water is an inorganic compound that
is important to all living things.
Picture This
9.
Conclude Is there more

water inside or outside
body cells?
146
Cell Processes
Living things are made up of more than 50 percent water

and depend on water to survive. You can live for weeks
without food but only a few days without water.
Some seeds and spores can exist without water. But they,
like all organic compounds, need water to grow and
reproduce. All chemical reactions in living things happen in
water solutions. Most organisms use water to move
materials throughout their bodies. For example, plants use
water to move minerals and sugars between the roots and
leaves. Water also helps cells keep their temperature
constant.
About two-thirds of
your bodys water is
located in your bodys
Water
cells, as the circle graph
outside of
shows. Water helps the
body cells
Water
(3313 %)
cells keep their shapes
inside of
and sizes. About one-third
body cells
of your bodys water is
(66 23 %)
outside the cells.
Why is water important?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
enzymes: proteins that control most chemical reactions in cells
inorganic compound: compound that is made from
elements other than carbon; compounds that make up
most nonliving things
mixture: a combination of substances in which individual

substances keep their own properties
organic compound: compounds that have carbon and
hydrogen atoms; compounds that make up all living
things
explains the difference between inorganic and organic compounds.
the space below. Then, write your answer to that question on the lines that follow.
3. How did underlining the main ideas help you understand what you read in this section?

the chemistry of life.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
147
93
Cell Processes
2
section
Moving Cellular Materials
What Youll Learn
how selectively
permeable membranes
work
about diffusion and
osmosis
the differences between
passive transport and
active transport
Study Coach

a quiz question for each
paragraph. Write the question
the answer on the other side.
know all of the answers.
C Describe Make a two-tab
book, as shown below. Use the

Foldable to take notes about
active and passive transport.
148
Cell Processes
Before You Read

On the lines below, describe the purpose of window screens.
Think of what they keep out and what they allow to pass
through.
Read to Learn
Passive Transport
Window screens keep unwanted things, such as bugs,
leaves, and birds, outside. But screens do let some things,
such as air and smoke, pass through.
Cells get food, oxygen, and other substances from their
environments. They release waste materials into their
environments. The membrane around the cell works like a
window screen works for a room. A window screen is
selectively permeable (PUR mee uh bul). It lets things like
air come into the room and keeps some things like bugs out
of the room. A cells membrane also is selectively permeable.
It lets some things come into or leave the cell. It also keeps
other things from entering or leaving the cell.
Things move through a cell membrane in several ways.
The movement depends on the size of the molecules, the
path the molecules take, and whether energy is needed.
When substances move through the cell membrane without
using energy, this movement is known as passive transport.
Three types of passive transport are diffusion, osmosis, and
facilitated diffusion. The type of transport depends on what
is moving through the cell membrane.
chapter
How does diffusion create equilibrium?
Molecules move constantly and randomly. You might

smell perfume when you walk past someone who is
wearing it. The perfume molecules move freely throughout
the air. This random movement of molecules from an area
where there are more of them into an area where there are
fewer of them is called diffusion. Diffusion is a type of
passive transport. Molecules will keep moving from one
area to another until the number of these molecules is
equal in the two areas. When this occurs, equilibrium is
reached and diffusion stops.
All cells in your body use oxygen. Oxygen moves through
your body in the red blood cells. When your heart pumps
blood to your lungs, your red blood cells contain few
oxygen molecules. Your lungs have many oxygen molecules.
Oxygen molecules move, or diffuse, from your lungs into
your red blood cells. The blood continues its journey
through your body. When the blood reaches your big toe,
there are more oxygen molecules in your red blood cells
than in the cells of your big toe. The oxygen diffuses from
your red blood cells to your big toes cells. The process is
shown in the figure below.
1.
Determine How does

diffusion create
equilibrium?
Picture This
2.
Explain Use the gure to

explain to a partner how
diffusion works.
In your big toe,

oxygen diffuses out
of red blood cells.
Air sac in lung
Toe cell
Oxygen
Oxygen
Red blood
cell
In your lungs, oxygen
diffuses into red blood cells.
Nucleus
Red
blood cell
Reading Essentials
149
What is facilitated diffusion?

Some substances pass easily through the cell membrane
by diffusion. Larger substances may need help passing
through the cell membrane. Transport proteins in the cell
membrane help these substances enter the cell. This process
is called facilitated diffusion. Transport proteins are similar
to the gates at a stadium. Gates are used to move people
into and out of the stadium. Similarly, transport proteins
are used to move substances into and out of a cell.
Describe What do
transport proteins do?
What is osmosis?
Remember that water makes up a large part of living
matter. Water molecules move by diffusion in and out of
cells. The diffusion of water through the cell membrane is
called osmosis.
What happens when you do not water plants? As a plant
cell loses water, its cell membrane pulls away from the cell
wall. This reduces pressure against the cell wall, and the
plant cell becomes limp, as shown on the left in the figure
below. The plant wilts because more water leaves the plants
cells than enters them.
When you water the plant, the water moves through the
cell membranes and fills the cells with water. The plants cell
membranes push against their cell walls, and the cells
become firm, as shown on the right in the figure below.
Picture This
4.
Explain Why does a

plant wilt?
The carrot stick becomes

limp when more water
leaves each of its cells
than enters them.
150
Cell Processes
Equilibrium occurs
when water leaves
and enters the cells
at the same rate.
3.
Osmosis in Animal Cells Osmosis also takes place in

animal cells. If animal cells were placed in pure water, they
too would swell up. However, animal cells are different from
plant cells. Just like an overfilled balloon, animal cells will
burst if too much water enters the cell.
Active Transport
Suppose you have just left a theater at the end of a movie

when you remember that you left your jacket inside. You
have to move against the crowd to enter the theater and get
your jacket. Which takes more energyleaving the theater
with the crowd or moving against the crowd to get back
into the theater? Something similar to this happens in cells.
Active transport takes place when energy is needed to
move substances through a cell membrane. For example, root
cells require minerals from the soil. The root cells already
have more molecules of the minerals than the surrounding
soil. Normally, the mineral molecules would move out of
the root into the soil until equilibrium is reached. But the
root cells need to take in the minerals from the soil.
Like facilitated diffusion, active transport uses transport
proteins. In active transport, transport proteins bind with
the needed substance and cellular energy is used to move it
through the cell membrane.
5.
Explain What must be

used with transport
proteins to move a
substance through a cell
membrane in active
transport?
6.

during exocytosis?
Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Some molecules are too large to move through the cell
membrane by diffusion or by using transport proteins.
Large protein molecules, for example, can enter a cell when
they are surrounded by the cell membrane. The cell
membrane folds around the molecule, completely surrounding
it. The sphere created is called a vesicle. The sphere pinches
off and moves the molecule into the cell. The process of
taking substances into a cell by surrounding it with the cell
membrane is known as endocytosis (en duh si TOH sus).
Some one-celled organisms take in food this way.
Exocytosis (ek soh si TOH sus) is the process in which
the contents of a vesicle are moved outside a cell. A vesicles
membrane joins with a cells membrane, and the vesicles
contents are released. Exocytosis occurs in the opposite way
that endocytosis does. Cells in your stomach use exocytosis
to release chemicals that help digest food.
Reading Essentials
151
After You Read

Mini Glossary
active transport: takes place when energy is needed to
move substances through a cell membrane; uses
transport proteins
diffusion: random movement of molecules from an area
where there are more of them into an area where there
are fewer of them
endocytosis (en duh si TOH sus): process of taking
substances into a cell by surrounding them with the
cells membrane
equilibrium: the number of molecules in two areas are the

same
exocytosis (ek soh si TOH sus): process in which the
contents of a vesicle are moved outside a cell
osmosis: the diffusion of water through the cell membrane
passive transport: movement of substances through the
cell membrane without using energy
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term that
explains how substances move into and out of cells and write a sentence explaining how
the process works.
Active Transport
Passive Transport
Both Active
and Passive
Transport
End of
Section
152
Cell Processes

the movement of cellular materials.
2. Complete the Venn diagram below to help you compare active and passive transport.
chapter
93
Cell Processes
3
section
Energy for Life
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
Describe on the lines below why you think your body needs
food.
Read to Learn
the differences
between producers and
consumers
that photosynthesis
and respiration store
and release energy
how cells get energy
Locate Information Read
Trapping and Using Energy

Chemical energy is stored in food molecules. This
chemical energy is changed inside cells into other forms of
energy needed for life. In every cell, these changes involve
chemical reactions. In fact, all of an organisms activities
involve chemical reactions. All the chemical reactions in an
organism make up metabolism.
The chemical reactions of metabolism need enzymes.
Enzymes cause changes, but the enzymes are not changed
during the reaction and can be used again. In the figure
below, an enzyme attaches to a large molecule and helps it
to change. At the end of the chemical reaction, the molecule
has changed into two smaller molecules, but the enzyme has
not changed.
Enzyme
Enzyme
Large
molecule
all the headings for this section

and circle any word you cannot
dene. At the end of each
section, review the circled words
and underline the part of the
text that helps you dene the
words.
Picture This
1.

to the enzyme during the
chemical reaction?
Small
molecules
Reading Essentials
153
What happens during photosynthesis?

tab book, as shown below. Write
the names of the following
processes on the tabs:
photosynthesis, respiration, and
fermentation. Inside each tab,
describe the process.
Living things are divided into two groupsproducers and

consumersbased on how they obtain their food.
Organisms that make their own food, such as plants, are
producers. Organisms that cannot make their own food
are consumers.
Plants and many other producers can convert light energy
into chemical energy. Producers use a process called
photosynthesis to change light energy from the Sun into
sugars, which can be used for food. Plants and other producers
that use photosynthesis are usually green because they
contain a green pigment called chlorophyll (KLOR uh fihl).
In plant cells, these pigments are found in chloroplasts.
Chlorophyll is used in photosynthesis to capture light
energy. Plants use chlorophyll to make sugar and oxygen
(O2) from the raw materials carbon dioxide (CO2), water
(H2O), and light energy. Plants get their raw materials from
the air, soil, and Sun. Some of the light energy is stored in
the chemical bonds that hold the sugar molecules together.
Enzymes also are needed for the reactions to occur. The
process of photosynthesis is shown in the figure below.
Review the chemical equation for photosynthesis to identify
the raw materials and the results of the chemical process.
O 2 and sugar
Light energy
H2O
and
CO2
Picture This
2.
Identify Circle the three

things needed for photosynthesis to take place.
O2
CO 2
Stored
food
Photosynthesis
0
C 6 H12 O 6 6O2
6CO 2 6H2 O light energy
carbon water
chlorophyll sugar oxygen
dioxide
154
Cell Processes
D Describe Make a three
How do plants store and use carbohydrates?

Plants make more sugar during photosynthesis than they
need for survival. The extra sugar is changed and then
stored as starches and other carbohydrates. Plants, such as
apple trees, use these carbohydrates for growth, for keeping
up cells, and for reproduction.
Why is photosynthesis important

to consumers?
3.
Explain How do plants

use carbohydrates?
4.
Draw Conclusions
Consumers get energy by eating producers and other

consumers. No matter what food you eat, photosynthesis
was involved directly or indirectly in its production. For
example, an apple tree uses photosynthesis to make apples.
When you eat an apple, the stored sugars help feed your
body. Some cheese comes from milk, which is produced by
cows that eat plants. The plants the cows eat are producers.
The cows and humans are consumers.
How do you use energy?

Imagine that you get up late for school. You dress quickly
and run three blocks to school. When you get to school, you
feel hot and are breathing fast. Why? Your muscle cells use a
lot of energy when you run. To get this energy, muscle cells
break down food. Some of the energy in the food is used
when you run and some of it becomes thermal energy,
which is why you feel warm or hot. Most cells need oxygen
to break down food. You are breathing fast because your
body was working to get oxygen to your muscles.
What is respiration?
When you ran, your muscle cells were using the oxygen
for the process of respiration. During respiration, chemical
reactions break down food molecules into simpler substances
and release stored energy. Just as in photosynthesis, enzymes
are needed for the chemical reactions of respiration.
Respiration occurs in the cells of all living things. As you
are reading this page, millions of cells in your body are
breaking down food molecules and releasing energy. Two
waste products, carbon dioxide and water, are produced
during respiration. Your body gets rid of the carbon dioxide
and some of the water when you breathe out, or exhale.
Why does respiration occur

only in living things?
Reading Essentials
155
What is fermentation?
Even though you breathe harder when you run, your
muscle cells might not receive enough oxygen for
respiration. When this happens, a process in the muscle cells
known as fermentation releases some of the energy stored
in glucose (sugar) molecules.
Fermentation also releases energy and produces wastes.
The type of wastes produced depends on the type of cell.
They may be lactic acid, alcohol, and carbon dioxide.
Fermentation in your muscle cells changes simple molecules
into lactic acid while releasing energy, as shown in the figure
below. The presence of lactic acid is why your muscles
might feel stiff or sore after you have run to school.
Picture This
5.
Identify What are three

waste products created
during fermentation?
Yeast cells
Fermentation
Carbon dioxide
and alcohol
Muscle cells
Lactic acid
What products come from fermentation?
6.
Identify What waste

products come from the
fermentation of yeast cells?
156
Cell Processes
Some organisms, such as bacteria, carry out fermentation

and make lactic acid. Some of these organisms are used to
make yogurt and some cheeses. These organisms break
down a sugar in milk to release energy. The lactic acid
produced causes the milk to become more solid. Some of
the flavor in yogurt and cheese comes from this process.
Have you ever used yeast to make bread? Yeasts are
one-celled living organisms. Fermentation in yeast cells
breaks down the sugar in bread dough. The cells produce
alcohol and carbon dioxide as wastes. The carbon dioxide
waste is a gas that makes the bread dough rise. The alcohol
is lost as the bread bakes.
Fermentation
How do photosynthesis and respiration

work together?
Some producers make food through photosynthesis. All

living things release energy stored in food through
respiration or fermentation. If you think carefully about
photosynthesis and respiration, you will note that what is
produced by one process is used by the other process.
Photosynthesis and respiration are almost the opposite of
each other. Photosynthesis produces sugars and oxygen, and
respiration uses these products. The carbon dioxide and
water produced during respiration are used during
photosynthesis.
As you fill in the products in the figure below, review how
the products of one process are the wastes of the other
process. Photosynthesis and respiration cannot take place
without each other. And most life would not be possible
without these important chemical reactions.
Photosynthesis
(producers)
Picture This
7.
Illustrate In the gure

below, ll in the products
released by photosynthesis
and respiration.
Respiration
(all living things)
Reading Essentials
157
After You Read

Mini Glossary
fermentation: chemical reaction that releases energy
stored in glucose (sugar) molecules and produces carbon
dioxide, lactic acid, and alcohol as wastes
metabolism: all chemical reactions that take place in an
organism
photosynthesis: process that uses light energy, carbon

dioxide, and water to produce the sugars and oxygen
needed by all living things
respiration: chemical reaction that uses oxygen and breaks
down food molecules into simpler substances to release
their stored energy
2. Fill in the table below to identify what is needed by each chemical reaction and what is
produced by each chemical reaction.
Photosynthesis
What is needed?
Respiration
1.
1.
2.
2.
Fermentation
1. glucose molecules
3.
What is produced?
End of
Section
158
Cell Processes
1.
1.
1.
2.
2.
2.
3.
3.

energy for life.
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a short paragraph that
describes how photosynthesis and respiration are related.
chapter
10
3
Cell Reproduction
1
section
Cell Division and Mitosis
Before You Read

List five living things on the lines below. Then write one
thing that these items have in common with each other and
with you.
Read to Learn
Why is cell division important?

All living things are made up of cells. Many organisms
start as one cell. The cell divides and becomes two cells, two
cells become four, four become eight, and so on. Through
the process of cell division, the organism grows.
Cell division is still important after an organism stops
growing. For example, every day billions of your red blood
cells wear out and are replaced through cell division. During
the time it takes you to read this sentence, your bone
marrow produced about six million red blood cells.
Cell division is the way a one-celled organism makes
another organism of its kind. When a one-celled organism
reaches a certain size, it reproduces by dividing into two cells.
The Cell Cycle

Every living organism has a life cycle. A life cycle has three
parts. First, the organism forms. Next, it grows and develops.
Finally, the life cycle ends when the organism dies. Right
now, you are in a part of your life cycle called adolescence
(a doh LEH sence), which is a time of active growth and
development.
What Youll Learn
why mitosis is
important
the steps of mitosis
the similarities and
differences between
mitosis in plant and
animal cells
examples of asexual
reproduction
Identify Details Highlight

each question head. Then use
another color to highlight the
answer to that question.
A Describe Use quarter

shown below, to describe cell
growth and development and
cell division.
Cell Growth
and Development
Cell
Division
Reading Essentials
159
How long is the life cycle of a cell?

Every cell has a life cycle. A cells life cycle is called a cell
cycle, as shown in the figure below. A cell cycle is not
completed in the same amount of time in all cells. For
example, the cell cycle of some human cells takes about
16 hours. The cell cycle of some plant cells takes about 19
hours. A cell cycle has three partsinterphase, mitosis, and
cytoplasm division.
Picture This
1.
Cell Cycle
Identify Draw an outline

around the interphase part
of the cell cycle to the right.
Approximately how much
of the cell cycle is
interphase?
Interphase
Cell grows and
functions, organelles
duplicate.
DNA is copied;
chromosomes
duplicate.
Cell grows and

prepares for mitosis.
Cytoplasm
divides.
What is the longest part of the cell cycle?
B Sequence Make a four
tab book, as shown below. Use

the Foldable to identify facts
about the four steps of mitosis.
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
160
Cell Reproduction
For cells that have a nucleus, the longest part of the cell
cycle is a period of growth and development called
interphase. Cells in your body that no longer divide, such
as nerve and muscle cells, are always in interphase.
During interphase, an actively dividing cell, such as a skin
cell, copies its DNA and prepares for cell division. DNA is
the chemical code that controls an organisms growth and
operation. A copy of a cells DNA must be made before
dividing so that each of the two new cells will get a
complete copy. Each cell needs a complete set of hereditary
material to carry out life functions.
Mitosis
After interphase, cell division begins. Mitosis is the first step
in cell division. Mitosis (mi TOH sus) is the process in which
the cells nucleus divides to form two nuclei. Each new nucleus
is identical to the original nucleus. The steps of mitosis are
called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Mitosis
occurs.
What happens to chromosomes during

cell division?
A chromosome (KROH muh sohm) is a structure in
the nucleus that contains DNA. During interphase, each
chromosome is copied. When the nucleus is ready to divide,
the two copies of each chromosome coil tightly into two
thickened, identical DNA
Chromatids
strands called chromatids
Duplication
Centromere
(KROH muh tidz). In the
figure to the right, the
chromatids are held
together at a place called
Unduplicated
Duplicated
chromosome chromosome
the centromere.
Picture This
2.
Identify Circle the place

where the chromatids are
held together.
Prophase During prophase, the chromatid pairs can be

seen. The nuclear membrane breaks apart. Two small
structures called centrioles (SEN tree olz) move to opposite
ends of the cell. Between the centrioles, threadlike spindle
fibers stretch across the cell. Animal cells have centrioles, but
plant cells do not.
Metaphase In metaphase, the chromatid pairs line up

across the center of the cell. The centromere of each pair
usually becomes attached to two spindle fibersone from
each side of the cell.
3.
Explain what happens to

the centrioles during
prophase.
Anaphase In anaphase, each centromere divides. The spindle

fibers become shorter, and each chromatid separates from its
partner. The separated chromatids begin to move to opposite
ends of the cell. They are now called chromosomes.
Telophase The final step of mitosis is telophase. During
telophase, the spindle fibers start to disappear. The
chromosomes start to uncoil, and a new nucleus forms.
How does the cytoplasm divide?

For most cells, after the nucleus divides, the cytoplasm
separates and two new cells are formed. Each new cell
contains one of the new nuclei. In animal cells, the cell
membrane pinches in the middle, like a balloon with a
string tightened around it. The cell divides at the pinched
area to form two new cells. Each new cell contains half the
cytoplasm from the old cell.
After the division of the cytoplasm, most new cells begin
interphase again. Use the figure on the next page to review
the cell division of an animal cell.
Reading Essentials
161
Picture This
4.
Cell Division for an Animal Cell
Describe Highlight the

chromosomes in each
phase of mitosis. As you
highlight the step, explain
to a partner what
is happening to the
chromosome.
Spindle fibers
Mitosis begins
The chromatid pairs

are now visible and
the spindle is
beginning to form.
Centrioles
Nucleus
Prophase
Nucleolus
Duplicated
chromosome
(2 chromatids)
Interphase
During interphase, the cell's
chromosomes duplicate.
The nucleolus is clearly
visible in the nucleus.
Metaphase
The two new cells enter
interphase and cell division
usually begins again.
Chromatid pairs are

lined up in the center
of the cell.
Anaphase
The chromosomes
have separated.
Telophase
Chromosomes
Cytoplasm
separating
New
nucleus
How do plant cells divide after mitosis?

5.
Explain In plant cells,

what divides the cytoplasm
into two parts?
162
Cell Reproduction
In plant cells, a cell plate forms in the middle of the cell.

The cell plate divides the cytoplasm into two parts. New cell
walls form along the cell plate, and new cell membranes
develop inside the cell walls.
Mitosis ends
In the final step, the cytoplasm

is beginning to separate.
What are the results of mitosis?

You should remember two important things about mitosis.
First, mitosis is the division of a cells nucleus. Second, it
produces two new nuclei that are identical to each other and
to the original nucleus. Every cell in your body, except sex
cells, has a nucleus with 46 chromosomes23 pairs. This is
because you began as one cell with 46 chromosomes in its
nucleus. Skin cells, produced to replace or repair your skin,
have the same 46 chromosomes as the original single cell you
developed from.
The 46 chromosomes of a human cell are shown below.
Notice that the last pair is labeled XY. This is the
chromosome pair that determines sex. The XY label
indicates a male. Females have XX chromosome pairs.
Picture This
Chromosomes of a human cell
6.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
(No. of chromosome pairs) 2
22
Solve Complete the

equation at the bottom of
the gure using the information in the gure.
(XY)
(No. of chromosomes)
Each of the trillions of cells in your body, except sex cells,

has a copy of the same DNA. All of your cells, however, use
different parts of the DNA to become different types of
cells. Skin cells and blood cells contain a copy of the same
DNA. They use different parts of the DNA to perform their
different functions.
Cell division allows growth and replaces worn out or
damaged cells. You are much larger than you were when you
were a baby. This is possible because of cell division. If you
cut yourself, the wound heals because cell division replaces
damaged cells.
7.
Explain What is the

purpose of cell division?
Reading Essentials
163
Asexual Reproduction
The way an organism produces others of its kind is
called reproduction. Among living organisms, there are
two types of reproductionsexual and asexual. Sexual
reproduction usually involves two parent organisms. In
asexual reproduction, a new organism (sometimes more
than one) is produced from only one parent organism.
The new organism has the same DNA as the parent. New
strawberry plants can be reproduced asexually from
horizontal stems called runners. The figure below shows
the asexual reproduction of a strawberry plant.
Picture This
Identify How many
organisms were needed to
produce the strawberry
runner?
How do cells divide using fission?

Remember, mitosis involves the division of a nucleus.
Bacteria do not have a nucleus, so they can not use mitosis.
Instead, bacteria reproduce asexually by a process called
fission. During fission, a bacteria cells DNA is copied. The
cell then divides into two identical organisms. Each new
organism has a complete copy of the parent organisms DNA.
How do organisms reproduce using budding?
9.
Explain budding, which is

a form of asexual
reproduction.
164
Cell Reproduction
Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a new

organism grows from the body of the parent. When the bud
on the adult becomes large enough, it breaks away to live on
its own.
How do some organisms regrow body parts?

Some organisms, such as sponges and sea stars, can
regrow damaged or lost body parts. The process that uses
cell division to regrow body parts is called regeneration. If a
sea star breaks into pieces, a whole new organism can grow
from each piece.
8.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
asexual reproduction: the way a new organism is
produced from one organism
chromosome (KROH muh sohm): a structure in the
nucleus that contains hereditary material
mitosis (mi TOH sus): the process in which the nucleus

divides to form two identical nuclei; the four steps
include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence to explain
mitosis using a skin cell as an example.
2. Complete the Venn diagram below to help you compare mitosis in plant and animal cells.
Write one similarity at each phase in the overlapping area.
Plant Cells
Animal Cells
Prophase:
Metaphase:
Anaphase:
Telophase:
Both Plant and Animal Cells

cell division and mitosis.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
165
Cell Reproduction
10
3
2
section
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
What Youll Learn
the stages of meiosis

how sex cells are
produced
why meiosis is needed
for sexual reproduction
the names of the cells
involved in fertilization
how fertilization occurs
in sexual reproduction
Study Coach
Make Journal Entries

As you read the section, write a
question for each paragraph in
a journal. Answer the question
with information from the
paragraph. Make a list of
questions you have about the
section that are still unclear and
then nd the answers.
C Explain Make a three-tab

Foldable to make a Venn diagram
explaining sexual reproduction.
Sperm
Zygote
Egg
166
Cell Reproduction
Before You Read

On the lines below, explain what makes you different from
anyone else in your class.
Read to Learn
Sexual Reproduction
A new organism can be produced through sexual
reproduction. During sexual reproduction, two sex cells,
sometimes called a sperm and an egg, come together.
Usually the sperm and the egg come from two different
organisms of the same species.
Sex cells are formed in reproductive organs. The male
reproductive organ forms sperm. The female reproductive
organ forms eggs. The joining of a sperm and an egg is
called fertilization. The cell that forms from fertilization is
called a zygote (ZI goht).
What two types of cells does your body

make?
Your body makes body cells and sex cells. Body cells form
your brain, skin, bones, and other tissues and organs. A
human body cell usually has 46 chromosomes. Each
chromosome has a mate that is similar in size and shape
and has similar DNA, or hereditary information. This means
that a body cell has 23 pairs of similar chromosomes. Cells
that have pairs of similar chromosomes are called diploid
(DIH ployd) cells.
chapter
What are haploid cells?

A sex cell has half the number of chromosomes found in
a body cell, or 23 chromosomes. A sex cell has only one
chromosome from each pair. A cell that does not have pairs
of chromosomes is called a haploid (HA ployd) cell.
Meiosis and Sex Cells

A process called meiosis (mi OH sus) produces haploid
sex cells. During meiosis, two divisions of the nucleus occur.
These divisions are called meiosis I and meiosis II. The steps
of each division of meiosis are named like the steps in
mitosisprophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The
figure below shows what happens during meiosis I.
Meiosis I
Pair of duplicated
chromosomes
Chromatid pair
Duplicated
chromosomes
Spindle fibers
Nuclear membrane
Prophase I
Centrioles
Picture This
1.
Identify How many cells

form in meiosis I?
2.
Explain What happens in

a cell before meiosis I
begins?
Centromere
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
What happens to a cell during meiosis I?

Before meiosis begins, each chromosome is copied.
When the cell is ready for meiosis, the two copies of each
chromosome can be seen under a microscope as two
chromatids. Follow the steps in meiosis I in the figure
above. Notice that in prophase I, each pair of duplicated
chromosomes comes together.
In metaphase I, the pairs of duplicated chromosomes line
up in the center of the cell. As you can see, the centromere
of each chromatid pair attaches to one spindle fiber.
In anaphase I, the two copies of the same chromosome,
the chromatids, move away from each other to opposite
ends of the cell. Notice that each duplicated chromosome
still has two chromatids.
In telophase I, the cytoplasm divides and two new cells
form. Each new cell has one duplicated chromosome from
each similar pair.
Reading Essentials
167
What happens in meiosis II?
3.
Explain how metaphase

I and metaphase II differ.
The two cells that formed in meiosis I now begin meiosis

II. Follow the steps in meiosis II in the figure below. As you
can see in prophase II, the duplicated chromosomes and
spindle fibers reappear in each new cell.
In metaphase II, the duplicated chromosomes move to the
center of each cell. The centromere of each chromatid pair
attaches to two spindle fibers.
In anaphase II, the centromere in each cell divides. Then
the chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of each
cell. Each chromatid becomes an individual chromosome.
In telophase II, the spindle fibers disappear, and a nuclear
membrane forms around the chromosomes at each end of
the cell. When meiosis II is finished, the cytoplasm of each
cell divides.
Meiosis II
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
What is the final result of meiosis?

During meiosis I, one cell divides into two cells. During
meiosis II, those two cells divide. When meiosis II ends,
there are four sex cells. Each sex cell has 23 unpaired
chromosomes. This is one-half the number of chromosomes
that were in the original nucleus46 chromosomes.
4.
Explain What is the usual

result of too many or too
few chromosomes?
168
Cell Reproduction
What can go wrong in meiosis?

Mistakes sometimes occur during meiosis. These mistakes
can produce sex cells with too many or too few chromosomes.
Zygotes, cells that form from fertilized eggs, produced from
these sex cells sometimes die. If the zygote lives, every cell
that grows from the zygote will have the wrong number of
chromosomes. Organisms with the wrong number of
chromosomes usually do not grow normally.
Unduplicated
chromosomes
After You Read

Mini Glossary
diploid (DIH ployd): cells that have pairs of similar
chromosomes
egg: sex cell formed in the female reproductive organs
fertilization: the joining of a sperm and an egg
haploid (HA ployd): cells that do not have pairs of
chromosomes, such as sex cells
meiosis (mi OH sis): a process that produces haploid sex cells

sexual reproduction: two sex cells come together to
produce a new organism
sperm: sex cell formed in the male reproductive organs
zygote (ZI goht): the cell that forms from fertilization
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose the terms that
explain the process of sexual reproduction and write one or two sentences explaining
how the process works.
2. Complete the graphic organizer below to label the steps that occur during meiosis I and
meiosis II.
Meiosis I
Meiosis II
3. How do your journal entries help you understand sexual reproduction and meiosis?

sexual reproduction and meiosis.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
169
10
3
Cell Reproduction
3
section
DNA
What Youll Learn
the parts of a DNA

molecule and its
structure
how DNA copies itself
the structure and role of
each kind of RNA
Study Coach
Discuss Read a paragraph to

yourself, then take turns with
your partner saying something
about what you have learned.
Continue your discussion until
you and your partner
understand the paragraph. Then
repeat the process with the
remaining paragraphs in the
section.
Picture This
1.
Infer Examine the DNA

strand in the gure. What is
the DNA code used to
represent?
170
Cell Reproduction
Before You Read

Write on the lines below how police departments use DNA
to solve crimes.
Read to Learn
What is DNA?
Before you could learn to read,
you learned the alphabet. The
letters of the alphabet are a code
you needed to know before you
could read. A cell also uses a code.
That code contains information
for an organisms growth and
function. It is stored in a cells
hereditary material. The code is a
chemical called deoxyribonucleic
(dee AHK sih ri boh noo klay ihk)
acid, or DNA. The figure to the
right shows the spiral-shaped
structure of DNA.
When a cell divides, the DNA
code is copied and passed to the
new cells. New cells get the same
DNA code that was in the original
cell. Every cell that has ever been
formed in your body or in any
organism has DNA.
Phosphate
groups
S
P
S
P
S
S
P
S
S
C GP
P S
P
P
S
S A T
S
P
T
P
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
S
P
G
P
S C
G
S
P
P
SS
A
S
P
C
S
S
P
S
P
A
P
T
P
P
S T
P
S
chapter
What does DNA look like?

In 1952, scientist Rosalind Franklin discovered that DNA is
two chains of molecules. As you can see in the figure on the
previous page, DNA looks like a twisted ladder. Each side of
the ladder is made up of sugar-phosphate molecules. The sugar
in each molecule is called deoxyribose (dee AHK sih ri bohs).
In 1953, scientists James Watson and Francis Crick made a
model of a DNA molecule.
2.
Identify What did

Rosalind Franklin discover?
What are the four nitrogen molecules that

make up DNA?
The rungs, or steps, of the DNA ladder are made up of
molecules called nitrogen bases. The four kinds of nitrogen
bases found in DNA are adenine (A duh neen), guanine
(GWAH neen), cytosine (SI tuh seen), and thymine
(THI meen). In the DNA model on the previous page, the
first letters of the name of each base, A, G, C, and T, are
used to stand for the bases. Also notice that adenine (A)
always pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always pairs
with cytosine (C).
When chromosomes are copied before mitosis or meiosis,

the amount of DNA in the nucleus is doubled. The figure
below shows how the DNA copies itself. The two sides of
DNA unwind and separate. Each side then becomes a
pattern on which a new side can form. The new DNA
pattern is exactly the same as the original DNA pattern.
G A
A
A
T
Step 2
New bases pair with
bases on original DNA.
Determine Write one
Step 1
Enzyme separates
DNA sides
3.
quiz question in the space

below based on one of the
steps in this gure.
How is DNA copied?
Picture This
Step 3
Two new identical DNA
molecules are produced.
C
T
G
Original DNA molecule
C
T
Reading Essentials
171
Genes
What color are your eyes? How tall are you? The answers to
questions like these depend on the kinds of proteins your cells
make. Proteins build cells and tissues or work as enzymes. The
instructions for making certain proteins are found in genes.
A gene is a section of DNA on a chromosome. Each
chromosome has hundreds of genes.
4.
Explain where the

instructions for making
certain proteins are found.
What are proteins?

Proteins build cells and tissues. Proteins are made of chains
of many amino acids. The gene decides the order of amino
acids in a protein. Changing the order of the amino acids
makes a different protein. Genes are found in the nucleus, but
proteins are made on ribosomes in cytoplasm.
What is RNA?
5.
Apply Fill in the two

circles in the gure with the
correct letter.
Growing protein
Amino acids
Chemical bond forms
mRNA
DNA
Nucleus
tRNA
C
At the ribosome,
the RNA's message
is translated into
a specific protein.
172
Cell Reproduction
G U G
C
G
mRNA
Ribosome
Picture This
The codes for making proteins are carried from the nucleus
to the ribosomes by ribonucleic acid, or RNA. RNA is made
in the nucleus on a DNA pattern, but it is different from
DNA. Look at the model of an RNA molecule below. Notice
that RNA is like a ladder with its rungs sawed in half. Like
DNA, RNA has the bases A, G, and C. But it has the base
uracil (U) instead of thymine (T). The sugar-phosphate
molecules in RNA contain the sugar ribose.
What does RNA do?

There are three main kinds of RNA made from DNA in a
cells nucleus. They are messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal
RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). Protein is made
when mRNA moves into the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm,
ribosomes, which are made of rRNA, attach to the mRNA.
The ribosomes get amino acids from tRNA molecules that are
already in the cytoplasm. Inside the ribosomes, three nitrogen
bases on the mRNA temporarily match with three nitrogen
bases on the tRNA. The same thing happens for the mRNA
and another tRNA molecule. The amino acids that are
attached to the two tRNA molecules connect. This is the
beginning of a protein.
D Identify Make a three-tab

Foldable to write facts about the
three types of RNA.
Messenger
RNA
Ribosomal
RNA
Transfer
RNA
How do cells control genes?
Even though most cells in an organism have exactly the

same genes, they do not make the same proteins. Each cell
uses only the genes that make the proteins that it needs. For
example, muscle proteins are made in muscle cells but not
in nerve cells.
Cells control genes by turning some genes off and turning
other genes on. Sometimes the DNA is twisted so tightly
that no RNA can be made. Other times, chemicals attach to
DNA so that it cannot be used.
Mutations
If DNA is not copied exactly, proteins may not be made
correctly. These mistakes, called mutations, are permanent
changes in the DNA sequence of a gene or chromosome.
What are the results of a mutation?

An organism with a mutation may not be able to grow,
repair, or maintain itself. A mutation in a body cell may or
may not cause problems for the organism. A mutation in a
sex cell, however, makes changes to the species when the
organism reproduces. Many mutations are harmful to
organisms, often causing their death. Some mutations have
no effect on an organism. Other mutations can be helpful to
an organism.
6.
Explain What is a
mutation?
Reading Essentials
173
After You Read

Mini Glossary
DNA: a chemical in a cell that contains information for an
organisms growth and function
gene: a section of DNA on a chromosome that contains the
instructions for making a specic protein
mutations: any permanent change in the DNA sequence of a

gene or chromosome of a cell
RNA: a nucleic acid that carries the codes for making proteins
from the nucleus to the ribosomes
2. Moving from left to right, write the letters (A, T, C, or G) in the empty circles of the
bases that will pair with the bases on the top strand to this DNA molecule. The first
three pairs have been created for you.
phosphate
T
G
G
C
A
G
sugar
T
C
A
End of
Section
174
Cell Reproduction
nitrogen base

interactive games, and projects to help you learn more
about DNA.
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a short paragraph that
contrasts DNA and RNA.
chapter
11
3
Heredity
1
section
Genetics
Before You Read

Think of a parent and a child that you know. On the lines
below, list four ways the child looks like the parent.
Read to Learn
Inheriting Traits
Do you look more like one parent or grandparent? Do
you have your fathers eyes? Eye color, nose shape, and many
other physical features are traits. Traits also include things
that cannot be seen, such as your blood type. An organism
is a collection of traits, all inherited from its parents.
Heredity (huh REH duh tee) is the passing of traits from
parent to offspring, or children.
What Youll Learn
how traits are inherited

Mendels role in the
history of genetics
how to use a Punnett
square
genotype and
phenotype
Study Coach
Create a Vocabulary
Quiz Write a question about
each vocabulary word or term in
the section. Exchange quizzes
with another student. Together
discuss the answers to the
quizzes.
What is genetics?
Usually, genes on chromosomes control an organisms
shape and function. The different forms of a trait that a gene
may have are called alleles (uh LEELZ). When a pair of
chromosomes separates during meiosis (mi OH sus), alleles
for each trait also separate into different sex cells. As a result,
every sex cell has one allele for each trait, as shown in the
figure on the next page. The allele in one sex cell may control
one form of the trait, such as dimples. The allele in another
sex cell may control a different form of the trait, such as no
dimples. The study of how traits are inherited through the
interactions of alleles is called genetics (juh NE tihks).
1.
Define the word genetics.
Reading Essentials
175
Chromosomes Separate During Meiosis

D
D
Female
D
Eggs
Meiosis
d
Male
Fertilization
D
d
Sperm
A The alleles that control a trait

are located on each duplicated
chromosome.
D
d
d
d
B During meiosis, duplicated

chromosomes separate.
Fertilized eggs
C During fertilization, each

parent donates one chromosome.
This results in two alleles for the
trait in the new individual formed.
Picture This
2.
Identify Circle the sex

cells on the diagram.
3.
Analyze When Mendel

studied traits, how did his
methods differ from those
of other scientists?
176
Heredity
Did you know that an experiment with pea plants helped

scientists understand why your eyes are the color they are?
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who studied
mathematics and science. His job at the monastery where he
lived was gardening. His interest in plants began as a boy in
his fathers orchards. He learned to predict the possible
types of flowers and fruits that would result from
crossbreeding plants.
In 1856, Mendel began experimenting with garden peas.
He wanted to know the connection between the color of a
pea flower and the type of seed the plant produced. Before
Mendel, scientists relied on observation and description.
They often studied many traits at one time. This made it
hard to develop good hypotheses about how traits are
inherited. Mendel used scientific methods in his study.
Mendel was the first person to trace one trait through many
generations. He was the first person to record the study of
how traits pass from one generation to another. He was also
the first person to use the mathematics of probability to
explain heredity.
In 1900, three plant scientists repeated Mendels experiments
and reached the same conclusions as Mendel. For this reason,
Mendel is known as the father of genetics.
MendelThe Father of Genetics
Genetics in a Garden
When Mendel studied a trait, he crossed two plants with
different forms of the trait. He found that the new plants all
looked like one of the two parents. Mendel called each new
plant a hybrid (HI brud) because it received different genetic
information, or different alleles, for a trait from each parent.
What is a purebred?
Garden peas are easy to breed for pure traits. An
organism that always produces the same traits, generation
after generation, is called a purebred. For example, plants
can be purebred for the trait of tall height. The table below
shows the pea plant traits that Mendel studied.
Picture This
4.
Identify How many traits

did Mendel study?
Traits Compared by Mendel

Traits
Shape
of Seeds
Color
of Seeds
Color
of Pods
Shape
of Pods
Plant
Height
Position
of Flowers
Flower
Color
Round
Yellow
Green
Full
Tall
At leaf
junctions
Purple
Wrinkled
Green
Yellow
Flat,
constricted
Short
At tips of
branches
White
Dominant
Trait
Recessive
Trait
What are dominant and recessive factors?

In nature, insects carry pollen as they move from plant
to plant. The pollination by insects is random. In his
experiments, Mendel pollinated the plants by hand to
control the results. He used pollen from the flowers of
purebred tall plants to pollinate the flowers of purebred
short plants. This process is called cross-pollination. He
found that tall plants crossed with short plants produced
seeds that produced all tall plants. Mendel called the tall
form the dominant (DAH muh nunt) factor because it
dominated, or covered up, the short form. He called the
short form the recessive (rih SE sihv) factor because this
form seemed to disappear. Today, these factors are called
dominant alleles and recessive alleles.
A Describe Make a two-tab
Foldable, as shown below. Write

notes under the tabs to describe
dominant and recessive alleles.
Traits
Dominant
alleles
Recessive
alleles
Reading Essentials
177
What is probability?
A branch of mathematics that helps you predict the
chance that something will happen is called probability. For
example, there are two sides to a coin. If you toss the coin
in the air, the probability that one side of the coin will land
facing up is one out of two, or 50 percent. Mendel used
probabilities in his study of genetics. His predictions were
very accurate because he studied large numbers of plants
over a long period of time. He studied almost 30,000 pea
plants over a period of eight years. This increased Mendels
chances of seeing a repeatable pattern. Valid scientific
conclusions need to be based on results that can be repeated.
5.
Identify How is a
dominant allele shown in a
Punnett square?
Scientists use a tool called a Punnett (PUH nut) square to

predict results in genetics. A Punnett square is used to
predict the number of times certain traits will occur. In a
Punnett square, letters stand for dominant and recessive
alleles. An uppercase letter stands for a dominant allele, and
a lowercase letter stands for a recessive allele. The letters are
a form of code. They show the genotype (JEE nuh tipe), or
genetic makeup, of an organism. The way an organism looks
and behaves as a result of its genotype is its phenotype
(FEE nuh tipe). If you have brown hair, the phenotype for
your hair color is brown.
How do alleles determine traits?
6.
Contrast What is the

difference between a
homozygous organism and
a heterozygous organism?
178
Heredity
Most cells in your body have two alleles for every trait.
An organism with two alleles that are the same is called
homozygous (hoh muh ZI gus). In his experiments, Mendel
would have written TT (homozygous for the tall-dominant
trait) or tt (homozygous for the short-recessive trait). An
organism that has two different alleles for a trait is called
heterozygous (he tuh roh ZI gus). Mendel would have written
Tt for plant hybrids that were heterozygous for height.
How do you make a Punnett square?

The letters representing the two alleles from one parent
are written in the top row of the Punnett square. The letters
representing the two alleles from the other parent are written
down the left column. Each square in the grid is then filled
in with one allele from each parent. The combinations of
letters in the completed Punnett square are the genotypes of
the possible offspring those parents could produce.
What is a Punnett square?
Bb
bb
Bb
bb
How do you use a Punnett square?

You want to know the possible offspring of two dogs.
One dog carries heterozygous black-fur traits (Bb). The
other dog carries homogeneous blond-fur traits (bb). How
do you complete the Punnett square to find the results?
Follow the steps in the figure above.
4.
Black Dog
Blond Dog
3.
Black Dog
Blond Dog
Blond Dog
B
b
2.
Black Dog
Blond Dog
1.
Black Dog
B
Bb
bb
Bb
bb
Picture This
7.
Identify In step 4, shade

the two squares that would
result in an offspring with
blond fur.
1. Write the letters representing the alleles from the black

dog (Bb) in the top row. Write the letters from the
blond dog (bb) in the left column.
2. Write the letter in each column (B or b) in the two
squares for that column.
3. Add the letter for each row (b or b) to the squares.
You then have two letters in each square.
4. The squares show the possible genotypes of the
offspring.
An offspring with a Bb genotype will have black fur, and
an offspring with a bb genotype will have blond fur. In this
case, there is one chance in two, or a 50 percent chance, that
the offspring will have black fur.
What are the main principles of heredity?

Mendel spent many years repeating his experiments and
observing the results. He analyzed the results and reached
several conclusions. Mendels principles of heredity are
summarized in the table below.
8.
Mendels Principles of Heredity

Traits are controlled by alleles on chromosomes.
An alleles effect is dominant or recessive.
When a pair of chromosomes separates during meiosis, the different alleles for a trait move
into separate sex cells.
Explain What controls

traits?
Reading Essentials
179
After You Read

Mini Glossary
alleles (uh LEELZ): the different forms of a trait that a gene
may have
dominant (DAH muh nunt): factor that dominates, or
covers up, another factor
genetics (juh NE tihks): the study of how traits are
inherited through the interactions of alleles
genotype (JEE nuh tipe): genetic makeup of an organism
heredity (huh REH duh tee): passing of traits from parent
to offspring
heterozygous (he tuh roh ZI gus): an organism that has
two different alleles for a trait
homozygous (hoh muh ZI gus): an organism with two

alleles that are the same for a trait
hybrid (HI brud): a plant that receives different genetic
information for a trait from each parent
phenotype (FEE nuh tipe): the way an organism looks and
behaves as a result of its genotype
Punnett (PUH nut) square: a tool used to predict the
number of times certain traits will occur
recessive (rih SE sihv): factor that disappears if a dominant
trait is present
2. Complete the Punnett square below to show the probability of an offspring having the
DD, Dd, and the dd genotypes.
D
3. How can taking a quiz that another student wrote help you prepare for a test?
End of
Section
180
Heredity

genetics.
explains the difference between a dominant allele and a recessive allele.
chapter
11
3
Heredity
2
section
Genetics Since Mendel
Before You Read

At dog and cat shows, an animals owner may be asked to
show its pedigree. What do you think a pedigree shows?
Read to Learn
Incomplete Dominance
A scientist crossed purebred red four-oclock plants with
purebred white four-oclock plants. He thought the new
plants would have all red flowers, but they were pink.
Neither allele for flower color was dominant. Next, he
crossed the pink-flowered plants with each other. The new
plants had red, white, and pink flowers.
He discovered that when the allele for red flowers and the
allele for white flowers combined, the result included red
flowers, white flowers, and an intermediate, or in-between,
phenotypepink flowers. When the offspring of two
homozygous parents show an intermediate phenotype, this
inheritance is called incomplete dominance.
What are multiple alleles?

A trait that is controlled by more than two alleles is said
to be controlled by multiple alleles. A trait controlled by
multiple alleles will produce more than three phenotypes of
that trait.
What Youll Learn
how traits are inherited

by incomplete
dominance
multiple alleles and
polygenic inheritance
how sex-linked traits
are passed to offspring
Build Vocabulary Skim the

section, circling any words you
do not know. After you read the
section, review the circled
words. Write any words you
cannot dene on a separate
sheet of paper and look up the
denitions.
B Explain Make a layered
look Foldable, as shown below.

Write notes under the aps to
explain inheritance patterns.
Inheritance Patterns
Incomplete dominance
Multiple alleles
Polygenic inheritance
Reading Essentials
181
What traits are controlled by multiple alleles?

Blood type in humans is an example of a trait controlled
by multiple alleles. The alleles for blood type produce six
genotypes but only four phenotypes. The alleles for blood
type are called A, B, and O. The O allele is recessive to both
the A and B alleles. When a person inherits one A allele and
one B allele, his or her phenotype is AB. A person with
phenotype A blood has the genotype AA or AO. Someone
with the phenotype B blood has the genotype BB or BO. A
person with phenotype O blood has the genotype OO.
1.
Identify What are the six

different blood type
genotypes?
Polygenic Inheritance
Eye color is an example of a trait that is produced by a
combination of many genes, or polygenic (pah lih JEH nihk)
inheritance. Polygenic inheritance occurs when a group of
gene pairs acts together to produce a trait. Polygenic
inheritance results in a wide variety of phenotypes. Examine
the eye colors of your classmates. You will likely notice
many different shades. For example, you may notice several
shades of brown, several shades of green, and so on.
2.
Draw Conclusions
What environmental factors
might affect the size of
leaves on a tree?
Your environment plays a role in how some of your genes

are expressed. Genes can be influenced by an organisms
internal or external environment. For example, most male
birds are more brightly colored than females. Chemicals in
their bodies determine whether or not the gene for brightly
colored feathers is expressed.
Your environment plays a role in whether your genes are
expressed at all. For example, some people have genes that
make them at risk for developing skin cancer. Whether or
not they get cancer might depend on external environmental
factors. If people who are at risk for skin cancer limit their
time in the sun and take care of their skin, they may never
develop skin cancer.
Human Genes and Mutations

Sometimes genes change. Also, sometimes errors occur in
the DNA when it is being copied during cell division. These
changes and errors are called mutations. Many mutations
are harmful. Some mutations are helpful or have no effect
on an organism. Certain chemicals, X rays, and radioactive
materials can cause mutations.
182
Heredity
How does the environment affect your genes?
What are chromosome disorders?

Problems can happen if the incorrect number of
chromosomes is inherited. Mistakes in the process of meiosis
can result in an organism with more or fewer chromosomes
than normal. Downs syndrome is a disorder in which the
person has one more chromosome than normal.
Recessive Genetic Disorders

Many human genetic disorders are caused by recessive
genes. Such genetic disorders occur when both parents have
a recessive allele responsible for the disorder. Because the
parents are heterozygous, they do not show any symptoms
of the disorder. However, if each parent passes a recessive
allele to the child, the child inherits two recessive alleles and
will have the disorder. Cystic fibrosis is a homozygous
recessive disorder. It is the most common genetic disorder
that can lead to death among Caucasian Americans. People
with cystic fibrosis produce thicker mucus than normal. The
thick mucus builds up in the lungs and makes it hard to
breathe.
3.
Explain How is cystic

brosis inherited?
4.
Identify What is one

sex-linked disorder?
Sex Determination
Each egg produced by a female normally contains one X
chromosome. Males produce sperm that normally have
either one X or one Y chromosome. When a sperm with an
X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the offspring is a female,
XX. When a sperm with a Y chromosome fertilizes an egg,
the offspring is a male, XY. Sometimes chromosomes do not
separate during meiosis. When this happens, a person can
inherit an unusual number of sex chromosomes.
Sex-Linked Disorders
Some inherited conditions are linked with the X and Y
chromosomes. An allele inherited on a sex chromosome is
called a sex-linked gene. Color blindness is a sex-linked
disorder in which people cannot tell the difference between
certain colors. The color-blind trait is a recessive allele on the
X chromosome. Because males have only one X chromosome,
a male with this recessive allele on his X chromosome is
color-blind. However, a color-blind female occurs only when
both of her X chromosomes have the allele for this trait.
Reading Essentials
183
Pedigrees Trace Traits

You can trace a trait through a family using a pedigree
like the one shown below. Males are represented by squares.
Females are represented by circles. A completely filled square
or circle shows that the person has the trait. A half-colored
square or circle shows that the person carries an allele for
the trait, but does not have the trait. The pedigree in the
figure below shows how the trait for color blindness is
carried through a family. In this pedigree, the grandfather
was color blind. He married a woman who did not carry
the color-blind allele.
Picture This
5.
Parents
Infer In the pedigree, why

are there no color-blind
women in this family?
Children
Grandchildren
Normal female
Normal male
Carrier female
Color-blind male
How can pedigrees be helpful?
6.
Draw Conclusions
Why do you think pedigrees
are important for animals
bred for show, such as
dogs?
184
Heredity
A pedigree can be used by a geneticist to trace a trait in

members of a family over several generations. The pedigree
allows the geneticist to determine the traits pattern of
inheritance. The geneticist can identify if the trait is
recessive, dominant, sex-linked, or follows some other
pattern. Geneticists use this information to predict the
probability that a baby will be born with a specific trait.
Pedigrees also are used to breed animals and plants for
desirable traits. Livestock and plant crops are food sources
for humans. Using pedigrees, these organisms can be bred
to increase their yield and nutritional content.
Pedigree Key
After You Read

Mini Glossary
incomplete dominance: the offspring of two homozygous
parents show an intermediate phenotype
polygenic (pah lih JEH nihk) inheritance: a group of

gene pairs act together to produce a trait
sex-linked gene: an allele inherited on a sex chromosome
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term and use it
to explain one way that traits can be inherited.
3. List the words that you circled in the Read to Learn section. Select one of those words
and write its definition below.

genetics since Mendel.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
185
11
3
Heredity
3
section
Advances in Genetics
What Youll Learn
the importance of
advances in genetics
the steps in making
genetically engineered
organisms
Identify Main Points

Highlight the main idea in each
paragraph. Underline the details
that support the main idea.
Before You Read

Describe on the lines below what you have heard or read
about recent advances in medical research.
Read to Learn
Why is genetics important?
New developments in genetic research are happening all
the time. The principles of heredity are being used to
change the world.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is the use of biological and chemical
methods to change the arrangement of DNA that makes up
a gene. One use for genetic engineering is to produce large
amounts of different medicines. Genes also can be inserted
into cells to change how those cells perform their normal
functions. Genetic engineering researchers are also looking
for new ways to improve crop production and quality.
C Describe Make a three
tab book, as shown below. Use

the Foldable to describe genetic
engineering, recombinant DNA,
and gene therapy.
Genetic Recombinant
engineering
DNA
186
Heredity
Gene
Therapy
How is recombinant DNA made?

Making recombinant DNA is one method of genetic
engineering. Recombinant DNA is made by inserting a
useful section of DNA from one organism into a bacterium.
This process is used to make large amounts of insulin,
which is used to treat diabetes. Other uses include the
production of a growth hormone to treat dwarfism and
chemicals used to treat cancer.
chapter
How does gene therapy work?

Gene therapy is another kind of genetic engineering. It is
used to replace abnormal alleles. In gene therapy, a normal
allele is placed in a virus, as shown in the figure below. The
virus then delivers the normal allele when it infects the
target cell. The normal allele replaces the abnormal one.
Scientists are conducting experiments that use gene therapy
to test ways of controlling cystic fibrosis and some kinds of
cancer. With continued research, gene therapy may be used
to cure genetic disorders in the future.
Normal gene
1.
Identify What is
replaced in gene therapy?
Cold virus
Normal gene
inserted into
cold virus
Nucleus
Nasal cell
Normal gene
Picture This
2.
Lung

explain to a partner how
gene therapy works.
How are plants genetically engineered?

Before people knew about genotypes, they selected plants
with the most desired traits to breed for the next generation.
This process is called selective breeding. Today people also use
genetic engineering to improve crop plants. One method is to
find the genes that produce desired traits in one plant and
then insert those genes into a different plant. Scientists
recently made genetically engineered tomatoes with a gene
that allows them to be picked green. As these tomatoes are
being sent to stores, they continue to ripen. You can then buy
ripe, firm tomatoes in the store. The long-term effects of
eating genetically engineered plants are not known.
Reading Essentials
187
After You Read

Mini Glossary
genetic engineering: biological and chemical methods to
change the arrangement of DNA that makes up a gene
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains
how genetic engineering can improve crop plants.
2. Complete the concept web below to show three kinds of genetic engineering and the
methods used to carry them out.
Method
End of
Section
188
Heredity
Method
Method

advances in genetics.
Genetic Engineering
chapter
12
3
Adaptations over Time
1
section
Ideas About Evolution
Before You Read

In what ways are you like your parents or other relatives?
Read to Learn
Early Models of Evolution

There are millions of species of plants, animals, and other
organisms living on Earth today. A species is a group of
organisms that share similar characteristics and can
reproduce among themselves to produce fertile offspring.
The characteristics of a species that are passed from parent
to offspring are called inherited characteristics. Change in
these inherited characteristics over time is evolution.
What Youll Learn
Lamarcks hypothesis of
acquired characteristics
Darwins theory of
natural selection
variations in organisms
gradualism and
punctuated equilibrium
Study Coach
Ask Questions Read each

question heading. Then work
with a partner to write questions
about the information related to
the heading. Take turns asking
and answering the questions.
Use the questions as a study
guide about evolution.
What was Lamarcks hypothesis?

In 1809, Jean Baptiste de Lamarck proposed a hypothesis
to explain how species change over time. He said that
characteristics, or traits, that a parent organism develops
during its lifetime are inherited by its offspring. Lamarcks
hypothesis is called the inheritance of acquired
characteristics. According to Lamarcks hypothesis, if a
parent develops large muscles through exercise or hard
work, the trait of large muscles would be passed on to the
offspring. Scientists tested Lamarcks hypothesis by collecting
data on traits that are passed from parent to offspring. The
data did not support Lamarcks hypothesis.
1.
Conclude Do scientists
today support Lamarcks
hypothesis? Explain.
Reading Essentials
189
Darwins Model of Evolution

A Organize Make a
four-door Foldable, as shown

below, to organize information
of how evolution occurs.
What
When
Where
Why/
How
In 1831, Charles Darwin set out on a journey from England

that took him to the Galpagos Islands. The Galpagos
Islands, shown on the map below, are off the coast of
Ecuador. Darwin was amazed by the variety of life he saw
on these islands. He hypothesized that plants and animals
living on the Galpagos Islands originally came from
Central and South America. He noted that the species on
the islands were similar in many ways to the species he had
seen on the mainland. However, Darwin observed different
traits in many species on the islands as well. Darwin studied
several species and developed hypotheses to explain the
differences in traits he observed.
Culpepper Galpagos
Wenman Islands
2.
Describe the location of

the Galpagos Islands.
Azores
Canary Is.
Cape Verde Is.
Galpagos Is.
Ascension
St. Helena
Mauritius
Rio de Janeiro
Bahia
Cocos Is.
Tahiti
Sydney
Valparaiso
Montevideo
King George I.
Hobart
New Zealand
Falkland Is.
Tierra del Fuego
What did Darwin observe?
3.
Identify How did nches

who ate seeds and nuts use
their beaks?
190
Darwin observed 13 species of finches on the Galpagos

Islands. He noticed that all 13 species were similar except
for three characteristicsbody size, beak shape, and eating
habits. Darwin concluded that the different species of
finches must have had to compete with each other for food.
Finches that had beak shapes that allowed them to eat
available food survived longer and had more offspring than
finches without those kinds of beak shapes. After many
generations, these groups of finches became separate species.
Darwin observed that the beak shape of each species of
Galpagos finch is related to its eating habits. Darwin
observed finches that ate nuts and seeds. Their beaks were
short and strong for breaking hard shells. He observed
finches that fed on insects. They had long, narrow beaks for
finding the insects beneath tree bark.
Picture This
Pinta
Genovesa
Marchena
Equator
San Salvador
Fernandina
Baltra
Santa Cruz
Isabela
Santa
F San Cristbal
Santa Maria
Espaola
Natural Selection
In the mid-1800s, Darwin developed a theory of evolution
that is accepted by most scientists today. He described his
ideas in a book called On the Origin of Species.
What was Darwins theory?

Darwins theory became known as the theory of evolution
by natural selection. Natural selection means that organisms
with traits best suited to their environment are more likely
to survive and reproduce. Their traits are passed to more
offspring. The principles of natural selection are shown in
the table below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4.
Explain According to the

theory of evolution by
natural selection, which
organisms are most likely to
survive and reproduce?
5.
Determine How does
The Principles of Natural Selection

Organisms produce more offspring than can survive.
Differences, or variations, occur among individuals of a species.
Some variations are passed to offspring.
Some variations are helpful. Individuals with helpful variations are better able to suvive
and reproduce.
Over time, the offspring of individuals with helpful variations increase and become a larger
percentage of the population. Eventually, they may become a separate species.
Variation and Adaptation

Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection focuses
on the variations of species members. A variation is an
inherited trait that makes an individual organism different
from other members of its species. Variations happen when
there are permanent changes, or mutations, in an organisms
genes. Some mutations produce small variations, such as
differences in the shape of human hairlines. Other
mutations produce large variations, such as fruit without
seeds. Over time, more and more members of a species
might inherit these variations. If individuals with these
variations continue to survive and reproduce over time, a
new species can evolve.
Some variations are more helpful than others. An
adaptation is any variation that makes an organism better
suited to its environment. Adaptations can include an
organisms color, shape, behavior, or chemical makeup.
Camouflage (KA muh flahj) is an adaptation. An organism
that is camouflaged can blend into its environment.
Camouflage makes it easier for the organism to hide,
increasing the chances that it will survive and reproduce.
camouage help an
organism survive?
Reading Essentials
191
How do changes in genes affect species?

Over time, changes in the genes of a species might change
the appearance of the species. As the inherited traits of a
species of seed-eating Galpagos finch changed, so did the size
and shape of its beak. Environmental conditions can help
bring about these changes. When individuals of the same
species move into an area, they bring genes and variations.
When they move out of an area, they remove their genes and
variations. Suppose a family from a different country moves to
your neighborhood. They might bring different foods,
customs, and ways of speaking. In a similar way, when new
individuals enter an existing population, they can bring
different genes and variations.
6.
Infer What two factors

affected the development
of new species?
Sometimes geologic features such as mountains or lakes

can separate a group of individuals from all the other
members of the population. Over time, variations that are
not found in the larger population might become common
in the smaller, separate population. Also, gene mutations
could add variations to the smaller population. After many
generations, the two populations can become so different
that they can no longer breed with each other. They become
two different species. For example, Portuguese sailors
brought European rabbits to the Canary Islands. European
rabbits feed during the day and grow fairly large. In order to
survive the warm temperatures of the Canary Islands, the
European rabbits, over many generations, developed large
eyes and fed at night. The Canary Island rabbits eventually
became a separate species.
The Speed of Evolution

B Compare Make a
three-tab Foldable, as shown

below, to compare gradualism
and punctuated equilibrium.
Scientists do not agree on how quickly evolution happens.

Some hypothesize that it happens slowly, over hundreds of
millions of years. Others hypothesize that it can happen
quickly. Most scientists agree that there is evidence to
support both hypotheses.
What is gradualism?
lism
Gradua
Both
Punctuated
Equilibrium
192
Darwin hypothesized that evolution happens slowly. His

hypothesis is called gradualism. Gradualism is a hypothesis
that describes evolution as a slow, continuing process in
which one species changes to a new species over millions or
hundreds of millions of years.
Does geographic isolation affect evolution?
What is punctuated equilibrium?

Gradualism does not explain the evolution of all species.
For some species, fossil records show that one species
suddenly changes into another. Punctuated equilibrium is
a hypothesis that describes evolution as a rapid process in
which one species changes suddenly to a new species. Rapid
evolution happens when the mutation of a few genes results
in a new species over a fairly short period of time. The
figure below shows how punctuated equilibrium describes
the evolution of the brown bear.
Picture This
Hypothesized Evolution of the Brown Bear

Red
panda
Raccoon
about 40 million
years ago
Giant
panda
Spectacled Sloth Sun Black

bear
bear bear bear
Polar Brown
bear bear
7.
Identify Circle the name

of the common ancestor of
the giant panda and the
brown bear.
8.
Analyze What allowed
1520 million 2 million

years ago
years ago
Common ancestor
Is punctuated equilibrium happening today?

Evolution by punctuated equilibrium can happen over
a few thousand or hundreds of thousands of years.
Sometimes, evolution can happen even faster than that. For
example, many species of bacteria have changed into new
species in only a few decades. Many disease-causing bacteria
species were once easily killed by the antibiotic penicillin.
Some of these species are no longer harmed by penicillin.
These bacteria have become resistant to penicillin.
These penicillin-resistant bacteria evolved quickly. The
bacteria changed because some individuals had variations that
allowed them to survive even when exposed to penicillin.
Other individuals could not survive. The bacteria that had the
penicillin-resistant variation survived to reproduce and pass
this trait to their offspring. Over a period of time, all of the
bacteria in the population had the variation for penicillin
resistance.
some bacteria to survive

while other bacteria were
killed by penicillin?
Reading Essentials
193
After You Read

Mini Glossary
adaptation: any variation that makes an organism better
suited to its environment
evolution: change in inherited characteristics over time
gradualism: hypothesis that describes evolution as a slow,
ongoing process by which one species changes to a new
species
natural selection: theory that states that organisms with
traits best suited to their environment are more likely to
survive and reproduce
punctuated equilibrium: hypothesis that says rapid

evolution comes about when the mutation of a few
genes results in the appearance of a new species over a
relatively short period of time
species: group of organisms that share similar characteristics
and can reproduce among themselves to produce fertile
offspring
variation: inherited trait that makes an individual different
from other members of its species
describes a variation that helps an organism survive.
Theory or Model
Description
Hypothesis of acquired characteristics
Theory of evolution by natural selection
Gradualism
Punctuated equilibrium
End of
Section
194

early models of evolution.
2. Complete the chart below to explain the models of evolution listed in the chart.
chapter
12
3
2
section
Clues About Evolution
Before You Read

Have you ever seen a fossil? On the lines below, tell what
kind of fossil it was and where you saw it.
Read to Learn
Clues from Fossils

Paleontologists are scientists who study the past by
collecting and examining fossils. A fossil is the remains of an
ancient organism or an imprint left behind by the organism.
The Green River Formation is one of the richest fossil
deposits in the world. It covers parts of Wyoming, Utah, and
Colorado. About 50 million years ago, during the Eocene
Epoch, this area was covered by lakes. By studying fossils
from the Green River Formation, paleontologists have
learned that fish, crocodiles, and lizards lived in the lakes.
After the animals died, they were covered with silt and mud.
Over millions of years, they became fossils.
What Youll Learn
why fossils provide

evidence of evolution
how relative and
radiometric dating are
used to estimate the
age of fossils
ve types of evidence
for evolution
Identify Unfamiliar
Words Skim the reading and
underline any word that you do
not know. At the end of each
paragraph review the words you
have underlined and see if you
can dene them. If you cannot,
look up the word and write its
denition in the margin.
Types of Fossils
Most of the evidence for evolution comes from fossils.
Most fossils are found in sedimentary rock. Sedimentary
rock is formed when layers of sand, silt, clay, or mud are
pressed and cemented together or when minerals are
deposited from a solution. Fossils are most often found in a
sedimentary rock called limestone.
1.
Explain What is the main

source of evidence for
evolution?
Reading Essentials
195
Determining a Fossils Age

concept map Foldable, as shown

below, to describe the two
methods scientists use to date
fossilsrelative dating and
radiometric dating.
Fossils
Relative
Dating
Radiometric
Dating
Paleontologists study the rock layers that fossils are found

in. The rocks provide clues about the age of the fossils.
Some of these clues include information about the geologic
time period in which it was formed. Information may
include weather, geology, and other organisms that were
alive. Paleontologists have two ways of estimating the age of
rocks and fossilsrelative dating and radiometric dating.
What is relative dating?

Relative dating is based on the fact that younger rock
layers usually lie on top of older rock layers. Relative dating
gives only an estimate of a fossils age. Scientists compare
the ages of rock layers found above and below the fossil
layer. For example, if a 50-million-year-old rock layer lies
below a fossil and a 35-million-year-old rock layer is above
the fossil, then the fossil is probably between 35 million and
50 million years old.
Radiometric dating gives an estimate of the age of a rock
layer that is more exact. This method of dating fossils uses
radioactive elements. A radioactive element gives off a steady
amount of radiation as it slowly changes to a nonradioactive
element. Each radioactive element gives off radiation at a
different rate. Scientists estimate the age of the rock by
comparing the amount of radioactive element with the
amount of nonradioactive element in the rock.
Fossils and Evolution
2.
Identify Name two

things scientists can learn
about organisms from
fossils.
196
Fossils provide a record of organisms that lived in the

past. However, the fossil record has gaps, much like missing
pages in a book. The gaps exist because most organisms do
not become fossils. Even though there are gaps, scientists
have still been able to draw conclusions from the fossil
records. For instance, they have learned that simple
organisms were the first forms of life to appear on Earth.
More complex forms of life appeared later.
Fossil discoveries are made all over the world. When scientists find fossils, they make models that show what the organisms might have looked like when they were alive. Scientists
can use fossils to find out whether organisms lived in family
groups or alone, what they ate, and what kind of environment
they lived in. Most fossils are from extinct organisms.
What is radiometric dating?
More Clues About Evolution

Besides fossils, there are other clues about evolution. Some
kinds of evolution can be observed today. The development
of penicillin-resistant bacteria is a direct observation of
evolution. Another direct observation of evolution is the
development of insect species that are resistant to pesticides.
D List Make a half-book

Foldable, as shown below, to list
examples of evolution and
explanations of how the
examples show evidence of
evolution.
What is embryology?
s Exp
lanation
Example
tion
of Evolu
The study of embryos and their development is called

embryology (em bree AH luh jee). An embryo is the earliest
growth stage of an organism. The embryos of many different
species are similar. The embryos of fish, birds, reptiles, and
mammals have tails. As the organisms grow, the fish, birds,
and reptiles keep their tails, but many mammals do not.
Because the embryos of vertebrates are similar, scientists
hypothesize that vertebrates come from a common ancestor.
What are homologous structures?
Body parts that are similar in origin and structure are

called homologous (hoh MAH luh gus). Some homologous
structures have the same function, but others do not. If two
or more species have homologous structures, they probably
have common ancestors. The figure below shows several
homologous structures.
Picture This
3.
Describe Above each

structure, list one way the
organism uses that
structure.
Frog forelimb
Human
arm
Bat
wing
Porpoise ipper
Reading Essentials
197
What are vestigial structures?

The bodies of some organisms have structures known as
vestigial (veh STIH jee ul) structures. Vestigial structures
do not seem to have any use, or function. Vestigial
structures provide evidence for evolution. Scientists
hypothesize that vestigial structures are body parts that were
useful in an ancestor. Humans have three small muscles
around each ear that are vestigial. The figure below shows
the location of these muscles. In some mammals, such as
horses, these muscles are large. They allow a horse to turn
its ears toward the source of a sound.
Identify Name a vestigial
structure that humans
have?
How does DNA provide clues about evolution?
5.
Explain What clues does

DNA provide about
evolution?
198
If you enjoy science fiction, you probably have read books

or seen movies in which scientists recreate dinosaurs from
DNA taken from fossils. DNA is the molecule that controls
heredity. It directs the development of every organism. DNA
is found in the genes of all organisms. Scientists can compare the DNA of living organisms to find similarities among
species. Scientists also can study the DNA of extinct species.
They can learn how some species evolved from their extinct
ancestors.
Studying DNA helps scientists see how closely related the
organisms are. For example, DNA studies show that dogs
are the closest relatives of bears.
If organisms from two species have DNA that is similar,
the two species may share one or more common ancestors.
For example, DNA evidence suggests that all primates have a
common ancestor. Primates include chimpanzees, gorillas,
orangutans, and humans.
4.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
embryology (em bree AH luh jee): the study of embryos
and their development
homologous (hoh MAH luh gus): body parts that are
similar in origin and structure
radioactive element: an element that gives off a steady
amount of radiation as it slowly changes to a
nonradioactive element
sedimentary rock: rock in which most fossils are found,

formed when layers of sand, silt, clay, or mud are
pressed and cemented together, or when minerals are
deposited from a solution
vestigial (veh STIH jee ul) structures: structures that do
not seem to have a function
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one of the terms
and write a sentence that explains how it provides a clue to evolution.
2. In the web diagram below, list the clues that scientists have as evidence of evolution.
Clues
About Evolution

the clues of evolution.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
199
12
3
3
section
The Evolution of Primates
What Youll Learn
the differences among

living primates
the adaptations of
primates
the evolutionary history
of modern primates

paragraph. Then circle one
supporting detail.
1.
Before You Read

Describe the appearance and behavior of a primate such as
monkeys and gorillas.
Read to Learn
Primates
Explain What are two
Humans, monkeys, and apes belong to a group of

mammals known as primates. Primates have several
characteristics that show they have evolved from a common
ancestor. These characteristics include opposable thumbs,
binocular vision, and flexible shoulders.
An opposable thumb can cross over the palm and touch
the fingers. You have an opposable thumb that lets you
grasp and hold things with your hand. Binocular vision
means that you have two eyes that look in the same
direction. Binocular vision lets you judge distance with your
eyes. It allows primates that live in trees to judge distances
as they move between branches. Flexible shoulders allow
primates to use their arms to swing from branch to branch.
Flexible shoulders allow humans to do such moves as the
backstroke in swimming.
similarities between
hominids and humans?
What are some characteristics of hominids?
200
Hominids are humanlike primates that are the ancestors of

modern humans. Hominids are different from all the other
primates. They first appeared on Earth about 4 million to 6
million years ago. They ate both meat and plants and they
walked upright on two legs.
chapter
Where have fossils of hominids been found?

In the 1920s, scientists discovered a fossil skull in South
Africa. The skull had a small space for the brain, but it
had a humanlike jaw and teeth. The fossil was named
Australopithecus. It was one of the oldest hominids that
had ever been discovered. In 1974, scientists found an
almost-complete skeleton of Australopithecus in northern
Africa. It had a small brain and may have walked upright.
This fossil shows that modern hominids might have
evolved from a common ancestor.
Who were the ancestors of early humans?
2.
Identify two
characteristics of
Australopithecus.
In the 1960s, scientists discovered a hominid fossil named

Homo habilis that was estimated to be 1.5 million to 2 million
years old. Scientists hypothesize that Homo habilis changed
into another species, called Homo erectus, about 1.6 million
years ago. These two hominids are thought to be ancestors
of humans because they had larger brains and more
humanlike features than Australopithecus.
Humans
Fossil records show that Homo sapiens evolved about
400,000 years ago. By 125,000 years ago, two early human
groups probably lived in parts of Africa and Europe. These
two groups were the Neanderthals (nee AN dur tawlz) and
Cro-Magnon humans.
Who were the Neanderthals?

Neanderthals had short, heavy bodies with thick bones,
small chins, and heavy browridges. They lived in caves in
family groups. They used stone tools to hunt large animals.
Neanderthals are probably not direct ancestors of modern
humans.
Who were the Cro-Magnon humans?

The fossils of Cro-Magnon humans have been found in
Europe, Asia, and Australia. They are between 10,000 and
about 40,000 years old. Cro-Magnon humans looked very
much like modern humans. They lived in caves, made stone
carvings, and buried their dead. Cro-Magnon humans are
thought to be direct ancestors of early humans. Early
humans are called Homo sapiens. Modern humans are called
Homo sapiens sapiens. Fossil evidence shows that modern
humans evolved from Homo sapiens.
3.
Compare Name two

ways that Neanderthals and
Cro-Magnon humans were
similar.
Reading Essentials
201
After You Read

Mini Glossary
hominids: humanlike primates that lived about 4 million to
6 million years ago and were different from the
other primates
Homo sapiens: direct ancestors of humans

primate: group of mammals to which humans, monkeys,
and apes belong
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term and write
a sentence that describes how it is related to modern humans.
2. In the boxes below, show the sequence of the evolution of the ancestors of modern
humans. Write down how long ago scientists believe each of the following human
ancestors first appeared: hominids, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens,
Neanderthals and Cro-Magnon humans. The first box has been completed for you.
3. How did you benefit from underlining main ideas in paragraphs?
End of
Section
202

the evolution of primates.
Hominids4 to 6
million years ago
chapter
13
3
Circulation and Immunity
1
section
Blood
Before You Read

Describe what happens when you fall and cut yourself.
What action helps to stop the bleeding?
Read to Learn
Functions of Blood
Your blood carries substances to all parts of your body.

Blood has four important functions.
Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to all the body
cells. Blood takes carbon dioxide from the body cells to
the lungs to be exhaled.
Blood carries waste products from the cells to the
kidneys to be removed.
Blood moves nutrients and other substances to the
body cells.
Cells and molecules in blood fight infections and help
heal wounds.
Anything that disrupts or changes these functions affects
all the tissues of the body. That is why blood is sometimes
called the tissue of life.
Parts of Blood
Blood is a tissue made of plasma (PLAZ muh), red and
white blood cells, and platelets (PLAYT luts). About eight
percent of your bodys total mass is blood. If you weigh 45 kg,
you have about 3.6 kg of blood moving through your body.
What Youll Learn
the parts and functions

of blood
why blood types are
checked before a
transfusion
examples of diseases of
the blood
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes
Organize notes into two
columns. On the left, list a main
idea about the material in each
subhead. On the right, list the
details that support the main
idea.
A Describe Make a four-tab
book, as shown below. Make

notes under each tab to describe
the four parts of blood.
Red
blood cells
White
blood cells
Platelets
Plasma
Reading Essentials
203
What is the role of plasma?
Picture This
1.
Determine What
percentage of blood is
plasma?
The figure to the right shows how

blood collected in a cylinder
separates into its parts. The liquid
part of blood, which is made mostly
of water, is called plasma. It makes
up more than half the volume of
blood. Nutrients, minerals, and
oxygen are dissolved in plasma so
that they can be carried to body
cells. Wastes from body cells also are
carried in plasma.
55%
Plasma
White blood cells

45%
Red blood cells
2.
Explain What is the job

of white blood cells?
Blood contains red blood cells, white blood cells, and

platelets. Red blood cells are disk-shaped. They are different
than other cells in the body because they have no nuclei.
Red blood cells have hemoglobin (HEE muh gloh bun), a
molecule that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body
cells. It also carries some of the carbon dioxide from the
body cells back to the lungs.
Red blood cells last about 120 days. About 2 million to
3 million red blood cells are made each second. They are made
in the center of long bones, like the femur in your thigh. Red
blood cells wear out and are destroyed at about the same rate.
Blood has many fewer white blood cells than red blood
cells. White blood cells fight bacteria, viruses, and other
invaders of your body. Your body reacts to invaders by
increasing the number of white blood cells. These cells leave
the blood through capillaries and go to the invaded tissues.
There, they destroy bacteria and viruses and absorb dead cells.
White blood cells last from a few days to many months.
Platelets are cell fragments that help clot blood. Platelets
move through the body along with the red and white blood
cells. Platelets last about five to nine days.
Blood Clotting
When you fall and cut yourself, the wound starts to bleed,
but the bleeding stops quickly. This means the wounded
area has already started to heal. Bleeding stops because
platelets and substances called clotting factors in the blood
make a blood clot that plugs the wounded blood vessels.
204
What is the role of blood cells?
How does a clot form?

A blood clot is like a bandage. When you cut yourself,
platelets from the blood stick to the wound and release
chemicals. Then clotting factors from the blood carry out a
series of chemical reactions. The reactions cause fibers called
fibrin (FI brun) to make a sticky net, as shown in the figure
below. This net traps escaping blood cells and plasma and
forms a clot, which stops more blood from escaping. When
the clot becomes hard, it forms a scab. New skin cells grow
under the scab. After a few days, the scab comes off. White
blood cells usually destroy any bacteria that get into the
wound during the healing process.
3.
Explain What does

brin do?
Wood splinter
Platelets
Fibrin
White blood cells
Red blood cells
Platelets
Most people will not bleed to death from a minor wound.

However, some people are born with a condition called
hemophilia (hee muh FIH lee uh). Their plasma does not
have one of the clotting factors needed to form blood clots. A
minor injury could cause death for a person with hemophilia.
Picture This
4.

of the part of the blood that
helps ght infections.
Blood Types
Blood clots stop bleeding in minor wounds, but a serious
wound could cause a person to lose a lot of blood. Sometimes
a blood transfusion is needed. During a blood transfusion, a
person receives donated blood or parts of blood. Doctors have
to be sure that the person receives the right blood type. If the
person does not receive the right blood type, the blood cells
will clump together. The clumps cause clots to form in the
blood vessels and the person could die.
Reading Essentials
205
Picture This
5.
Evaluate Which blood

type is most limited by the
type of blood it can receive
in a transfusion? Why?
What is the ABO identification system?

People inherit one of four
Blood Transfusion Possibilities
blood types: A, B, AB, or O.
Type Can Receive Can Donate To
Types A, B, and AB have
A
O, A
A, AB
chemical identification tags
B
O, B
B, AB
called antigens (AN tih junz)
AB
all
AB
on their red blood cells.
O
O
All
Type O red blood cells have no
antigens. Each blood type also has specific antibodies in its
plasma. These antibodies are proteins that destroy substances
that do not belong in the body or are not part of the body.
Because of these antibodies, certain blood types cannot be
mixed, as shown above in the table. For example, if type A
blood is mixed with type B blood, the antibodies in type A
blood determine that type B blood does not belong there.
The blood cells will clump together and form dangerous clots.
The Rh factor is another chemical identification tag in
blood. If the Rh factor is on red blood cells, the person has
Rh-positive (Rh) blood. If it is not there, the person has
Rh-negative (Rh) blood. If an Rh person receives blood
from an Rh+ person, he or she will make antibodies against
the Rh factor. This will cause Rh cells to clump. Clots
then form in the blood vessels and the person could die. For
this reason, blood types and Rh factors have to be checked
before a blood transfusion.
Diseases of Blood
6.

causes of anemia?
206
A common disease of red blood cells is anemia

(uh NEE mee uh). Anemia prevents body tissues from
getting enough oxygen. People who have anemia may not be
able to do their usual activities. Anemia can be caused by a
large blood loss. Anemia also occurs in people who do not
get enough iron or certain vitamins in their diets.
Sometimes anemia is inherited.
Leukemia (lew KEE mee uh) is a disease in which the body
makes too many white blood cells. These cells are immature
and do not fight infections well. They fill in the bone marrow
and crowd out normal, mature blood cells. As a result, the
body cannot make as many red blood cells, normal white
blood cells, and platelets as it needs. Leukemia is treated with
medicine, blood transfusions, and bone marrow transplants.
If the treatments are not successful, the person could die.
What is the Rh Factor?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
hemoglobin: a molecule that carries oxygen and
carbon dioxide
plasma: the liquid part of blood, which is made mostly
of water
platelet: cell fragment that helps clot blood
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term, and write
a sentence that explains its role in blood.
2. Complete the diagram below to list the functions of blood and the parts of blood.
Blood
Parts of
Functions of

blood.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
207
13
3
2
section
Circulation
What Youll Learn
about arteries, veins,

and capillaries
how blood moves
through the heart
the pulmonary and
systemic circulation
systems
the functions of the
lymphatic system
Study Coach
K-W-L Brainstorm the things

you already know about
circulation. Then write what you
want to know about it. Finally,
after you read the section, write
ve statements about what you
have learned about circulation.
Before You Read

On the lines below, write a slogan suggesting a way that
people could prevent heart disease.
Read to Learn
The Bodys Delivery System
The cardiovascular (kar dee oh VAS kyuh lur) system is
made up of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Blood
vessels carry blood to every part of the body.
The Heart
1.
Identify What are

the three sections of the
circulatory system?
Your heart is an organ made of cardiac muscle tissue. It is

located in your chest cavity behind your breastbone and
between your lungs. Your heart has four parts, called
chambers. The two upper chambers are called the right and
left atriums (AY tree umz). The two lower chambers are called
the right and left ventricles (VEN trih kulz). A valve separates
each atrium from the ventricle below it. Blood flows from an
atrium to a ventricle, then from a ventricle into a blood vessel.
A wall between the two atriums or the two ventricles keeps
blood rich in oxygen separate from blood low in oxygen.
Types of Circulation
The circulatory system has three sections: coronary
(KOR uh ner ee) circulation, pulmonary (PUL muh ner ee)
circulation, and systemic circulation.
208
chapter
What is coronary circulation?

Coronary circulation is the flow of blood to and from the
tissues of the heart. If coronary circulation is blocked, it can
result in a heart attack.
What is pulmonary circulation?

Pulmonary circulation is the flow of blood through the
heart to the lungs and back to the heart, as shown in the
figure below. Blood that returns from the body moves
through the right side of the heart and to the lungs. This
blood contains gaseous wastes from the bodys cells,
including carbon dioxide. In the lungs, these wastes move
out of the blood, and oxygen moves into the blood. The
oxygen-rich blood then returns to the left side of the heart.
The oxygen-rich blood is pumped from the left ventricle
into the aorta (ay OR tuh). The aorta is the largest artery in
the body. From the aorta, the oxygen-rich blood flows to all
other parts of the body.
Picture This
2.
Explain Use this gure to

explain pulmonary
circulation to a partner.
Cap
Superior vena c
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary artery
Left atrium
Pulmonary vein
Pulmonary
vein
Right atrium
Right Inferior
lung vena cava
Right
ventricle
Left
ventricle
Left
lung
What is systemic circulation?

Systemic circulation is a process that moves oxygen-rich
blood to all the organs and body tissues, except the heart
and lungs, and moves oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.
Oxygen-rich blood flows away from the heart through the
arteries and delivers oxygen and nutrients to the body cells.
Oxygen and nutrients are exchanged for carbon dioxide and
wastes. The blood returns to the heart through the veins of
the systemic circulation system.
3.
Explain What do the

arteries carry to the body
cells?
Reading Essentials
209
Blood Vessels
B Describe Use quarter

shown below, to describe the
blood vessels and the lymph
structures.
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
Lymph
structures
Early scientists did not know how blood got from arteries
to veins. But in the 1600s, using the new invention of the
microscope, scientists discovered capillaries. Capillaries
(KA puh ler eez) are the blood vessels that connect arteries
and veins.
Arteries Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away
from the heart. They have thick, elastic walls made of
connective tissue and smooth muscle tissue.
Veins Veins are blood vessels that carry blood back to the
heart. They have one-way valves that keep blood moving
toward the heart.
Capillaries The walls of capillaries are only one cell thick.
Nutrients and oxygen move into body cells from capillaries.
Waste material and carbon dioxide move from body cells
into the capillaries.
Each time your heart beats, it pushes blood through your

circulatory system. The force of the blood pushing against
the walls of the blood vessels is called blood pressure. Blood
pressure is highest in the arteries and lowest in the veins. You
can feel the waves of pressure when you take your pulse.
4.
Identify What is blood

pressure?
How is blood pressure controlled?

Nerve cells in the walls of some arteries sense changes in
blood pressure. These nerve cells send messages to the brain.
The brain then sends messages that speed up or slow the
heart rate. This helps control blood pressure so that enough
blood reaches all the organs and tissues in your body.
Cardiovascular Disease
A disease that affects the cardiovascular system can affect
the health of the whole body. Heart disease is the leading
cause of death in humans.
What is atherosclerosis?
One cause of heart disease is called atherosclerosis
(ah thur oh skluh ROH sus). Atherosclerosis is a condition in
which fatty deposits build up on the walls of arteries. If the
arteries in the heart are blocked, a heart attack can occur.
210
Blood Pressure
What is hypertension?
Hypertension (hi pur TEN chun), or high blood pressure,
occurs when blood pressure is higher than normal most of
the time. Hypertension causes the heart to work harder to
keep blood flowing. One cause of hypertension is
atherosclerosis. A normal artery is flexible and can change
its shape easily as blood moves through it. The walls of a
clogged artery become stiff and hard, which can increase
pressure within the artery.
Can you lower your risk for cardiovascular

disease?
You can keep your cardiovascular system healthy by living
a healthy lifestyle. A healthy lifestyle includes getting regular
medical checkups, eating a healthful diet, and getting plenty
of exercise. You also can help prevent cardiovascular disease
by not smoking. Smoke makes vessels contract, causing the
heart to beat faster and harder. Not smoking also can
prevent several respiratory system problems.
5.
Functions of the Lymphatic System
Identify three ways to

lower the risk of disease.
Water and other substances from the blood become part

of the tissue fluid that is found between cells. This tissue
fluid is collected and returned to the blood by the
lymphatic (lihm FA tihk) system.
What is the role of lymph?

Tissue fluid that has moved into the lymphatic system is
called lymph (LIHMF). Lymph contains water, dissolved
substances, and lymphocytes (LIHM fuh sites). Lymphocytes
are a kind of white blood cell that help the body defend
itself against disease.
Your lymphatic system carries lymph through a network of
lymph capillaries and larger lymph vessels. The lymph then
passes through lymph nodes. The lymph nodes are beanshaped organs found throughout the body. The lymph nodes
filter out foreign materials that have been picked up by the
lymphocytes. After the lymph is filtered, it enters the blood
through large veins near the neck. The movement of lymph
depends on muscle contractions. It is not pumped through
the lymphatic system. If the lymphatic system is not working
correctly, swelling occurs because the tissue fluid cannot get
back to the blood.
6.
Apply What might cause

lymph nodes in your neck
to be swollen?
Reading Essentials
211
After You Read

Mini Glossary
artery: blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart
capillary: blood vessel that connects arteries and veins
lymph: uid that moves into the lymphatic system; it

contains lymphocytes
vein: blood vessel that carries blood back to the heart
the difference between arteries and veins.
2. Complete the chart below by describing what each section of the circulatory system does.
Type of Circulation
What It Does
Coronary
Systemic
3. How did writing about what you know, what you want to know, and what you learned
help you organize your study of circulation?
End of
Section
212

circulation.
Pulmonary
chapter
13
3
3
section
Immunity
Before You Read

On the lines below, write the ways that your body defends
itself against organisms that cause disease.
Read to Learn
Lines of Defense
Your body has many ways to defend itself. Your bodys
first-line defenses work against all kinds of disease-causing
organisms, called pathogens (PA thuh junz). Your bodys
second-line defenses work against specific pathogens. These
defenses make up your immune system.
What Youll Learn

an antigen and an
antibody
active and passive
immunity

Read each question head. As you
nd the answer to the question,
underline it.
What are first-line defenses?

Your skin and your respiratory, digestive, and circulatory
systems are your bodys first-line defenses against pathogens.
Skin stops many pathogens from entering the body. But
pathogens can get into your body through a cut in your
skin or the membranes in your nose and eyes.
What are internal first-line defenses?

The respiratory system traps pathogens with hairlike
structures, called cilia (SIH lee uh), and mucus. When you
cough or sneeze, your body is trying to get rid of some
of these trapped pathogens.
Your digestive system has several defenses against
pathogens. Saliva in your mouth kills bacteria. Enzymes in
your stomach, pancreas, and liver help destroy pathogens.
The hydrochloric acid solution in your stomach kills some
bacteria that enter your body on the food you eat.
1.
Identify What does the

respiratory system use to
trap pathogens?
Reading Essentials
213
What do white blood cells do?

Your circulatory system contains white blood cells that
surround and digest foreign organisms. These blood cells
constantly move through the body, digesting invaders.
2.
Describe How do white
Why do tissues become inflamed?
blood cells ght diseasecausing organisms?
When tissue is infected by pathogens, it becomes

inflamed. Chemicals released by damaged cells make
capillary walls get bigger. Bigger capillaries allow more blood
to flow into the area, making it look red. Other chemicals
released by damaged tissue attract white blood cells that
surround and take in the pathogens. If pathogens get past
the first-line defenses, the body uses the second-line of
defense called specific immunity.
When your body fights disease, it fights molecules called
antigens that do not belong there. When your immune
system recognizes foreign molecules, special lymphocytes
called T cells respond. Killer T cells release enzymes that
help destroy the foreign molecules. Helper T cells cause
other lymphocytes, known as B cells, to make antibodies. An
antibody is a protein made to fight a specific antigen. The
antibody attaches to the antigen and makes it useless.
Follow the four steps your immune system uses to fight
disease in the figure below.
Picture This
3.
Describe Draw Xs
through the pathogens
that are surrounded by
antibodies to help you
remember that antibodies
destroy pathogens. Then
circle the antibodies
attached to the memory
B cell.
Mobilization B cells
produce antibodies.
Recognition White blood cell

surrounds pathogen and signals
T cells. More T cells are produced.
Helper T cells signal B cells.
B cell
Memory B cell
White blood cell
Nucleus
Antibody
Immunity Some
Helper T cell
Pathogen
Disposal Antibodies
destroy pathogens.
214
antibodies remain
for future use.
What is specific immunity?
What are memory B cells?

Memory B cells are another type of lymphocyte that has
antibodies for specific pathogens. Memory B cells stay in
the blood, ready to defend against the same pathogen at
another time.
What is active immunity?
C Explain Make a two-tab
concept map book, as shown

below. Make notes under each
tab to explain active and passive
immunity.
Antibodies help your body build defenses in two ways

actively and passively. In active immunity the body makes
its own antibodies in response to an antigen. In passive
immunity antibodies that have been made in another
animal are introduced into the body.
When a pathogen invades your body, it multiplies and
makes you sick. Your body immediately starts to make
antibodies to attack the pathogen. After your body makes
enough antibodies, you usually get better. Some of these
antibodies stay in the blood. If the same pathogen enters
your body again, the antibodies already in your blood are
ready to fight it. The pathogen also causes your immune
system to quickly make more of those antibodies. Because of
this defense system, you usually do not get certain diseases,
such as chicken pox, more than once.
Immunity
Active
Passive
What does a vaccination do?

You can also get active immunity through a vaccine. The
process of giving a vaccine by injection or by mouth is called
vaccination. When you get a vaccine, you are getting a form of
the antigen that gives you active immunity against a disease.
Although a vaccine can prevent a disease, it cannot cure a
disease. During your life, as you are exposed to more types of
pathogens, you build a separate immunity to each one.
What is passive immunity?

Passive immunity does not last as long as active immunity
does. For example, you received antibodies from your
mother when you were born, but they stayed with you for
only a few months. For this reason, you had to be
vaccinated to develop your own immunity to certain
diseases. Vaccines have helped lower the number of cases of
many childhood diseases, such as measles and mumps.
4.
Explain what a
vaccination does for
your body.
Reading Essentials
215
After You Read

Mini Glossary
active immunity: immunity in which the body makes its
own antibodies in response to an antigen
antibody: protein made in response to a specic antigen
antigen: complex molecule in the body that triggers an
immune response
passive immunity: immunity that results when antibodies

that have been produced in another animal are introduced
into the body
explains the relationship between an antibody and an antigen.
2. Complete the diagram below to describe the way the body defends itself.
Second-line defenses
End of
Section
216

immunity.
Ways the Body Defends Itself
chapter
13
3
4
section
Diseases
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
the discovery and

prevention of disease
diseases caused by
viruses and by bacteria
how HIV affects the
immune system
the causes of
noninfectious diseases
what happens during
an allergic reaction
On the lines below, write the names of three diseases that

you know. Next to each disease, write what you think is the
cause of the disease.
Read to Learn
Disease in History
Throughout history, diseases such as plague, smallpox,
and influenza have killed millions of people around the
world. People today know what causes many diseases and
have developed treatments that can prevent or cure them.
But even today some diseases cannot be cured. Outbreaks of
new diseases, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS), also occur.
Study Coach
Create a Quiz Create 10

questions about the information
you read in this section. Be sure
to answer the quiz questions.
How were disease organisms discovered?

Bacteria and other organisms that can be seen only with
the help of a microscope are called microorganisms. In the
late 1800s and early 1900s, scientists began to realize the
connection between microorganisms and disease.
Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, learned that
microorganisms cause disease in humans. Pasteur discovered
that microorganisms could spoil wine and milk. He realized
that microorganisms could attack the human body the same
way. Pasteur invented pasteurization (pas chuh ruh ZAY
shun), the process of heating a liquid to a temperature that
kills most bacteria.
D Classify Make a four-door

book, as shown below. Make
notes about diseases, classifying
the information into who, what,
when, and where categories.
Who
What
When
Where
Reading Essentials
217
What kinds of organisms are pathogens?

Pathogens include harmful bacteria, viruses, protists, and
fungi. Pathogens such as harmful bacteria can enter the
body and grow and multiply, slowing down or destroying
the growth and activities of body cells and tissues. A virus
infects a host cell and multiplies. The host cell dies when
the viruses break out of it. The new viruses then infect
other cells. Some protists are pathogens. The organism that
causes malaria is a protist. Some fungi also are pathogens,
such as the fungus that causes athletes foot. Common
diseases in humans caused by pathogens are listed below.
Picture This
1.
Identify What agent

causes strep throat?
Agent
Bacteria
Protists
Fungi
Viruses
Human Diseases and Their Agents

Diseases
tetanus, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, strep throat, bacterial pneumonia, plague
malaria, sleeping sickness
athletes foot, ringworm
colds, inuenza, AIDS, measles, mumps, polio, smallpox, SARS
Many diseases caused by pathogens can be treated with

medicines. The organism causing the disease needs to be
identified before a specific treatment can be given. A method
of identifying the pathogen that causes a particular disease was
developed by Robert Koch in the 1800s and is still used today.
Infectious Diseases
E Classify Make a two-tab

book, as shown below. Classify
the diseases discussed in this
section as infectious or
noninfectious.
An infectious disease is a disease that is spread from an

infected organism or the environment to another organism.
An infectious disease can be caused by a virus, bacterium,
protist, or fungus. Infectious diseases can be spread by direct
contact with the infected organism. They also can be spread
through water and air or by disease-carrying organisms
called biological vectors. Biological vectors include rats,
birds, and mosquitoes.
What are human vectors?

Infectious
disease
Noninfectious
disease
218
People can also be carriers of disease. For example, a

person with a cold can spread the disease each time he or
she touches a doorknob or uses a telephone. Washing your
hands frequently helps you avoid catching infectious diseases
such as colds.
What are Kochs rules?
What did Joseph Lister discover?

Joseph Lister, an English surgeon, discovered the
relationship between cleanliness and infections. He reduced
the number of deaths among his patients by washing their
skin and his hands with a liquid that kills pathogens.
What are sexually transmitted diseases?

Infectious diseases that are passed from person to person
during sexual contact are called sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs). STDs are caused by bacteria or viruses.
STDs such as gonorrhea (gah nuh REE uh), chlamydia
(kluh MIH dee uh), and syphilis (SIH fuh lus) are caused
by bacteria. These diseases can be treated by antibiotics. If
chlamydia and gonorrhea are not treated, they can damage a
persons reproductive system. If syphilis is not treated, it can
harm the cardiovascular and nervous systems.
Genital herpes is an STD that is caused by a virus. It
causes painful blisters on the sex organs. Herpes has no
cure, and there is no vaccine to prevent it. The symptoms
of genital herpes can be treated with medicines.
2.
Identify three STDs.
HIV and Your Immune System

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a pathogen that
can live in blood and body fluids. HIV can hide in the body
cells, sometimes for years. You can become infected with
HIV by having sex with an HIV-infected person or by using
an HIV-infected needle for an injection. The risk of getting
HIV through blood transfusions is small. All donated blood
is tested for the presence of HIV. A pregnant woman can
infect her child when the virus passes through the placenta.
HIV cannot multiply outside the body, and it does not
survive long in the environment. You cannot become
infected with HIV by touching an infected person or by
touching objects used by the infected person, unless the
objects have the persons blood or body fluids on them.
3.
Explain How is HIV

spread?
What is AIDS?
An HIV infection can lead to Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a disease that attacks
the bodys immune system. AIDS prevents the immune
system from fighting foreign antigens. The immune system
of a person who has AIDS cannot fight HIV or any other
pathogen. There is no known cure for AIDS. However,
certain medicines help treat AIDS in some patients.
Reading Essentials
219
Fighting Disease
You can take some steps to prevent infections. Cleaning
a wound with soap is one step. Washing your body helps
to remove and destroy some microorganisms. Brushing
your teeth and using dental floss helps keep harmful
microorganisms in your mouth under control.
How can healthy choices help prevent infections? Having
good health habits can make you less likely to become
infected with some disease organisms. Good health habits
include getting enough rest, eating well-balanced meals, and
having regular medical checkups.
4.
Identify healthy choices

you can make to prevent
infections.
Chronic Disease
Diseases that are not spread from one person to another
are noninfectious diseases. Diseases and disorders such as
diabetes, allergies, and cancer are examples of noninfectious
diseases. They are not caused by pathogens. Some
noninfectious diseases are chronic (KRAH nihk). A chronic
disease is a disease that can last for a long time. Some
chronic diseases can be cured, and some cannot.
An allergy is an overly strong reaction of the immune
system to a foreign substance. Substances that cause an
allergic response are called allergens. Allergens can include
chemicals, insect stings, certain foods, molds, and dust.
When you come in contact with an allergen, your immune
system forms antibodies to it. Your body reacts to the
antibodies by releasing chemicals called histamines
(HIHS tuh meenz). Histamines cause tissues to become red
and swollen. Antihistamines are medicines that help treat
allergic reactions. Severe allergies are treated with injections
of small doses of the allergen. The injections help make the
body less sensitive to the allergen.
5.
Describe What are

common allergens?
220
What is diabetes?
Diabetes is a chronic disease that has to do with the levels
of insulin made by the pancreas. Insulin is a hormone that
helps glucose move from the bloodstream into the cells.
People with Type 1 diabetes have too little insulin, or no
insulin at all. People with Type 2 diabetes have insulin, but
their bodies cannot properly use it. Symptoms of diabetes
include low energy, severe thirst, frequent urination, and
tingling sensations in the hands and feet.
What are allergies?
What health problems can diabetes cause?

If the glucose level in the blood stays high for a long
time, other health problems can develop. These problems
can include kidney failure, heart attack, stroke, and the loss
of consciousness (diabetic coma).
Cancer
Cancer is the name for a group of diseases that result from
uncontrolled cell growth. It is a complicated disease. No one
really understands how cancers form. Cancer tumors can grow
in any part of the body. Cancer cells can leave a tumor, travel
through blood and lymph vessels, and invade other tissues.
What are the causes of cancer?

Scientists have identified several causes of cancer. Lung
cancer has been linked to smoking. Being exposed to some
kinds of chemicals can increase the chances of getting
cancer. Substances that increase cancer risk are called
carcinogens (kar SIH nuh junz). Known carcinogens include
asbestos, alcohol, and home and garden chemicals. Being
exposed to X rays and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun
also increases the risk of cancer.
6.
Describe What are

known causes of cancer?
7.
Explain How can

knowing the warning signs
of cancer increase the
chances of curing cancer?
How can cancer be prevented?

There are some ways of preventing certain kinds of
cancer. The table below shows the early warning signs of
cancer. Treatments such as chemotherapy or surgery can
cure some cancers in the early stages of the disease.
Another way of preventing some cancers is by making
healthful choices. Not smoking can help prevent mouth and
lung cancers. A healthy diet that is not high in fats may
reduce your chances of getting cancer. Using sunscreen can
help prevent skin cancer.
Early Warning Signs of Cancer
Changes in bowel or bladder habits
A sore that does not heal
Unusual bleeding or discharge
Thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere
Indigestion or difculty swallowing
Obvious change in a wart or mole
Nagging cough or hoarseness
The National Cancer Institute.
Reading Essentials
221
After You Read

Mini Glossary
allergen: substance that causes an allergic response
infectious disease: a disease that is caused by a virus,
bacterium, protist, or fungus and is spread from an infected
organism or the environment to another organism
noninfectious disease: disease that is not spread from one

person to another
pasteurization: the process of heating a liquid to a temperature
that kills most bacteria
the difference between infectious and noninfectious diseases.
3. How does writing quiz questions and answers help you prepare for a test on circulation
and immunity?
End of
Section
222

diseases.
chapter
14
3
Digestion, Respiration, and

Excretion
1
section
The Digestive System
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
the differences
between mechanical
digestion and chemical
digestion
the organs of the
digestive system
how homeostasis is
maintained in digestion
Think about a food you like. Describe what happens in your

mouth when you think about this food.
Read to Learn
Functions of the Digestive System
Food is processed in your body in four stagesingestion,
digestion, absorption, and elimination. As soon as food
enters your mouth, or is ingested, digestion begins.
Digestion breaks down food so that nutrients
(NEW tree unts) can be absorbed and moved into the blood.
Nutrients are substances in food that provide energy and
materials for cell development, growth, and repair. From the
blood, nutrients are transported to cells. Unused substances
are eliminated, or passed out, of the body as wastes.
Digestion is mechanical and chemical. Mechanical
digestion occurs when food is chewed, mixed, and churned.
Chemical digestion takes place when chemical reactions
break down food.
Enzymes
Enzymes (EN zimez) are needed for chemical digestion to
take place. An enzyme is a type of protein that speeds up
the rate of a chemical reaction in your body.
Locate Information Read

all the headings for this section
and circle any word or term you
cannot dene. At the end of
each heading, review the circled
words and underline the part of
the text that helps you dene
the words.
A Identify Use quarter

shown below, to write notes
about mechanical and chemical
digestion.
Mechanical
Digestion
Chemical
Digestion
Reading Essentials
223
What do enzymes do?

Many enzymes help you digest carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats. These enzymes are produced in the salivary glands,
stomach, small intestine, and pancreas.
Enzymes also speed up chemical reactions responsible for
building your body. They help your muscle and nerve cells
release energy when it is needed. Enzymes also help your
blood to clot properly.
1.
Identify Name one role

enzymes play in your body.
Organs of the Digestive System

Your digestive system, shown in the figure below, has two
partsthe digestive tract and the accessory organs. The
major organs of your digestive tract include the mouth,
esophagus (ih SAH fuh gus), stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum, and anus. Food passes through all of these
organs. The accessory organs include the tongue, teeth,
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. These organs
are important in mechanical and chemical digestion, even
though food doesnt pass through them.
2.
Identify Underline the

organs of the digestive
tract. Circle the accessory
organs.
Salivary glands
Tongue
Esophagus
Liver
Stomach
Pancreas
Gallbladder
Large
intestine
Small
intestine
Rectum
Anus
224
Digestion, Respiration, and Excretion
Picture This
What is the function of the mouth?

Mechanical digestion begins in your mouth when you
chew your food with your teeth and mix it with your
tongue. Chemical digestion also begins in the mouth when a
watery substance called saliva (suh LI vuh) is added to the
chewed food in your mouth. Saliva is produced by salivary
glands, shown in the figure below. Saliva contains water,
mucus, and an enzyme. Food mixed with saliva is moved to
the back of your mouth by your tongue. It is swallowed and
passes into your esophagus.
Picture This
Tongue
Salivary
glands
3.

salivary glands and add a
label indicating what the
salivary glands produce.
4.

purposes for mucus in your
stomach?
Salivary
gland
Salivary
ducts
What does the esophagus do?

As food moves into the esophagus, it passes over a flap
of tissue called the epiglottis (eh puh GLAH tus). This
structure covers the opening to the windpipe to prevent food
from entering it. No digestion takes place in the esophagus.
Smooth muscles in the wall of the esophagus move food
downward with a squeezing action. These waves of muscle
contractions, called peristalsis (per uh STAHL sus), move
food through the entire digestive tract.
What is the role of the stomach in digestion?

The stomach is a muscular bag. Mechanically, food is
mixed in the stomach by peristalsis. Chemically, food is
mixed with enzymes and strong digestive solutions, such as
hydrochloric acid solution, to help break it down.
Special cells in the walls of the stomach release about two
liters of hydrochloric acid solution each day. This solution
works with the enzyme pepsin to digest protein and destroy
bacteria in food. The stomach also produces mucus. Mucus
makes food more slippery, and it protects the stomach from
the strong, digestive solutions. Food is changed in the stomach
into a thin, watery liquid called chyme (KIME). Chyme
slowly moves into the small intestine.
Reading Essentials
225
What is the function of the small intestine?
5.
Infer What would happen

to digestion if there were
no villi in the small
intestine?
Chyme leaves the stomach and enters the first part of the
small intestine, called the duodenum (doo AH duh num).
Most digestion takes place in the duodenum. Bile, a greenish
fluid from the liver, is added to chyme here. The acidic
solution from the stomach makes large fat particles float to
the top of the chyme. Bile breaks up the fat particles, the
same way detergent breaks up grease.
Chemical digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
occurs when a digestive solution from the pancreas is mixed in.
This solution reduces the effect of the hydrochloric acid solution. Your pancreas also makes insulin, a hormone that allows
glucose, a sugar, to pass from the bloodstream into your cells.
Absorption of broken down food takes place in the small
intestine. The wall of the small intestine has many ridges
and folds. These folds are covered with fingerlike projections
called villi (VIH li). Villi add more surface area for
nutrients to be absorbed in the small intestine. Nutrients
move into blood vessels within the villi. Then, blood moves
the nutrients to all cells of your body. Peristalsis slowly
forces the remaining undigested and unabsorbed materials
into the large intestine.
When chyme enters the large intestine, it is still a thin,
watery mixture. The large intestine absorbs water from the
undigested materials. This helps maintain homeostasis
(hoh mee oh STAY sus). After the extra water is absorbed,
the remaining undigested materials become more solid.
Muscles in the rectum and anus control the release of the
feces (FEE seez), or semisolid wastes, from the body.
Bacteria Are Important
6.
Identify What vitamins

do bacteria help make?
226
Many types of bacteria live in your body. Some bacteria live

in many of the organs of your digestive tract including your
mouth and large intestine. Some of these bacteria live in a
relationship that helps both you and the bacteria. The bacteria
in your large intestine feed on undigested material and
make vitamin K and two B vitamins. Vitamin K is needed
for blood clotting. The two B vitamins, niacin and thiamine,
are important for your nervous system. The breakdown of
intestinal materials by bacteria produces gas.
What happens in the large intestine?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chyme (KIME): a thin, watery liquid in the stomach
enzyme (EN zime): a type of protein that speeds up the rate
of a chemical reaction in the body
nutrient (NEW tree unt): a substance in food that provides
energy and materials for cell development, growth, and
repair
peristalsis (per uh STAHL sus): waves of muscle

contractions
villi (VIH li): ngerlike projections in the small intestine
explains the function of peristalsis in the digestive system.
2. Complete the table below by listing the organs of the digestive system in the left column.
In the right column, describe what takes place in the organ during digestion. The mouth
has been filled in to help you.
Organs of the
digestive system
Mouth
What takes place in the organ

chew food, saliva combines with food, food becomes soft

the digestive system.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
227
14
3

Excretion
2
section
Nutrition
What Youll Learn
the six classes of

nutrients
the importance of each
type of nutrient
the relationship
between diet and
health
Study Coach
Summarize Ideas Fold a

piece of paper in half. In the rst
column, write the main ideas of
each paragraph. In the second
column, write the details that
support the main idea.
Before You Read

On the lines below, list your five favorite foods. Then rank
them in order of the least nutritional to the most
nutritional (5 is least and 1 is most).
Read to Learn
Why do you eat?
You need food to provide energy to carry out your daily
activities. The nutritional value of the food you choose is
more important than its taste.
Classes of Nutrients
B Identify Use six quarter

shown below, to write notes on
the nutrients found in foods.
228
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Fats
Vitamins
Minerals
Water
Six kinds of nutrients are found in foodsproteins,

carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. Proteins,
carbohydrates, vitamins, and fats all contain carbon and are
called organic nutrients. Water and minerals are inorganic
nutrients because they do not contain carbon. Foods
containing proteins, carbohydrates, and fats need to be
digested before your body can use them. Vitamins, minerals,
and water can be absorbed directly into your bloodstream.
Why are proteins important nutrients?

Proteins replace and repair body cells. Your body also uses
proteins for growth. Proteins are large molecules. They contain
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.
chapter
What are amino acids?

A molecule of protein is made up of a large number of
smaller units, or building blocks, called amino acids. Your
body needs only 20 amino acids to make the thousands of
proteins used in your cells. Your bodys cells can make all
but eight of these amino acids. These eight essential amino
acids must be supplied by the foods you eat. Complete proteins contain all of the essential amino acids and are found
in eggs, milk, cheese, and meat. Incomplete proteins are
missing one or more of the essential amino acids. If you are
a vegetarian, you can get all of the essential amino acids by
eating a wide variety of vegetables, fruits, and grains. Some
sources of protein are shown in the figure below.
Picture This
1.
Identify which of the
pictured sources of protein

you like to eat.
Why are carbohydrates important nutrients?

Carbohydrates (kar boh HI drayts) usually are the main
sources of energy for your body. Sugar, starch, and fiber are
three types of carbohydrates. Sugars are simple carbohydrates.
Starch and fiber are complex carbohydrates. Starch is found
in potatoes and grains. Fiber is found in the cell walls of
plants. Good sources of fiber include whole-grain breads
and cereals, vegetables, and fruits. Fiber is needed to keep
your digestive system running smoothly.
Why are fats necessary to eat?

Fats, also called lipids, are necessary because they provide
energy. They also help your body absorb vitamins. Fat tissue
cushions your internal organs. A major part of every cell
membrane is made up of a type of fat.
A gram of fat can release more than twice as much
energy as a gram of carbohydrate can. Excess energy from
the foods you eat is made into fat and stored for later use.
2.
Explain How does your

body use carbohydrates?
Reading Essentials
229
How are fats classified?

3.
Draw Conclusions
You are cooking chicken.
The recipe says to use
either olive oil or butter.
Which fat is the healthiest
one to choose? Why?
Fats are classified as unsaturated or saturated. Unsaturated

fats are usually liquid at room temperature. Saturated fats
are in meats, animal products, and some plants. They are
usually solid at room temperature. Saturated fats can lead to
high levels of blood cholesterol. A diet high in cholesterol
may result in deposits forming in blood vessels. These
deposits can block the blood supply to organs and increase
blood pressure. This can cause heart disease and strokes.
Why does your body need vitamins?

Vitamins are organic nutrients needed in small amounts
for growth, regulating body functions, and preventing some
diseases. Your bone cells need vitamin D to use calcium.
Your blood needs vitamin K in order to clot.
Vitamins that dissolve easily in water are called
water-soluble vitamins. Your body does not store
water-soluble vitamins, so you must take them daily.
Vitamins that dissolve only in fat are called fat-soluble
vitamins. Your body stores these vitamins. Your body also
makes some vitamins. Vitamin D is made when your skin is
exposed to sunlight.
Inorganic nutrientsnutrients that lack carbon and
control many chemical reactions in your bodyare called
minerals. Minerals do not provide the body with a source
of energy. Minerals, however, do serve many functions. The
functions and the food sources of some minerals are listed
in the table below. Iodine, a trace mineral, is needed only in
small amounts.
Picture This
4.
Identify In the table,

highlight two minerals
needed to build strong
bones and teeth.
Mineral
Calcium
Iodine (trace)
Iron
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
230
Health Effect
strong bones and teeth, blood clotting,
muscle and nerve activity
thyroid activity, metabolic stimulation
oxygen is transported in hemoglobin by
red blood cells
strong bones and teeth, muscle contraction,
stores energy
balance of water in cells, nerve impulse
conduction, muscle contraction
uid balance in tissues, nerve impulse
conduction
Food Sources
dairy products, eggs, green
leafy vegetables, soy
seafood, iodized salt
red meat, raisins, beans,
spinach, eggs
cheese, meat, cereal
bananas, potatoes, nuts,
meat, oranges
meat, milk, cheese, salt, beets,
carrots, nearly all foods
What health benefits do minerals supply?
Why do humans need water to survive?

Next to oxygen, water is the most important factor for
survival. You could only survive a few days without water. Your
cells need water to carry out their work. Most nutrients
have to dissolve in water to be used by your body.
Water is about 60 percent of your body weight. About
two-thirds of your body water is located in your body cells.
Water also is found around cells and in body fluids such as
blood. You need to drink about 2 L of liquids each day to
replace the water you lose.
When your body needs to replace lost water, messages are
sent to your brain resulting in a feeling of thirst. Drinking
water satisfies your thirst and restores the bodys homeostasis.
5.
Explain why water is

important to the human
body.
Food Groups
No food has every nutrient. You need to eat a variety of
foods. Nutritionists developed the food pyramid to help
people select foods with the nutrients needed for good health.
What is the daily serving of each food group?

The number of servings you should eat each day from the
various food groups is shown in the figure below. The size of
a serving is different for different foods. For example, a slice
of bread or one ounce of cereal is a bread and cereal group
serving. One cup of milk or yogurt is one milk group serving.
Includes butter,
oils, salad dressings,
and soft drinks
Fat
Sugar
Picture This
6.
Synthesizing Write a
meal plan that would
provide a well-balanced
meal.
How can food labels help you plan meals?

Food labels show nutritional facts. These labels can help
you plan meals that supply the daily recommended amounts
of nutrients and meet special dietary requirements.
Reading Essentials
231
After You Read

Mini Glossary
amino acid: a building block of protein
carbohydrate (kar boh HI drayt): the main source of
energy for your body
mineral: an inorganic nutrient that lacks carbon and controls
many chemical reactions in the body
vitamin: an organic nutrient needed in small amounts for

growth, regulating body functions, and preventing
some diseases
explain the difference between a mineral and a vitamin.
2. Complete the concept web below to show the six classes of nutrients.
1.
3.
Classes of Nutrients
6.
4.
5.
End of
Section
232

nutrition.
2.
chapter
14
3

Excretion
3
section
The Respiratory System
Before You Read

Take a deep breath. Think about the parts of the body that
you use to do this. Write the names of the body parts on
the lines below.
Read to Learn
Functions of the Respiratory System
Blood carries oxygen and glucose, a sugar, from digested
food to individual cells. The oxygen is used to release energy
from glucose in a chemical reaction called cellular respiration.
Carbon dioxide and water molecules are waste products of
cellular respiration. These waste products are carried back to
the lungs in the blood. Exhaling, or breathing out, eliminates
waste carbon dioxide and some water molecules.
What Youll Learn
the functions of the

respiratory system
how oxygen and
carbon dioxide are
exchanged
the pathway of air in
and out of the lungs
the effects of smoking
on the respiratory
system
Identify Main Ideas

Highlight the main idea of each
paragraph. Then underline the
details that support that main
idea.
Organs of the Respiratory System

The respiratory system helps move oxygen into the body
and waste gases out of the body. Air enters your body through
your nostrils or your mouth. Fine hairs in the nostrils trap
particles from the air. Air then passes through the nasal cavity.
The nasal cavity is lined with sticky mucus, which traps
particles that were not trapped by nasal hairs. Tiny, hairlike
structures called cilia (SIH lee uh) carry mucus and trapped
particles to the back of the throat where they are swallowed.
C Identify Use a half sheet
of notebook paper folded in half,

as shown below. Take notes on
cellular respiration, by focusing
on oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Oxygen
Carbon
Dioxide
Reading Essentials
233
What is the pharynx?

The figure below shows the organs of the respiratory
system, beginning with the nose and mouth. Warm, moist
air then enters the pharynx (FER ingks), which is a tubelike
passageway for food, liquids, and air. At the lower end of
the pharynx is the epiglottis. When you swallow, the
epiglottis folds down. This allows food or liquids to enter
your esophagus instead of your airway.
Picture This
1.
Cilia

name of the structure
where your vocal cords are
found. Highlight the name
of the structures where air
enters your body.
Nasal cavity
Mouth cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Lung
About 300 million alveoli are in each

lung. The exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide with the environment
takes place between the alveoli and
the surrounding capillaries.
Bronchi
Alveoli
Hollow center
of alveolus
containing air
How does air move through the larynx?

Air moves from your pharynx to your larynx (LER ingks).
Your larynx is the airway to which the vocal cords are
attached. Forcing air between the vocal cords causes them to
vibrate and produce sounds.
What is the trachea?
2.
Explain What is the

trachea lined with?
234
From the larynx, air moves to the tubelike passageway

called the trachea (TRAY kee uh). Strong, C-shaped rings of
cartilage prevent the trachea from collapsing. The trachea is
lined with mucous membranes, which trap dust, bacteria,
and pollen. The trachea also is lined with cilia. The cilia
move the mucus upward, where it is either swallowed or
expelled from the nose or mouth.
Capillaries
What do the bronchi and lungs do?

Air is carried into your lungs by two short tubes called
bronchi (BRAHN ki) (singular, bronchus) at the lower end
of the trachea. Within the lungs, the bronchi branch into
smaller and smaller tubes. The smallest tubes are called
bronchioles (BRAHN kee ohlz). At the end of each
bronchiole are clusters of tiny, thin-walled sacs called alveoli
(al VEE uh li) (singular, alveolus). Lungs are masses of
alveoli, which are arranged in grapelike clusters. Capillaries
surround the alveoli like a net.
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide happens
between the alveoli and capillaries. The walls of the alveoli
and capillaries are only one cell thick. This lets oxygen move
easily from the alveoli to the capillaries. In the blood,
oxygen is picked up by hemoglobin (HEE muh gloh bun), a
molecule in red blood cells. The hemoglobin carries oxygen
to all body cells. At the same time, carbon dioxide and other
wastes leave the body cells and move into capillaries. Then
they are carried to the lungs. In the lungs, waste gases move
through cell membranes from capillaries to alveoli. Waste
gases leave the body when you breathe out.
3.
Why do you breathe?
Explain What carries

oxygen to all body cells?
You breathe without thinking about it. Your brain tells the
muscles in your chest and abdomen to contract and relax.
How fast you breathe depends on the amount of carbon
dioxide in your blood. The more carbon dioxide, the faster
you breathe.
How do you breathe?

Your diaphragm (DI uh fram) contracts and relaxes. This
changes the volume of the chest, which helps move gases
into and out of your lungs. The figure below shows how a
person breathes in (inhales) and breathes out (exhales).
Picture This
4.

explain to a partner when
the diaphragm contracts
and when it relaxes.
Diaphragm
Inhale
Exhale
Reading Essentials
235
Diseases and Disorders of the

Respiratory System
5.
Infer Many states have

laws against smoking in
public buildings. Why do
you think these laws have
been passed?
Many serious diseases are related to smoking. The chemical

materials in tobacconicotine and tarsare poisons and
can destroy cells. The high temperatures, smoke, and carbon
monoxide produced when tobacco burns also can injure or
destroy a smokers cells. A nonsmokers respiratory system
can be harmed by inhaling smoke from tobacco products.
This is called secondhand smoke. Polluted air, coal dust,
and asbestos (as BES tus) also have been related to
respiratory problems.
What are respiratory infections?

Bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms can cause
infections that affect organs of the respiratory system. For
example, the common cold affects the upper part of the
respiratory systemfrom the nose to the pharynx. It also
can cause irritation in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
Bronchitis (brahn KI tus) is a disease of the bronchial
tubes. The tubes become irritated, swell, and too much
mucus is produced. If the disease lasts much longer than a
few weeks, it is called chronic (KRAH nihk) bronchitis.
A disease in which the alveoli in the lungs enlarge is called
emphysema (em fuh SEE muh). Less oxygen can move from
the alveoli to the blood. When blood becomes low in oxygen
and high in carbon dioxide, shortness of breath occurs.
What causes lung cancer?

Inhaling the tar in cigarette smoke contributes to lung
cancer. In the body, tar and other ingredients in smoke act as
carcinogens (kar SIH nuh junz). Carcinogens are substances
that can cause cancer, which is the uncontrolled growth of
cells. Smoking is linked to other cancers, including cancers
of the mouth, pancreas, kidney, and bladder.
6.
Explain What are

carcinogens?
236
What is asthma?
Shortness of breath, wheezing, or coughing can occur in a
lung disorder called asthma (AZ muh). In an asthma attack,
the bronchial tubes contract quickly. Asthma is treated by
inhaling medicine to relax the bronchial tubes. Often,
asthma is an allergic reaction to substances such as cigarette
smoke, plant pollen, or certain foods.
What are chronic bronchitis and emphysema?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
alveoli (al VEE uh li): clusters of tiny, thin-walled sacs in
the lungs
bronchi (BRAHN ki): two short tubes that carry air to
the lungs
larynx (LER ingks): the airway to which two pairs of vocal

cords are attached
trachea (TRAY kee uh): the tubelike passageway
connected to the larynx in which air passes to and from
the lungs
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term and
explain the function of that part in the respiratory system.
2. Complete the flow chart below to show how oxygen moves to the body cells.
inhale oxygen
2.
lungs
7.
mouth or nostrils
3.
5.
hemoglobin
1.
4.
6.
all body cells

the respiratory system.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
237
14
3

Excretion
4
section
The Excretory System
What Youll Learn

the excretory and
urinary systems
how the kidneys work
what happens when
urinary organs do not
work
Summarize Write a
summary of the main ideas
beside each main heading of
this section. Use your summary
statements to help you study
this section.
Before You Read

On the lines below, describe what happens to trash from
your home. Explain what happens if trash is not removed
from a home.
Read to Learn
Functions of the Excretory System
Its your turn to take out the trash. You carry the bag
outside and put it in the trash can. The next day, you bring
out another bag of trash, but the trash can is full. When
trash isnt collected, it piles up. If trash is not removed from
your home, it will become unlivable. In the same way, your
body must get rid of wastes to stay healthy.
How does the body eliminate wastes?

D Identify Use a half sheet
of notebook paper folded in half,

as shown below. Take notes on
the excretory system and the
urinary system.
Excretory
System
238
Urinary
System
Undigested material is removed from your body by the large

intestine. Your circulatory and respiratory systems remove
waste gases from your body. Some salts are gotten rid of when
you sweat. The urinary, digestive, and respiratory systems,
and the skin, make up the excretory system. These systems
work together to remove wastes from your body. If waste is
not removed from your body, poisons build up and damage
your organs. This can lead to serious illness or death.
chapter
Digestive System
Respiratory System
Food and liquid in
Oxygen in
Water and
undigested food out
Carbon dioxide
and water out
Skin
Urinary System
Water and salts in
Salt and some

organic substances out
Excess water, metabolic

wastes, and salts out
Excretion
The Urinary System

The figure above shows how the urinary system functions
as a part of the excretory system. The urinary system rids
the blood of cellular wastes. It controls blood volume by
removing excess water produced by body cells during
cellular respiration. The urinary system also balances the
amounts of salts and water that must be present for all
cellular activities.
Picture This
1.
Identify Circle the waste

materials removed through
the respiratory system.
Why does the body control fluid levels?

Your body depends on
Major Sources by Which Body Water Is Lost
water. Without it, your
Source
Amount (mL)
Percent
body systems would not
Urine
1,500
60
work properly. You get most
Skin
500
20
of your water from the
Lungs
350
14
liquids you drink and the
Feces
150
6
foods you eat. The table
Total
2,500
100
above shows the major ways
that your body loses water.
The fluid levels in the body must be balanced to stay in
good health. The hypothalamus (hi poh THA luh mus), an
area in the brain, constantly checks the amount of water in
the blood. When the brain senses that there is too much
water in the blood, the hypothalamus releases smaller
amounts of a specific hormone. This tells the kidneys to
return less water to the blood and increase the amount of
urine that is released.
Picture This
2.
Identify Write the

correct system in the spaces
below. (Hint: Refer to the
gure at the top of the
page to identify the
systems.)
Urine:
Lungs:
Reading Essentials
239
What do the kidneys do?

3.
Draw Conclusions
What would happen if the
nephrons became clogged?
The main organs of the urinary system are the kidneys.

The kidneys filter blood that contains wastes collected from
cells. All the blood in your body passes through the kidneys
about every five minutes. Blood enters the kidneys through
a large artery and leaves through a large vein.
How do the kidneys function?
Picture This
4.
Describe What happens

in the capillaries that
surround the tubule?
Tubule
Kidneys are made
of many nephrons.
Artery
Collecting
duct
Cortex
Vein
Capillary
A single nephron
is shown in detail.
240
Urine to
ureter
The kidneys are made up of about 1 million tiny filters

called nephrons (NE frahnz). Each nephron has a cuplike
structure and a tubelike structure called a duct. Blood
moves from a renal artery to capillaries in the cuplike
structure. The kidneys have two steps to their filter system.
The first step occurs when water, sugar, salt, and wastes
from the blood pass into the cuplike structures of the
nephrons. Red blood cells and proteins are left behind in
the blood. Next, liquid in the cuplike structure is squeezed
into a narrow tubule.
Capillaries surround the tubule. These capillaries perform
the second step in the filter system. Most of the water, sugar,
and salt are reabsorbed and returned to the blood. Purified
blood is returned to the main circulatory system. The liquid
left behind, called urine, flows into collecting tubules in
each kidney.
How is urine released?

The urine in each tubule drains into an area in each
kidney that leads to the ureter (YOO ruh tur). Ureters are
tubes that lead to the bladder. The bladder is an elastic,
muscular organ that holds urine until it leaves the body.
The walls of the bladder can stretch to hold up to 0.5 L of
urine. A tube called the urethra (yoo REH thruh) carries
urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. The
organs of the urinary system are shown in the figure below.
Kidney
Aorta
Picture This
5.
Identify Circle the

names of the urinary
system organs.
6.
Describe How does

dialysis help a person with
kidney failure?
Renal
artery
Renal
vein
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
Urinary Diseases and Disorders

If kidneys do not work properly or stop working, wastes
build up and act as poisons in body cells. Without
excretion, an imbalance of salts occurs. The body responds
by trying to restore balance. If the balance isnt restored,
the kidneys and other organs can be damaged. Kidney failure
occurs when the kidneys dont work the way they should.
The ureters and urethra are narrow tubes. In some
disorders, these structures become blocked and urine cannot
flow out of the body properly. If the problem is not solved,
the kidneys can be damaged.
What is dialysis?
A person can live with just one kidney. The remaining
kidney becomes larger and works harder to make up for the
loss of the other kidney. However, if both kidneys fail, the
person must have his or her blood filtered by a machine in
a process known as dialysis (di AH luh sus). A dialysis
machine can replace or help with some of the activities of
the kidneys in a person with kidney failure. Like the kidneys,
the dialysis machine removes wastes from the blood.
Reading Essentials
241
After You Read

Mini Glossary
bladder: an elastic, muscular organ that holds urine until it
leaves the body
nephron (NE frahn): a ltering unit in the kidney
ureter (YOO ruh tur): a tube that leads from each kidney to
the bladder
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence or two to
explain the relationship between the bladder and the ureter.
3. How do the summaries you wrote help you understand the excretory system?
End of
Section
242

the excretory system.
chapter
15
3
Support, Movement, and

Responses
1
section
The Skin
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
Describe the last time you had a bruise. Describe how the
bruise changed as it healed.
Read to Learn

the epidermis and
dermis of the skin
how skin protects the
body from disease
how skin heals itself
Study Coach
Organize Information
Skin Structures
Did you know that your skin is your bodys largest organ?
Look at the figure below. Notice that your skin is made up
of three layers of tissuethe epidermis, the dermis, and a
fatty layer. Each layer is made of different types of cells.
The epidermis is the outer, thinnest layer of skin. The
outermost cells of the epidermis are dead and repel water.
Thousands of these cells rub off your body when you
shower, shake hands, or scratch your elbow. New cells are
constantly being made to replace the dead cells.
Hairs
Picture This
Sweat pore
Epidermal surface
Nerve
endings
Epidermis
Create an outline of the section,

using the headings as your main
outline items. Add main ideas
below the headings.
Oil
glands
1.

three layers of skin. Use a
different color for each
layer.
Dermis
Sweat
gland
Fatty
layer
Blood
vessels
Hair follicles
Reading Essentials
243
Where are the dermis and fatty layer?

A Describe Make a layered
book using two half sheets of

paper, as shown below. Use the
Foldable to describe the three
layers of skin.
Epidermis
Dermis
Fatty layer
Skin
The dermis is the layer of skin cells right below the

epidermis. The dermis contains many blood vessels, nerves,
muscles, and oil and sweat glands. Below the dermis is a
fatty layer, which helps keep the body from getting too hot
or too cold. When a person gains weight, much of the fat is
stored in this fatty layer.
What causes different skin colors?

Cells in the epidermis make the chemical melanin
(MEL uh nun). Melanin is a pigment that protects your skin
and gives it color. The different amounts of melanin
produced by cells result in differences in skin color. Melanin
also gives eyes their color. The more melanin present, the
darker the color.
When your skin is exposed to ultraviolet (UV) rays, more
melanin is made and your skin becomes darker. The lighter a
persons normal skin color, the less protection the person has
from the UV rays. Light skin tones burn more easily. People
with light skin tones can be at greater risk for skin cancer.
The skin is important to the body. Some of its most

important functions include protection, sensory response,
formation of vitamin D, control of body temperature, and
ridding the body of wastes.
2.
List two functions of skin.
Which skin function is the most important?

The most important skin function is protection. The skin
is a protective covering over the body that prevents physical
and chemical injury. It stops some bacteria and other
disease-causing organisms from passing through unbroken
skin. The skin slows down water loss from body tissues.
How do you know a pan is hot?

Special nerve cells in the skin are able to sense things. The
cells send this information to the brain. This is how you can
sense the softness of a cat or the heat of a pan.
How does the skin produce vitamin D?

Another important function of skin is the formation of
vitamin D. In the presence of ultraviolet light, a fatlike
molecule in your epidermis produces small amounts of this
vitamin. Vitamin D is needed for good health because it helps
your body absorb calcium from food in your digestive tract.
244
Support, Movement, and Responses
Skin Functions
How does skin control body temperature?

As the figure below shows, human body temperatures
stay in a limited range. Your skin plays an important role in
controlling your body temperature. Blood vessels in the skin
can help release or hold heat. When blood vessels dilate, or
expand, blood flow increases and heat is released. When
blood vessels constrict, or get smaller, blood flow slows and
less heat is released. Think of yourself after running. Are
you flushed red or pale and shivering? Your blood vessels
dilate to release the heat that builds up in your body as you
run. The dilated blood vessels give you a flushed red
appearance.
Picture This
3.
Identify Add the

following label to the
correct end of the
thermometer: At 43C
(109.5F), fatal bleeding
occurs, causing death.
Human Body Temperatures

Heart failure results,
causing death
Difficult
exercise
Normal
range
C
26.4
79.5
35.6
96
Cold weather, early
morning sleep
36.7
37
98
98.6
37.8
38.9
40
100
102
Excitement; latter half of menstrual
cycle; approximately 37C is normal
for some active adults and children
104
What do sweat glands do?

Adult humans have about three million sweat glands.
They help control the bodys temperature and get rid of
wastes. As blood vessels dilate, pores open in the skin that
lead to the sweat glands. Perspiration, or sweat, moves out
onto the skin. Heat transfers from the body to the sweat on
the skin. As the sweat evaporates, heat is removed, and the
skin is cooled.
Sweat glands also help release wastes. As your cells use
nutrients for energy, they produce wastes. Sweat glands
release water, salt, and other wastes. On a very hot day or
after you have exercised a lot, you might feel light-headed
or faint because your body has released too much water
and salt.
4.
Describe What are two

functions of sweat glands?
Reading Essentials
245
Skin Injuries and Repair

Skin injuries include bruises, scratches, burns, and
scrapes. Exposing the skin to harsh conditions, such as cold,
dry air also can damage it. When skin is injured, the
epidermis makes new cells and the dermis repairs tears.
Injured skin allows disease-causing organisms to enter the
body rapidly and an infection could occur.
What are bruises?
5.
Analyze What causes the

coloring in bruises?
When you have a bruise, tiny blood vessels underneath

unbroken skin have burst. Red blood cells from these
broken blood vessels leak into the surrounding tissue. These
blood cells break down and release a chemical called
hemoglobin. The hemoglobin breaks down into its
components, called pigments. The colors of the pigments
cause the bruised area to turn blue, red, and purple.
Swelling also may occur.
As the injury heals, the bruise eventually turns yellow.
This happens because the pigment in the red blood cells is
broken down even more and reenters the bloodstream. After
all the pigment is absorbed into the bloodstream, the bruise
disappears and the skin looks normal again.
6.
Explain Why are skin

grafts used?
246
The body can repair bruises and small cuts. When skin is
severely burned or large areas of skin are injured, there may
not be enough skin cells left to produce new skin. If skin is
not repaired, water is lost from the skin and muscle tissue.
Infection and even death can result.
Skin grafts are used to treat injuries to large portions of
skin. Pieces of skin are cut from one part of a persons
body and moved to the injured or burned area where there
is no skin. The skin graft is kept alive by nearby blood
vessels. Over time, the skin graft becomes part of the skin
around it.
What are skin grafts?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
dermis: the layer of cells directly below the epidermis, which
contains blood vessels, nerves, muscles, oil and sweat
glands
epidermis: the outer, thinnest layer of skin

melanin (MEL uh nun): a pigment that protects your skin
and gives it color
describes one skin structure.
2. Fill in the table below to identify five functions of skin.

Functions of Skin
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
3. Complete the diagram below to identify the three layers of skin tissue.
Layers of Skin Tissue

the skin.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
247
15
3

Responses
2
section
The Muscular System
What Youll Learn
the major function of

the muscular system
the three types of
muscles
how muscles move
body parts
Study Coach
Create a Quiz Write a

question about the main idea
under each heading. Exchange
quizzes with another student.
Together discuss the answers to
the quizzes.
Before You Read

On the lines below, describe a movement you make that
uses muscles.
Read to Learn
Movement of the Human Body
A muscle is an organ that can relax, contract, and provide
the force to move your body parts. You have more than 600
muscles in your body. Some of them are always moving.
What are voluntary and involuntary muscles?
B Identify Make a three-tab
book, as shown below. Identify

facts about the three types of
muscle tissue.
Muscles that you are able to control are called voluntary

muscles. The muscles in your face, arms, and legs are
voluntary muscles. You can choose to move them or not to
move them. Muscles that you are not able to consciously
control are called involuntary muscles. These muscles
pump blood through your blood vessels and move food
through your digestive system.
Classification of Muscle Tissue

Your body has three types of musclesskeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle and cardiac
muscle are striated (STRI ay tud). They appear striped when
viewed under a microscope. Smooth muscle is nonstriated.
Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles that move bones.
They are the most common muscle type in your body. They
are attached to bones by thick bands of tissue called tendons.
248
chapter
Where are cardiac and smooth muscles found?

Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. This muscle
contracts about 70 times per minute and is an involuntary
muscle. Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles that
control movement in your intestines, bladder, blood vessels,
and other internal organs.
1.
Analyze Why is it
important that cardiac
muscle is involuntary
muscle?
Your Bodys Simple MachinesLevers
A machine, such as a bike, is any device that makes work

easier. A simple machine does work with only one movement, like a hammer. The hammer is a type of simple
machine called a lever, which is a rod or plank that pivots
or turns about a point. The point is called a fulcrum.
The action of bones, joints, and muscles working together
is like a lever. In your body, bones are rods and joints are
fulcrums. Relaxing and contracting muscles provide the
force to move body parts. There are three types of levers
first class, second class, and third class. All three types of
levers are found in the body. The figure below shows how
all three levers are used when serving a tennis ball.
Fulcrum
Effort force
Load
E
F
E
L
F
First-class lever The

fulcrum lies between the
effort force and the load.
This happens when the
tennis player uses his neck
muscles to tilt his head
back.
Third-class lever The effort
force is between the
fulcrum and the load. This
happens when the tennis
player flexes the muscles
in his arm and shoulder.
Picture This
2.
Identify In the drawing

of the tennis player, circle
and label the three types of
levers in the body that are
used to serve a tennis ball.
Second-class lever The

load lies between the
fulcrum and the effort
force. This happens when
the tennis players calf
muscles lift the weight
of his body up on his toes.
Reading Essentials
249
Working Muscles
You are able to move because pairs of skeletal muscles work
together, as shown in the figure below. When one muscle of
a pair contracts, the other muscle relaxes, or returns to its
original length. Muscles always pull. They never push. When
the muscles on the back of your upper leg contract, they
shorten and pull your lower leg back and up. When you
straighten your leg, the back muscles lengthen and relax,
and the muscles on the front of your leg contract.
Picture This
3.
Describe Use these

drawings to explain to a
classmate how muscles
work by pulling, rather than
by pushing.
Extensors contract
(flexors relax)
How do muscles change?

Skeletal muscles that do a lot of work become stronger
and larger. Some of this change in muscle size is because of
an increase in the number of muscle cells. But most of the
change is because individual muscle cells become larger.
Muscles that are not exercised become smaller and weaker.
How do muscles move?
4.
Explain Why do your

muscles need energy?
250
Your muscles need energy to contract and relax. Your

blood carries energy-rich molecules to your muscle cells
where the chemical energy stored in these molecules is
released. As the muscle contracts, this released energy
changes to mechanical energy (movement) and thermal
energy (heat). Once the supply of energy-rich molecules in
the muscle is used up, the muscle becomes tired and needs
to rest. While your muscle rests, your blood supplies more
energy-rich molecules to your muscle cells.
Flexors contract
(extensors relax)
After You Read

Mini Glossary
involuntary muscle: a muscle that cannot be consciously
controlled
tendon: a thick band of tissue that attaches muscle to bone
voluntary muscle: a muscle that can be consciously

controlled
the difference between voluntary muscles and involuntary muscles.
2. Fill in the table below to identify the three types of muscle tissues and explain the
functions of each.
Types of Muscle Tissue
Function of the Muscle Tissue
3. How can you use quiz questions to help you review what you have learned about the
muscular system?

the muscular system.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
251
15
3

Responses
3
section
The Skeletal System
What Youll Learn
ve functions of the
skeletal system
the similarities and
differences between
the movable and the
immovable joints
Identify the Important

Points Write a phrase beside
each of the main headings to
summarize the main point of
that section.
Before You Read

What is your favorite sport? On the lines below name all the
body parts you use to play this sport.
Read to Learn
Functions of Your Skeletal System
The bones in your body are very much alive. Like all
living tissues, bone tissue is made up of cells that take in
nutrients and use energy. Bone cells have the same needs as
other body cells.
What does your skeletal system do?

All 206 bones in your body make up your skeletal system.
It is your bodys framework, just like the framework of a
building. The skeletal system has five major functions.
1.
Identify Where are

blood cells formed?
252
1. The skeleton gives shape and support to your body.

2. Bones protect your internal organs.
3. Major muscles are attached to bones and help them
move.
4. Blood cells are formed in the center of many bones in
soft tissue called red marrow.
5. Major amounts of calcium and phosphorus
compounds are stored in the skeleton for later use.
Calcium and phosphorus make bones hard.
chapter
Bone Structure
Bones are not smooth. They have bumps, edges, round
ends, rough spots, and many pits and holes. Muscles and
ligaments attach to some of the bumps and pits. In your
body, blood vessels and nerves enter and leave the bone
through the holes.
book Foldable, as shown below,

to organize facts about bones
and joints.
How do nutrients get into the bone?
Bones
The figure below shows that the surface of a living bone

is covered with a tough, tight-fitting membrane called the
periosteum (per ee AH stee um). Small blood vessels in this
tissue carry nutrients into the bone. The nerves in the
periosteum signal pain.
Joints
Cartilage
Periosteum
Compact
bone
Spongy
Marrow bone
cavity
Bone cells
Blood vessels
and nerves
Artery
Vein
Spongy
bone
Blood
vessels
Compact
bone
Picture This
2.

name of the membrane
that covers the surface of
the bone.
What other tissues make up bone?

Under the periosteum is a hard, strong layer called
compact bone. This bone tissue gives bone strength. It has a
framework containing deposits of calcium phosphate, which
makes the bone hard. Spongy bone is found in the ends of
long bones, such as those in your thigh and upper arms.
Spongy bone has many small, open spaces that make bones
lightweight.
In the centers of long bones are large openings called
cavities. These cavities and the spaces in spongy bone are
filled with a substance called marrow. Some marrow is
yellow and is made up of fat cells. Red marrow makes two
million to three million red blood cells per second.
Reading Essentials
253
Why is cartilage important in joints?

The ends of bones are covered with a smooth, slippery,
thick layer of tissue called cartilage. Cartilage does not contain
blood vessels or minerals. Cartilage protects the joints by
acting as a shock absorber. It also makes movement easier
because it lessens the friction that would be caused by bones
rubbing together.
3.
List two functions

cartilage has?
Bone Formation
Before you were born, your skeleton was made of cartilage.
Over time, the cartilage was replaced by bone, as shown in
the figure below. Bone-forming cells called osteoblasts
(AHS tee oh blasts) deposit calcium and phosphorus in bones,
making bones hard. At birth, your skeleton was made up of
more than 300 bones. As you developed, some bones fused,
or grew together, so that now you have only 206 bones.
Picture This
Explain Label the bone
marrow cavity on the
second and third bones.
Cartilage
Blood
supply
Bone
Marrow
cavity
Throughout your life, osteoblasts do the work of building

up bone. Another type of bone cell, called an osteoclast,
breaks down bone tissue in other areas of the bone. This is
a normal process in a healthy person. When osteoclasts
break down bone tissue, they release calcium and phosphorus
into the bloodstream. These elements are necessary for the
working of your body.
254
4.
Joints
You are able to move because your skeleton has joints.
Any place where two or more of your bones come together
is a joint. The bones that make up a healthy joint are kept
apart by cartilage, so they do not rub against each other as
they move. The bones are held in place at these joints by a
tough band of tissue called a ligament. Muscles move bones
by moving joints.
5.
What is an immovable joint?

An immovable joint allows little or no movement. The
joints of the bones in your skull are immovable joints.
Describe What is the

purpose of a ligament?
What are the types of movable joints?

All movements require movable joints. As you can see in
the figure, there are four types of movable jointspivot,
ball-and-socket, hinge, and gliding.
Picture This
Skull
6.
Immovable
joints
Classify Use the gure to

determine which kind of
joint you use in each of the
following activities.
a. raise your arm
b. kneel
Shoulder
Arm
Ball-and-socket
joint
Pivot joint
Vertebrae
Knee
Gliding joint
Hinge joint
Reading Essentials
255
Pivot Joints In a pivot joint, one bone rotates in a ring of

another bone that does not move. Turning your head is an
example of a pivot movement.
Ball-and-Socket Joints Your legs and arms can swing in
almost any direction because they have ball-and-socket
joints. This kind of joint consists of a bone with a rounded
end that fits into a cuplike cavity on another bone. This
joint gives you a wide range of motion.
Hinge Joints A hinge joint has a back-and-forth movement
like hinges on a door. Elbows, knees, and fingers have hinge
joints. Hinge joints have a smaller range of motion than
ball-and-socket joints. They are not dislocated, or pulled
apart, as easily as ball-and-socket joints.
7.
Locate Where are hinge

joints found in your body?
Gliding Joints Your wrists, ankles, and vertebrae have

gliding joints. In a gliding joint, one part of a bone slides
over another bone. This joint also moves back and forth.
Gliding joints are used the most in your body. Each time
you write a note or take a step, you are using gliding joints.
When you rub two pieces of chalk together, their surfaces
begin to wear away. The pieces change shape. If your bones
did not have cartilage at the ends, they also would wear
away at the joints. Cartilage allows bones to slide more
easily over each other.
Pads of cartilage, called disks, are located between the
vertebrae in your back. These disks act as cushions and
prevent injury to your spinal cord. A fluid that comes from
nearby blood vessels keeps the joints lubricated.
8.
Identify What are the

main symptoms of arthritis?
256
What is arthritis?
Arthritis is the most common joint problem. There are
more than 100 different forms of arthritis that can damage
the joints. About one out of every seven people in the
United States suffers from arthritis. All forms of arthritis
begin with the same symptoms: pain, stiffness, and swelling
of the joints.
Why do your bones move smoothly?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cartilage: a smooth, slippery, thick layer of tissue that covers
the ends of bones
joint: the place where two or more bones come together
ligament: a tough band of tissue that holds bones together

at the joint
periosteum (per ee AH stee um): a tough, tight-tting
membrane on the surface of a living bone
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use two terms in the
glossary to write a sentence describing some part of the skeletal system.
2. Complete the concept web below by naming the five functions of the skeletal system.
1.
5.
2.
Five Functions of the

Skeletal System
4.

the skeletal system.
3.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
257
15
3

Responses
4
section
The Nervous System
What Youll Learn
the basic structure of a

neuron
how an impulse moves
across a synapse
about the central and
peripheral nervous
systems
how drugs affect the
body
Study Coach
Create a Quiz After you

have read this section, create a
quiz based on what you have
learned. After you have written
the quiz questions, be sure to
answer them.
Before You Read

Think of the last time you touched something very hot by
mistake. How did you react?
Read to Learn
How the Nervous System Works
What happens when you hear a sudden, loud noise?
Usually your heart begins to race and you breathe more
quickly. Once the surprise passes, your breathing and
heartbeat return to normal. Your body continually responds
to changes in your environment.
What are stimuli?

An internal or external change that brings about a
response is called a stimulus (STIHM yuh lus) (plural,
stimuli). You respond to thousands of stimuli every day.
Noise and light are examples of stimuli from outside your
body. Hormones are stimuli from inside your body. Your
nervous system helps your body adjust to changing stimuli.
What is homeostasis?
1.
Identify Name one

control system your body
uses to maintain
homeostasis.
258
Your body has control systems that maintain homeostasis.

They keep you alive, even as conditions around you change.
Your bodys regulation of breathing and heartbeat are
examples of homeostasis. Your nervous system is one of the
control systems that helps maintain homeostasis.
chapter
Nerve Cells
The basic units of the nervous system are nerve cells, or
neurons (NOOR ahnz). As shown in the figure below, a
neuron is made up of a cell body, branches called dendrites,
and axons (AK sahns). Any message carried by a neuron is
an impulse. Your neurons are adapted in such a way that
impulses move in only one direction. Dendrites receive
impulses from other neurons and send them to the cell
body. Axons carry impulses away from the cell body. Notice
the branching at the end of the axon. This allows impulses
to move to many other muscles, neurons, or glands.
D Identify Make quartersheet Foldables, as shown

below, to organize facts about
neurons, reexes, the central
nervous system, and the
peripheral nervous system.
What are the types of nerve cells?
Neuron
Reflex
Central
Nervous
System
Peripheral
Nervous
System
Three types of neuronssensory neurons, motor neurons,

and interneuronscarry impulses. Sensory neurons receive
information and send impulses to the brain or spinal cord.
In the brain or spinal cord, interneurons send the impulses
to motor neurons. The motor neurons send impulses from
the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands throughout
your body.
How does an impulse move between neurons?

Neurons do not touch each other. Neurons are separated
from each other by a small space called a synapse (SIH naps),
as shown in the figure below. To move from one neuron to
another, the impulse must cross the synapse. When an
impulse reaches the end of an axon, the axon releases a
chemical. The chemical flows across the synapse and
stimulates an impulse in the dendrite of the next neuron.
Picture This
2.
Identify In the gure,

one axon and one dendrite
are labeled. Add labels to
identify two more dendrites
and one more axon.
mpulsemitting
hemical
urface of
t neuron
Reading Essentials
259
The Divisions of the Nervous System

The nervous system has two major divisionsthe central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral (puh RIH fuh rul)
nervous system (PNS). The central nervous system is made
up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the control
center for all activities in the body. It is made up of billions
of neurons. The spinal cord is made up of bundles of
neurons. An adults spinal cord is about the width of a
thumb and about 43 cm long. Sensory neurons send
impulses to the brain or spinal cord.
3.
List two structures that

make up the central
nervous system.
What are the parts of the peripheral

nervous system?
4.
Analyze What part of the

peripheral nervous system
controls blood pressure?
What is the difference between the somatic

and autonomic systems?
The peripheral nervous system has two major partsthe
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
The somatic system controls voluntary actions, such as
raising your hand. It is made up of cranial and spinal nerves
that go from your central nervous system to your skeletal
muscles. The autonomic system controls involuntary actions.
These are actions that you do not consciously control such
as breathing and digestion.
Safety and the Nervous System

The central and peripheral nervous systems are involved
with every mental process and physical action of your body.
Therefore, an injury to the brain or the spinal cord can cause
a temporary or permanent loss of mental and physical abilities.
For example, the back of the brain controls vision. A blow
to the back of the head could result in the loss of vision.
260
All the nerves outside the CNS that connect the brain and
spinal cord to other body parts are part of the peripheral
nervous system. The PNS includes 12 pairs of nerves from
your brain called cranial nerves and 31 pairs of nerves from
your spinal cord called spinal nerves. Spinal nerves carry
impulses from all parts of the body to the brain and from
the brain to all parts of your body. A single spinal nerve can
have impulses going to and from the brain at the same
time. Some nerves have only sensory neurons, and some
contain only motor neurons. But most nerves have both
sensory and motor neurons.
What causes head and spinal injuries?

The spinal cord is surrounded by the vertebrae of the
spine. However, injuries to the spinal cord do occur. A
spinal cord injury can damage nerve pathways and result in
paralysis (puh RA luh sus). Paralysis is the loss of muscle
movement. Automobile, motorcycle, and bicycle accidents, as
well as sports injuries, are the major causes of head and
spinal injuries. You can help protect yourself from serious
injury by wearing your seat belt while riding in a car and
wearing safety gear while playing sports or riding a bicycle.
5.
Identify What safety

equipment is used to
protect the head or spinal
cord?
How do reflexes work?
When you accidentally touch something that is hot, you

experience a reflex. A reflex is an involuntary, automatic
response to a stimulus. You cannot control a reflex because
it occurs before you know what has happened. A reflex
involves a simple nerve pathway called a reflex arc. The
arrows in the figure below show the path of the reflex arc.
Directi
of imp
Picture This
6.
Trace the path of the

reex arc.
What controls reflexes?

A reflex allows the body to respond without having to
think about what action to take. Reflex responses are
controlled in your spinal cord, not in your brain. Your brain
acts after the reflex to help you figure out what to do to
make the pain stop.
Reading Essentials
261
The Senses
Sense organs are adapted for receiving stimuli, such as
light, sound waves, heat, and pressure. Sense organs convert
the stimuli into impulses for the nervous system. Your
internal organs have sensory receptors that respond to
touch, pain, pressure, and changes in temperature. All of
your bodys senses work together to maintain homeostasis.
Sensory receptors are located throughout your skin. For
example, your lips can sense heat. This can prevent you from
drinking something that is so hot that it would burn you.
7.
Identify Which structure

of the eye is sensitive to
light energy?
The eye is the sense organ for vision. Your eyes have
adaptations that make it possible for you to see shapes of
objects, shadows, and colors.
Light travels in a straight line unless something causes it
to refract or change direction. Your eyes have structures that
refract light. The major structures of the eye are shown in
the figure below. Two of these structuresthe cornea and
the lensrefract light.
The cornea is the transparent part at the front of the eye.
As light passes through the cornea, it is refracted. Then light
passes through the lens and is refracted again. The lens
directs the light onto the retina (RET nuh). The retina is a
tissue at the back of the eye that is sensitive to light energy.
Cells called cones and rods are found in the retina. Cones
respond to bright light and color. Rods respond to dim
light. Rods help you distinguish shapes and movement.
Retina
Lens
Iris
Pupil
Optic nerve
Cornea
Blood vessel
Picture This
8.
Locate Circle the name of

the structure where rods
and cones are found.
262
How does your sense of vision work?
How does the brain interpret images?

Light energy stimulates the rods and cones to produce
impulses. The impulses pass to the optic nerve. This nerve
carries the impulses to the vision part of the brain. The
image that is passed from the retina to the brain is upside
down and reversed. The brain interprets the image correctly,
and you see what you are looking at. The brain also
interprets the images it receives from both eyes. It blends
them into one image that gives you a sense of distance. This
helps you tell how close or how far away something is.
How does your sense of hearing work?
Sound waves are necessary for hearing. Sound is to

hearing as light is to vision. Sound waves are made when an
object vibrates. Sound waves can travel through liquids,
solids, and gases. When sound waves reach your ear, they
stimulate nerve cells within the ear. Impulses are sent to the
hearing area of your brain and you hear a sound.
What are the parts of the ear? The figure below shows
the three sections of the earthe outer ear, the middle ear,
and the inner ear. The outer ear funnels sound waves down
the ear canal to the middle ear. The sound waves make the
eardrum vibrate much like the membrane on a musical
drum vibrates when you tap on it. The vibrations then
move through three tiny bones called the hammer, anvil,
and stirrup. The stirrup bone rests against a membrane on
an opening to the inner ear.
9.

when sound waves reach
your ear?
Outer ear
Semicircular
canals
(balance)
Inner ear
Middle
ear
Cochlea
(hearing)
Picture This
10.
Stirrup
Anvil
Hammer
Eardrum
Explain Use a pencil or

pen to trace the path of
sound waves from outside
the ear to the stirrup.
Reading Essentials
263
What is the cochlea?

The cochlea (KOH klee uh) is in the inner ear. It is a
fluid-filled structure shaped like a snails shell. When the
stirrup vibrates, fluids in the cochlea begin to vibrate. The
vibrations bend hair cells in the cochlea. When a hair cell
bends, it sends electrical impulses to the brain by a nerve.
Depending on how the nerves are stimulated, you hear
different types of sound.
How does the inner ear control balance?
11.
Summarize What are

two functions of the ear?
Some parts of the inner ear also control your balance.

These parts are the cristae ampullaris (KRIHS tee am pyew
LEER ihs) and the maculae (MA kyah lee). These parts
sense different types of body movement. The cristae
ampullaris react to rotations of your body. The maculae
responds to the tilt of your head.
Both parts have tiny hair cells. As the body moves, the
fluid surrounding the hair cells moves. This motion
stimulates the nerve cells to send nerve impulses to the
brain. The brain interprets the body movements and sends
impulses to the skeletal muscles. The impulses cause your
muscles to move in a way that helps you keep your balance.
You can smell food because molecules from the food
move into the air. The molecules stimulate the olfactory
(ohl FAK tree) cells in your nasal passages.
The olfactory cells are kept moist by mucus. When
molecules in the air dissolve in this moisture, the cells
become stimulated and produce impulses. Impulses that start
in these cells travel to the brain. The brain interprets the
stimulus. If you have smelled the odor before, you can identify
the odor. If you dont recognize the odor, it is remembered
and may be identified the next time you smell it.
12.
Explain What cells in the

nasal passage help you
smell food?
264
How does your sense of taste work?

The major sensory receptors for taste are the taste buds
on your tongue. The tongue has about 10,000 taste buds all
over it. The taste buds help you to tell one taste from
another.
Most taste buds respond to several kinds of tastes.
However, certain areas of the tongue respond more to one
taste than another. The five tastes are sweet, salty, sour,
bitter, and the taste of MSG (monosodium glutamate). MSG
is used to flavor foods.
How does your sense of smell work?
How do taste buds work?

A taste bud, such as the one shown in the figure below,
responds to chemical stimuli. Before you can taste
something, it has to be dissolved in water. Saliva begins this
process. The saliva and food wash over the taste buds, and
the taste buds send impulses to the brain. The brain
interprets the impulses, and you identify the tastes.
Tongue
Taste pore
Taste hairs
Picture This
13.
Identify Draw an arrow

on the diagram showing
where food comes in
contact with the taste bud.
14.
Distinguish What
Sensory
cells
Supporting
cells
Nerve
fibers
How do smell and taste work together?

Smell and taste are related. You need the sense of smell to
identify some foods such as chocolate. When saliva in the
mouth mixes with the chocolate, odors travel up the nasal
passage in the back of the throat. The olfactory cells are
stimulated, and you taste and smell the chocolate.
Drugs Affect the Nervous System

Many drugs, such as alcohol and caffeine, directly affect
the nervous system. Alcohol disrupts, or changes, the normal
cell functions of neurons. As a result, alcohol slows the
activities of the central nervous system. It is called a
depressant. Activities such as muscle control, judgment, and
memory are impaired, or harmed.
A stimulant is a drug that speeds up the activity of the
central nervous system. Caffeine is a stimulant found in
coffee, tea, and many soft drinks. Too much caffeine can
increase heart rate. It can cause increased restlessness in
some people and make it difficult to sleep. Caffeine can also
stimulate the kidneys to make more urine.
The nervous system controls responses that help maintain
homeostasis within the body. The effect of drugs can make
it more difficult for the body to maintain homeostasis.
effects do depressants and

stimulants have on the
central nervous system?
Reading Essentials
265
After You Read

Mini Glossary
central nervous system: the part of the nervous system
made up of the brain and spinal cord
neuron (NOOR ahn): the basic unit of the nervous system
peripheral nervous system: the part of the nervous

system made up of all the nerves outside the central
nervous system
synapse (SIH naps): small space between neurons through
which an impulse crosses
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one of the parts of
the nervous system and write a sentence that explains its function.
2. Complete the chart below to identify the sense organ associated with each sense.
Main Sense Organ

Vision
Hearing
Balance
Smell
Taste
End of
Section
266

the nervous system.
chapter
16
3
Regulation and Reproduction
1
section
The Endocrine System
Before You Read

Have you ever been suddenly frightened? On the lines
below, explain how your body reacted.
Read to Learn
Body Controls
Your endocrine system and your nervous system are your
bodys control systems. The nervous system sends messages
to and from the brain to the rest of your body. The endocrine
system sends chemical messages to different parts of your body.
Your body reacts very quickly to messages from the
nervous system. Your body reacts more slowly to chemical
messages from the endocrine system.
Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands are tissues that produce hormones.
Hormones (HOR mohnz) are chemicals that can speed up
or slow down certain cell processes. Each endocrine gland
releases its hormones directly into the blood. The blood
carries the hormone to other parts of the body.
Endocrine glands produce hormones that control the
body in many ways. Some endocrine glands help the body
handle stressful situations. Other endocrine glands help the
body grow and develop. Endocrine glands coordinate the
circulation of the blood and help the body digest and
absorb food. The endocrine glands and their functions are
listed in the table on the next page.
What Youll Learn
how hormones function

the endocrine glands
and the hormones they
produce
how a feedback system
works in your body

Underline the main point of
each paragraph. Review the
main points after you have
nished reading the section.
A Compare Make a three
tab book Foldable, as shown

below. Use it to compare the
functions and the structure of
the endocrine system. Include
the names of glands and organs
that are part of the endocrine
system.
Male
Both
Female
Reading Essentials
267
Picture This
1.

names of the endocrine
glands located in your brain.
Then circle the names of the
glands and organs that are
involved in reproduction.
Which gland is both
highlighted and circled?
Endocrine Glands
and Organs
Pineal
Pituitary
Thymus
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenals
Pancreas
Testes (male)
Ovaries (female)
The Endocrine System

Location in
Major Function
the Body
in the brain
produces the hormone melatonin that may help
regulate your body clock
in the brain
produces hormones that regulate various body
activities including growth and reproduction
upper chest
produces hormones that help the body ght
infections
below the larynx
produces hormones that regulate metabolism
(the chemical reactions in the body)
below the larynx
produces hormones that regulate the bodys
calcium levels
on top of each
produce several hormones that help your body
kidney
respond to stress and keep your blood sugar
levels stable
between the
produces hormones that help control blood
kidneys
sugar levels in the bloodstream
in the scrotum
produce testosterone, a male reproductive
hormone
in the pelvic cavity produce estrogen and progesterone, hormones
that regulate the female reproductive cycle
The organs and glands of the endocrine system control the

amount of hormones in your body by sending chemical
messages back and forth to each other. This process is called a
negative-feedback system. Follow each step in the figure below
to learn more about how a negative feedback system works.
A A meal is eaten.
C Glucose level in
bloodstream increases.
B Intestines take in glucose
during digestion.
Picture This
2.

of the organ that produces
insulin.
F Blood glucose level

decreases to normal
level in bloodstream.
Homeostasis is restored.
D Pancreas responds to high

glucose level by producing
the hormone insulin.
E Insulin is released into bloodstream,
causing the liver and other tissues to
take up more glucose.
268
A Negative-Feedback System
After You Read

Mini Glossary
hormones (HOR mohnz): chemical messages in the body
that speed up or slow down certain cell processes
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains
the purpose of hormones in your body.
2. Use the terms in the box below to complete the sentences that follow.
adrenals
testes
ovaries
thymus
parathyroid
thyroid
pituitary
a. The __________________ produces a hormone that helps the body fight infection.
b. The __________________ produces testosterone, while the __________________
produce estrogen and progesterone.
c. The glands that help your body react to stress are known as the __________________.
d. The __________________ gland in the brain controls growth.
e. The __________________ and the __________________ are located below the larynx.

the endocrine system.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
269
16
3
2
section
The Reproductive System
What Youll Learn
the function of the

reproductive system
the major structures of
the male and female
reproductive systems
the stages of the
menstrual cycle
Study Coach
Create a Quiz As you study

the information in this section,
create questions about the
information you read. The
questions can be used to review
the sections content.
Before You Read

On the lines below, describe one way in which a male body
differs from a female body.
Read to Learn
Reproduction and the Endocrine System
Most human body systems are the same in males and
females, but the reproductive systems are different. As you can
see in the figure below, the pituitary gland makes the sex
hormones that control the male and female reproductive
systems. Sex hormones are needed to develop sexual
characteristics. Sex hormones from the pituitary gland begin
the process of making eggs in females and sperm in males.
Eggs and sperm pass hereditary information from one
generation to the next.
Brain
Pituitary gland
Picture This
1.
Explain Use the diagram

to explain to a classmate
what the pituitary gland
does in females and then
have the classmate explain
what the pituitary gland
does in males.
270
Produces female
sex hormones
Produces male
sex hormones
Stimulates egg
Stimulates sperm
production in ovaries production in testes
chapter
The Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive organs are inside and outside the
body. As shown in the figure below, the organs outside
the body are the penis and the scrotum (SKROH tum). The
scrotum contains two organs called testes (TES teez)
(singular, testis). The testes make the male hormone,
testosterone (tes TAHS tuh rohn). They also make male
reproductive cells, called sperm.
Seminal
vesicle
Picture This
Bladder
2.
Prostate
gland
Epididymis

name of the structure that
produces testosterone.
Urethra
Testis
Penis
Sperm-producing tubes
What happens to sperm?

Each sperm cell has a head and tail. The head contains
hereditary information. The tail moves back and forth to
push the sperm through fluid. Sperm travel out of the testes
through sperm ducts that circle the bladder. The seminal
vesicle (VEH sih cuhl) provides the sperm with a fluid. The
fluid provides energy to the sperm and helps them move.
The mixture of sperm and fluid is called semen (SEE mun).
Semen leaves the body through the urethra. The urethra is
the same tube that carries urine from the body.
The Female Reproductive System

Most of the female reproductive organs are inside the
body. The female sex organs are called the ovaries. The
ovaries produce eggs. Eggs are the female reproductive cells.
B Explain Make a two-tab
book Foldable, as shown below,

to record notes about the
structures and functions of the
male and female reproductive
systems.
Male
Reproductive
System
Female
Reproductive
System
Reading Essentials
271
What happens to the eggs?
3.
Identify the structure the

egg enters when it is
released from the ovary.
About once a month, hormones cause one of the ovaries to

release an egg. The release of an egg from an ovary is called
ovulation (ahv yuh LAY shun). After the egg is released, it
enters the oviduct. Short, hairlike structures called cilia
(SIH lee uh) help move the egg through the oviduct to the
uterus (YEW tuh rus). The uterus is a muscular organ with
thick walls. The fertilized egg develops in the uterus.
As you can see in the figure below, at the lower hollow
end of the uterus is the cervix. Connected to the cervix is
a muscular tube called the vagina (vuh JI nuh). The vagina
is also called the birth canal. When a baby is born, it travels
through the vagina to the outside of the mothers body.
Oviduct
Ovary
Uterus
Cervix
Picture This
Explain Trace the path of
an egg after ovulation.
The Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual (MEN strul) cycle is the monthly cycle of
changes in the female reproductive system. The menstrual
cycle lasts about 28 days. During each cycle, an egg matures,
female sex hormones are produced, the uterus prepares to
receive a fertilized egg, and menstrual flow occurs. The first
menstrual period happens between ages nine and 13 for
most females.
What controls the menstrual cycle?

The pituitary gland releases several hormones that control
the menstrual cycle. These hormones begin the process that
results in the release of the egg from the ovary. They also
stimulate the production of two other hormones, estrogen
(ES truh jun) and progesterone (proh JES tuh rohn). The
interaction of all these hormones causes the menstrual cycle.
The menstrual cycle has three parts, or phases.
272
4.
Vagina
Phase One of the Menstrual Cycle Phase 1 starts with the

menstrual flow, called menstruation (men STRAY shun). This
flow is made up of blood and tissue cells released from the
thickened lining of the uterus. Menstruation lasts up to six days.
Phase Two of the Menstrual Cycle During phase 2 of the
menstrual cycle, hormones cause the lining of the uterus to
thicken. During phase 2, an egg develops in the ovary. The
release of the egg, or ovulation, occurs about 14 days before
menstruation begins. The egg must be fertilized within
24 hours or it begins to break down. Sperm can live in a
females body for up to three days, so fertilization can
happen soon after ovulation.
Phase Three of the Menstrual Cycle During phase 3, the
lining of the uterus continues to thicken. If a fertilized egg
arrives, the thickened lining of the uterus begins to support
and feed the developing embryo. If the egg is not fertilized,
the lining of the uterus breaks down and the menstrual cycle
starts over. The changes to the uterus during the phases of
the menstrual cycle are shown in the figure below.
Lining of uterus
Menstruation
Lining of uterus thickening
5.
Explain For how long

after ovulation can an egg
be fertilized ?
6.
Analyze What causes the

menstrual cycle to start
over again?
Lining of uterus
breaking down
Blood
vessels
Picture This
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
7.
Identify During which

phase is the lining of the
uterus the thickest?
Ovulation
What is menopause?
For most females, the menstrual cycle ends between ages
45 and 60. Menopause occurs when the menstrual cycle
ends. During menopause, the ovaries produce fewer and
fewer sex hormones. The completion of menopause may
take several years.
Reading Essentials
273
After You Read

Mini Glossary
menstrual (MEN strul) cycle: the monthly cycle of
changes in the female reproductive system
menstruation (men STRAY shun): phase 1 of the
menstrual cycle, when blood and tissue cells are released
from the thickened lining of the uterus
ovaries: the female sex organs that produce eggs
ovulation (ahv yuh LAY shun): the process that releases
an egg from an ovary
semen (SEE mun): a mixture of sperm and uid

sperm: male reproductive cells
testes (TES teez): male reproductive organs that produce
sperm and the male hormone, testosterone
uterus (YEW tuh rus): the female organ in which a fertilized
egg develops
vagina (vuh JI nuh): part of the female reproductive
system, a muscular tube connected to the cervix
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use at least two of the terms
in a sentence to describe either the male or female reproductive system.
2. Complete the flow chart below by writing a phrase that describes what happens during
each phase of the menstrual cycle.
Phase 2
Phase 3
3. How did writing and answering quiz questions help you better understand what you
have read?
End of
Section
274

the reproductive system.
Phase 1
chapter
16
3
3
section
Human Life Stages
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
how a human egg is

fertilized
how the embryo and
fetus develop
the life stages of infancy,
childhood, adolescence,
and adulthood
Describe the changes that you have seen happen in a young

child over a years time.
Read to Learn
Fertilization
A human develops from an egg that has been fertilized by
a sperm. As sperm enter the vagina, they come in contact
with chemicals given off in the vagina. These chemicals
cause changes in the sperm that make it possible for the
sperm to fertilize the egg. A sperm that touches the egg
releases an enzyme. This enzyme helps the sperm enter the
egg. Fertilization takes place when sperm and egg unite.
Locate Information As you

read this section, highlight the
portions of the text that describe
the changes to an embryo and
fetus during pregnancy.
How does a zygote form?

Once a sperm enters an egg, the nucleus of the sperm
joins with the nucleus of the egg. This joining creates a
fertilized cell called the zygote (ZI goht).
Multiple Births
Mothers sometimes give birth to two or more babies at
once. These are called multiple births. Multiple births can
happen when an ovary releases more than one egg at a time
or when a zygote divides into two or more zygotes.
Sometimes an ovary releases two eggs at the same time. If
both eggs are fertilized, fraternal twins are born. Fraternal
twins do not have the same hereditary information because
they came from two different eggs. Fraternal twins can be
the same or different sexes.
1.
Explain How many eggs

must be fertilized for
fraternal twins to be born?
Reading Essentials
275
When are twins identical?

book Foldable on notebook
paper, as shown below, to
record notes about the changes
that occur during each stage of
human development.
th
re Bir
Befo
Infancy
Childhood
ence
Adolesc
d
Adulthoo
Identical twins develop from one egg that has been

fertilized by one sperm. The zygote divides into two separate
zygotes. Identical twins have the same hereditary
information because they come from the same fertilized egg.
Identical twins are always the same sex.
Development Before Birth

As you can see in the figure below, the zygote moves along
the oviduct to the uterus. During this time, the zygote goes
through many cell divisions. After about seven days, the
zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus. This is called
implantation. A zygote that attaches to the wall of the uterus
will develop into a baby in about nine months. The period of
development from fertilized egg to birth is called pregnancy.
Ovulation
Discharged egg
Ovary
Sperm
Picture This
2.
Explain Place the

numbers 1, 2, or 3 beside the
following words in the gure
to show the order in which
they happen: Fertilization,
Implantation, and Ovulation.
Uterus
Oviduct
Fertilization
First cell division

of zygote
Implantation
When does a zygote become an embryo?

After the zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus, it is
called an embryo (EM bree oh).
How does an embryo get food and oxygen?
3.
Conclude Why is the

mothers good nutrition
important to the embryo?
276
After an embryo attaches to the uterus, a placenta

(pluh SEN tuh) develops from tissues of the uterus and the
embryo. An umbilical (um BIH lih kul) cord connects the
embryo to the placenta. Blood vessels in the umbilical
cord carry nutrients and oxygen from the mothers blood
through the placenta to the embryo. Other blood vessels in
the umbilical cord carry wastes from the embryo to the
mothers blood.
C Describe Make a ve-tab
What protects the embryo?

During the third week of pregnancy, a thin membrane
called the amniotic (am nee AH tihk) sac forms around the
embryo. The amniotic sac is filled with a clear fluid called
amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid acts as a cushion to
protect the embryo. Amniotic fluid also stores nutrients and
wastes.
When does the embryo develop body parts?
4.
Explain What are the

functions of the amniotic
uid?
5.
Identify two things
During the first two months of development, the embryos

major organs form and the heart begins to beat. At five
weeks, the embryo has a head with eyes, nose, and mouth.
During the sixth and seventh weeks, fingers and toes develop.
How does a fetus develop?
Pregnancy in humans lasts about 38 to 39 weeks. After

the first two months of pregnancy, the developing embryo is
called a fetus (FEE tus). The fetus has all its body organs
and is about 8 cm to 9 cm long. By the end of the seventh
month of pregnancy, the fetus is 30 cm to 38 cm long. By
the ninth month, the fetus is about 50 cm long. It weighs
from 2.5 kg to 3.5 kg. During the ninth month, the fetus
moves to a head-down position within the uterus. This is
the best position for delivery.
The Birthing Process

The process of childbirth begins when the muscles of the
uterus start to contract. This is called labor. As the contractions
increase, the amniotic sac breaks and the fluid comes out.
Over a period of hours, the contractions cause the opening
of the uterus to get wider. More powerful and more
frequent contractions push the baby out through the vagina
into the world. After the baby is born, more contractions
push the placenta out of the mothers body.
When are babies delivered through surgery?

Sometimes babies cannot be born through the birth canal.
In these cases, a baby is delivered through surgery called a
cesarean (suh SEER ee uhn) section. In this surgery, a cut is
made in the abdominal wall of the mother, then through
the wall of the uterus. The baby is delivered through this
opening.
contractions help push

from the mothers body.
Reading Essentials
277
What happens after birth?

After birth, the baby is still attached to the umbilical cord.
Two clamps are placed on the umbilical cord and it is cut
between the clamps. The scar where the cord was attached is
called the navel.
The experiences that a fetus goes through during childbirth
can cause fetal stress. After it is born, the fetus must adapt
from a dark, watery environment with a constant temperature
to an environment with more light, less water, and changes in
temperature. The first four weeks after birth are known as the
neonatal (nee oh NAY tul) period. Neonatal means newborn.
During this time the babys body begins to function normally.
Stages After Birth
6.
Explain When do
humans become physically
able to reproduce?
After birth, four stages of development occur: infancy,

childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Infancy lasts from
birth to around 18 months of age. Childhood lasts from the
end of infancy to puberty (PYEW bur tee), the time of
development when a person becomes physically able to
reproduce. Adolescence is the teen years. Adulthood lasts
from about the early 20s until death.
Human babies depend on other humans for their
survival. During infancy a baby learns how to coordinate
the movements of its body, as shown in the figure below. Its
mental abilities increase, and it grows rapidly. Many infants
triple their weight in the first year of life.
Picture This
7.
Infant Development
Identify Study the table
Sit with
support
Get on hands and
knees; stand with
support
to answer the following

questions.
a. At what age can most
infants sit alone?
Sit
alone
Crawl
b. At what age do infants

learn to walk?
Pull to standing
Walk around furniture
Stand with no support
Walk
4
278
9
10
11
Age (in months)
12
13
14
15
16
How does a baby develop during infancy?
What developments take place in childhood?

Childhood lasts from the age of about 18 months to
about 12 years. Growth during childhood is rapid. Between
two and three years of age, the child learns to control his or
her bladder and bowels. Most children also can speak in
simple sentences at age two or three. Around age four, the
child can get dressed and undressed with some help. By age
five, many children can read some words. Throughout
childhood, children develop their abilities to speak, read,
write, and reason.
What happens during adolescence?

Adolescence begins at about age 12 or 13 and ends at
about age 20. Puberty is a part of adolescence. For girls,
puberty happens between ages nine and 13. For boys,
puberty occurs between ages 13 and 16. During puberty,
hormones produced in the pituitary gland cause changes in
the body. Females develop breasts, pubic and underarm hair,
and fatty tissue around the thighs and buttocks. Males
develop deeper voices, increased muscle size, and facial,
pubic, and underarm hair.
Adolescence is usually when a final growth spurt occurs.
Most girls begin this final growth phase around age 11 and
end around age 16. For boys, the final growth spurt begins
around age 13 and ends around age 18. However, different
people have different growth rates.
8.
Identify When do most

girls experience puberty?
9.
Explain What physical

changes occur during
middle age?
What happens during adulthood?

Adulthood begins when adolescence ends, at about age
20, and continues through old age. From about age 45 to
age 60, middle-aged adults begin to lose physical strength.
Their blood circulation and breathing become less efficient.
Bones break more easily, and skin becomes wrinkled.
What changes occur in older adults?

After age 60, adults may have an overall decline in their
health. Their body systems do not work as well as they once
did. Muscles and joints become less flexible. Bones become
thinner and break more easily. Older adults may lose some
of their ability to hear and see. Their lungs and heart do
not work as well as they used to. Eating well and exercising
throughout life can help delay these changes.
Reading Essentials
279
After You Read

Mini Glossary
amniotic (am nee AH tihk) sac: a thin membrane that
forms around the embryo, acting as a cushion and a
place to store nutrients and wastes
embryo (EHM bree oh): a fertilized egg or zygote after it
attaches to the wall of the uterus
fetal stress: the experiences that a fetus goes through
during childbirth
fetus (FEE tus): a developing human embryo after two

months of pregnancy
pregnancy: the period of development from fertilized egg
to birth
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write one or two sentences
that explain the relationship of a zygote, an embryo, and a fetus.
2. Fill in the table below to identify and describe the stages of development after birth.
Period of Time
Development Changes
Stage of Development
Birth to 18 months
18 months to 12 years
12 years to 20 years
20 years to 60 years
After age 60
End of
Section
280

human life stages.
chapter
17
3
Plants
1
section
An Overview of Plants
Before You Read

What are your favorite plants? Why are they your favorites?
Read to Learn
What is a plant?
Plants include trees, flowers, vegetables, and fruits. More
than 260,000 plant species have been identified. Scientists
expect more species will be found, mostly in tropical rain
forests. Plants are important sources of food for humans.
Most life on Earth would not be possible without plants.
All plants are made of cells and need water to live. Many
have roots that hold them in the ground or onto an object
such as a rock. Plants come in many sizes and live in almost
every environment on Earth. Some grow in cold, icy
regions. Others grow in hot, dry deserts.
What Youll Learn
the characteristics
common to all plants
the adaptations that
make it possible for
plants to live on land
how vascular and
nonvascular plants are
similar and different
Study Coach
Identify Answers Read

each question heading aloud.
When you have nished reading
the section, read the question
heading again. Answer the
question based on what you
have just read.
What are the parts of a plant cell?

Every plant cell has a cell wall, a cell membrane, a
nucleus, and other cell structures. A cell wall surrounds
every plant cell. The cell wall gives the plant structure and
provides protection. Animal cells do not have cell walls.
Many plant cells have the green pigment, or coloring,
called chlorophyll (KLOR uh fihl). Most green plants use
chlorophyll to make food through a process called
photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is found in cell structures called
chloroplasts. The green parts of a plant usually have cells
that contain many chloroplasts.
1.
Explain What surrounds

every plant cell?
Reading Essentials
281
Central Vacuole Most of the space inside a plant cell is taken

up by a large structure called the central vacuole. The central
vacuole controls the water content of the cell. Many other
substances also are stored in the central vacuole, including
the pigments that make some flowers red, blue, or purple.
Origin and Evolution of Plants

Conclude What do
plants and green algae
have in common?
Life on Land
3.
Conclude How would a

drought affect green algae?
Life on land has some advantages for plants. One

advantage is that more sunlight and carbon dioxide are
available on land than in water. Plants need sunlight and
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. During photosynthesis,
plants give off oxygen. Over millions of years, as more plants
grew on land, more oxygen was added to Earths atmosphere.
Because of this increase in oxygen, Earths atmosphere
became an environment in which land animals could live.
Adaptations to Land
Algae live in water or in very moist environments. Like
green plants, algae make their own food through photosynthesis. To stay alive, algae need nutrients that are dissolved
in the water that surrounds them. The water and dissolved
nutrients enter and leave through the algaes cell membranes
and cell walls. If the water dries up, the algae will die. Land
plants have adaptations that allow them to conserve water.
282
Plants
2.
The first land plants probably could survive only in damp

areas. Their ancestors may have been green algae that lived
in the sea. Green algae are one-celled or many-celled
organisms that use photosynthesis to make food. Because
plants and green algae have the same type of chlorophyll,
they may have come from the same ancestor.
Plants do not have bones or other hard parts that can
become fossils. Plants usually decay instead. But there is
some fossil evidence of plants. The oldest fossil plants are
about 420 million years old. Scientists hypothesize that some
of these early plants evolved into the plants that live today.
Plants that have cones, such as pine trees, probably
evolved from plants that lived about 350 million years ago.
Plants that have flowers most likely did not exist until about
120 million years ago. Scientists do not know the exact
beginning of flowering plants.
How are land plants supported and protected?

Plants cannot live without water. Plants that live on land
have adaptations that help them conserve water. The stems,
leaves, and flowers of many land plants are covered with a
cuticle (KYEW tih kul). The cuticle is a waxy, protective
layer that slows the loss of water. The cuticle is a structure
that helps plants survive on land.
Land plants also have to be able to support themselves.
The cell walls that surround all plant cells contain cellulose
(SEL yuh lohs). Cellulose is a chemical compound that
plants can make out of sugar. Long chains of cellulose
molecules form fibers in plant cell walls. These fibers give
the plant structure and support.
The cell walls of some plants contain other substances
besides cellulose. These substances help make the plant even
stronger. Trees, such as oaks and pines, could not grow
without very strong cell walls. Wood from trees can be used
for building because of strong cell walls.
Life on land means that each plant cell is not surrounded
by water. Land plants have tubelike structures that deliver
water, nutrients, and food to all plant cells. These structures
also help provide support for the plant.
4.
plant that slows the loss of

water.
A Define Make a four-tab
book Foldable, as shown below.

List each vocabulary word on
the tabs. Inside, write a complete
sentence denition of the word.
cuticle
cellulose
How do plants reproduce on land?

Identify the part of the
vascular
plants
Land plants reproduce by forming spores or seeds. These

structures can survive dryness, cold, and other harsh
conditions. They grow into new plants when the
environmental conditions are right.
nonvascular
plants
Classification of Plants
Plants can be classified into two major groups, vascular
(VAS kyuh lur) and nonvascular plants. Vascular plants have
tubelike structures that carry water, nutrients, and other
substances to all the cells of the plant. Nonvascular plants do
not have these tubelike structures.
Scientists give each plant species its own two-word name.
For example, the scientific name for a pecan tree is Carya
illinoiensis and the name for a white oak is Quercus alba. In
the eighteenth century a Swedish scientist, Carolus Linnaeus,
created this system for naming plants.
5.
Recall the two major

groups of plants.
Reading Essentials
283
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cellulose: a chemical compound that forms the walls of
plants; plants make it out of sugar
cuticle: a waxy, protective layer on the surface of the plant
nonvascular plants: plants without tubelike structures;

move water and other substances through the plant in
other ways
vascular plants: plants that have tubelike structures to
carry water, nutrients, and other substances to the cells
of the plant
explains the difference between vascular and nonvascular plants.
2. In the boxes below, describe four adaptations in plants that allow them to live on land.
One adaptation is supplied for you.
developed structures to distribute water

and nutrients
End of
Section
284
Plants

plants.
Plant Adaptations for Life on Land
chapter
17
3
Plants
2
section
Seedless Plants
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
the differences
between seedless
nonvascular plants and
seedless vascular plants
the importance of some
nonvascular and
vascular plants
Ferns are a type of seedless plant that people grow as house

plants. What do you think you would need to do to keep a
fern alive indoors?
Read to Learn
Seedless Nonvascular Plants
Nonvascular plants are small and not always easy to
notice. They include mosses, which you may have seen as
green clumps on moist rocks or stream banks. Some other
nonvascular plants are called hornworts and liverworts.
Study Coach
Summarize As you read,

make an outline to summarize
the information in the section.
Use the main headings in the
section as the main headings in
the outline. Complete the outline
with the information under each
heading in the section.
What are characteristics of seedless

nonvascular plants?
Nonvascular plants do not grow from seeds. Instead, they
reproduce by forming spores. They also do not have all of
the parts that plants that grow from seed have. Nonvascular
plants are usually only a few cells thick. They are not very
tall, usually about 2 cm to 5 cm high. Nonvascular plants
have structures that look like stems and leaves. Nonvascular
plants do not have roots. Instead, they have rhizoids
(RI zoydz). Rhizoids are threadlike structures that help to
anchor the plants where they grow. Most nonvascular plants
grow in damp places. They absorb water through their cell
membranes and cell walls.
1.
Identify How do rhizoids

help a plant?
Reading Essentials
285
B Organize On quarter
sheets of notebook paper, make

notes about characteristics of
vascular and nonvascular plants.
Vascular
Nonvascular
Mosses Most nonvascular plants are mosses. Mosses have

green, leaflike growths arranged around a stalk. They also
have rhizoids that anchor them to the ground. Moss rhizoids
are made up of many cells. Mosses often grow on tree
trunks, rocks, or the ground. Although most mosses live in
damp places, some can live in deserts. Like all nonvascular
plants, mosses reproduce by forming spores. In many moss
species, a stalk grows up from the plant when it is ready to
reproduce. Spores form in a cap at the top of the stalk.
Liverworts Liverworts got their name because people who
lived during the ninth century used them to treat diseases of
the liver. Liverworts have flattened, leaflike bodies. They
usually have one-celled rhizoids.
Hornworts Hornworts have flattened, leaflike bodies like
liverworts. Hornworts are usually less than 2.5 cm in
diameter. Hornworts have one chloroplast in each of their
cells. They get their name from the structures that produce
spores, which look like tiny cattle horns.
2.
Draw Conclusions
Why are mosses pioneer
species?
286
Plants
Nonvascular plants need damp conditions to grow and

reproduce. However, many species can withstand long, dry
periods. Nonvascular plants can grow in thin soil and in
soils where other plants cannot grow.
The spores of mosses, liverworts, and hornworts are
carried by the wind. When a spore lands on the ground, it
will grow into a new plant only if there is enough water and
if other growing conditions are right.
Mosses, such as those pictured below, often are the first
plants to grow in a new or disturbed environment, such as
after a forest fire. Organisms that are the first to grow in
new or disturbed areas are called pioneer species. As pioneer plant species die, they decay. As more and more plants
grow and die, the
decayed matter
builds up. The
decaying material
and slow breakdown
of rocks build soil.
After enough soil
is made, other
organisms can
move into the area.
How are nonvascular plants important?
Seedless Vascular Plants

Both ferns and mosses reproduce by spores instead of seeds.
But ferns are different from mosses because ferns have vascular
tissues. Their long, tubelike cells carry water, minerals, and
food to cells throughout the plant. Vascular plants can grow
larger and thicker than nonvascular plants because the
vascular tissue carries water and nutrients to all plant
cells.
3.
Explain How is having

vascular tissue an advantage
for plants?
What are the types of seedless vascular plants?

Seedless vascular plants include ferns, ground pines, spike
mosses, and horsetails. Many species of seedless vascular
plants are known only from fossils because they are now
extinct. These plants covered much of Earth 360 million to
286 million years ago.
What are ferns?

Ferns are the largest
group of seedless vascular
plants. Ferns have stems,
leaves, and roots. Fern
leaves are called fronds as
Fronds
shown in the figure to
the right. Spores form in
structures found on the
underside of the fronds.
Stem
Although thousands of
species of ferns are found Root
on Earth today, many
Rhizome
more species existed long
ago. Scientists have used clues from rock layers to learn that
360 million years ago much of Earth was covered with
steamy swamps. The tallest plants were species of ferns that
grew as tall as 25 m. The tallest ferns today are 3 m to 5 m
tall and grow in tropical areas.
Picture This
4.

of the structure where
spores are found.
What are club mosses?

Ground pines and spike mosses are groups of plants that
often are called club mosses. Club mosses are more closely
related to ferns than to mosses. Club mosses have
needle-like leaves. Their spores form at the end of the stems
in structures that look like tiny pinecones. Ground pines
grow in cold and hot areas. Ground pines are endangered in
some places. They have been over-collected to make
decorations such as wreaths.
Reading Essentials
287
Spike mosses look a lot like ground pines. One species of

spike moss, the resurrection plant, lives in desert areas. When
there is not enough water, the plant curls up and looks dead.
When water becomes available, the resurrection plant unfolds
its green leaves and begins making food again. The plant can
curl up again whenever conditions make it necessary.
How are horsetails different from other

vascular plants?
Horsetails have a stem structure that is different from
other vascular plants. The stem has a hollow center
surrounded by a ring of vascular tissue. The stem also has
joints. Leaves grow out around the stem at each joint.
Horsetail spores form in conelike structures at the tips of
some stems. The stems of horsetails contain silica, a gritty
substance found in sand. In the past, horsetails were used
for polishing objects and scouring cooking utensils.
Explain How do
horsetails differ from other
vascular plants?
Importance of Seedless Plants

Long ago, when ancient seedless plants died, they sank
into water and mud before they decayed. Over time, many
layers of this plant material built up. Top layers became
heavy and pressed down on the layers below. Over millions
of years, this material turned into coal.
Today, the same process is happening in bogs. A bog is a
watery area of land that contains decaying plants. Most plants
that live in bogs are seedless plants like mosses and ferns.
When bog plants die, the watery soil slows the decaying
process. Over time, the decaying plants are pressed into a
substance called peat. Peat is mined from bogs to use as a
low-cost fuel in places such as Ireland and Russia. Scientists
hypothesize that over time, if the peat remains in the bog, it
will become coal.
How are seedless vascular plants used?

6.
Identify two ways

seedless plants are used.
288
Plants
Peat is used to enrich garden soil. Many people keep ferns

as houseplants. Ferns also are sold as landscape plants for
shady outdoor areas. Ferns sometimes are woven into baskets.
The rhizomes and fronds of some ferns can be eaten. The
dried stems of one kind of horsetail can be ground into
flour. Some seedless plants have been used as medicines for
hundreds of years. For example, ferns have been used to
treat bee stings, burns, and fevers.
5.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
pioneer species: organisms that are the rst to grow in new
or disturbed areas
rhizoid: threadlike structures that anchor nonvascular plants
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence to explain
the importance of pioneer species to the environment.
2. Complete the Venn diagram below to help you compare nonvascular and vascular
seedless plants. Include phrases that describe how the plant cells get nutrients and how
the plants reproduce.
Nonvascular Seedless Plants
Vascular Seedless Plants
Both Nonvascular and

Vascular Seedless Plants
3. How did summarizing the information in this section help you learn about nonvascular
and vascular seedless plants?

seedless plants.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
289
17
3
Plants
3
section
Seed Plants
What Youll Learn
the characteristics of
seed plants
how roots, stems, and
leaves function
the characteristics of
gymnosperms and
angiosperms
how monocots and
dicots are different
Study Coach
Identify Main Ideas

Highlight the main idea in each
paragraph. Then underline one
detail that supports the main
idea.
Before You Read

What are your favorite fruits? Where do these fruits come
from?
Read to Learn
Characteristics of Seed Plants
Seed plants reproduce by forming seeds. A seed contains a
plant embryo and stored food. The stored food provides
energy for the embryo so that it can grow into a plant.
Scientists classify seed plants into two groups: gymnosperms
(JIHM nuh spurmz) and angiosperms (AN jee uh spurmz).
Most seed plants have four main parts: roots, stems, leaves,
and vascular tissue.
Why are leaves important?

C Classify Make a three-tab
Foldable to write notes about

the importance of plant leaves,
stems, and roots.
Leaves
Stems
Roots
290
Plants
The leaves of seed plants are the organs where food is

made. The food-making process is called photosynthesis.
Leaves come in many shapes, sizes, and colors.
What are the cell layers of a leaf?

A leaf has several layers of cells. A thin layer of cells called
the epidermis covers and protects the top and bottom of the
leaf. The epidermis of some leaves is covered with a waxy
cuticle. Most leaves have small openings in the epidermis
called stomata (STOH muh tuh) (singular, stoma). The
stomata allow carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen to enter
and exit the leaf. Guard cells located around each stoma
open and close the stoma.
chapter
The palisade layer of a leaf is located just below the upper

epidermis. This layer has long, narrow cells that contain
chloroplasts. Plants make most of their food in the palisade
cells.
The spongy layer is found between the palisade layer and
the lower epidermis. The spongy layer is made of loosely
arranged cells separated by air spaces. The veins of a leaf are
made of vascular tissue and are located in the spongy layer.
All the parts of the leaf can be seen in the figure below.
Cuticle
Upper
epidermis
Picture This
1.
Identify Color in blue

the plant layer that contains
the chloroplasts. Color in
red the plant layer that
protects the leaf. Finally,
underline the name of the
part of the leaf that allows
carbon dioxide, water, and
oxygen to enter and exit
the leaf.
2.
Identify two things roots
Palisade
layer
Spongy
layer
Lower
epidermis
Phloem
Xylem
Stoma
Vein
Guard cells
What is the purpose of a plants stem?

Plant stems are usually found above the ground. They
support the branches, leaves, and reproductive structures of
the plant. Materials move between the leaves and roots
through vascular tissues in the stem. The stems of some
plants also store food and water.
Plant stems can be woody or herbaceous (hur BAY shus).
Herbaceous stems are soft and green, like those of a tulip.
Woody stems are hard and rigid, like those of trees and
shrubs. The trunk of a tree is a stem.
What do plant roots do?

The root system of most plants is the largest part of the
plant. Roots contain vascular tissue. Water and dissolved
substances move from the soil into the roots, and on up
through the stems to the leaves. Roots also anchor plants
and prevent them from being blown or washed away. Roots
support the parts of the plant that are above groundthe
stem, branches, and leaves.
do for a plant.
Reading Essentials
291
Roots can store food and water. They can take in oxygen
that the plant needs for the process of respiration. For
plants that grow in water, part or all of a plants roots may
grow above ground. Water does not have as much oxygen as
air. The roots take in more oxygen from the air.
What are vascular tissues made of?
3.
Describe What does

phloem tissue do?
The vascular system in a seed plant contains three kinds

of tissuexylem, phloem, and cambium. Xylem (ZI lum)
tissue is made of hollow, tubelike cells that are stacked one
on top of the other to form a structure called a vessel.
Vessels move water and dissolved substances from the roots
to the rest of the plant. Xylems thick cell walls also help
support the plant.
Phloem (FLOH em) tissue is made of tubelike cells that
are stacked to form structures called tubes. Phloem tubes
move food from where it is made to other parts of the plant
where the food is used or stored.
Some plants have a layer of cambium tissue between
xylem and phloem. Cambium (KAM bee um) tissue
produces most of the new xylem and phloem cells.
4.
Compare What is the

difference between
gymnosperms and
angiosperms?
292
Plants
Gymnosperms are vascular plants that produce seeds that

are not protected by a fruit. Gymnosperms do not have
flowers. The leaves of gymnosperms are usually shaped like
needles or scales. Many gymnosperms are called evergreens
because some green leaves always stay on their branches.
The gymnosperms are divided into four divisions. These
four divisions are conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and
gnetophytes (NE tuh fites). The conifers are the most
familiar gymnosperm division. Pines, firs, spruces,
redwoods, and junipers are conifers. Conifers produce two
types of conesmale and female. Seeds develop only on the
female cone.
Angiosperms
An angiosperm is a vascular plant that forms flowers and
produces one or more seeds that are protected inside a fruit.
Peaches, apples, and tulips are examples of angiosperms.
Angiosperms are common in all parts of the world. More
than half of all known plant species are angiosperms.
Gymnosperms
What are the flowers of angiosperms like?

The flowers of angiosperms come in different shapes,
sizes, and colors. Some parts of a flower grow into a fruit.
Most fruits have seeds inside, like an apple. Some fruits have
seeds on the surface, like a strawberry. Angiosperms are
divided into two groupsmonocots and dicots.
How do monocots and dicots differ?

A cotyledon (kah tul EE dun) is the part of a seed that
stores food for the new plant. Monocots are angiosperms
that have one cotyledon inside their seeds. Dicots are
angiosperms that have two cotyledons inside their seeds.
Many foods come from monocots, including corn, rice,
and wheat. Bananas and pineapples also are monocots.
Familiar foods such as peanuts, peas, and oranges come from
dicots. Most shade trees, such as oaks and maples, are dicots.
D Compare Make notes
listing the characteristics of

monocots and dicots in a
two-tab Foldable. Include ways
in which humans use each.
Monocots
Dicots
What is the life cycle of an angiosperm?

All organisms have life cyclesa beginning and an end.
The angiosperms life cycle begins with the seed and ends
when the mature plant flowers and/or produces seed. Some
angiosperms grow from seeds to maturity in less than a
month. Some plants take as long as 100 years to grow from
seed to maturity. Plants that complete their life cycles in one
year are called annuals. Annuals must be grown from new
seeds each year.
Plants that complete their life cycles in two years are called
biennials (bi EH nee ulz). Biennials produce flowers and
seeds only during the second year of growth. Angiosperms
with life cycles that take longer than two years are called
perennials. Most trees and shrubs are perennials.
Importance of Seed Plants

Gymnosperms are used for many purposes. Conifers are
the most commonly used gymnosperm. Most of the wood
used in building comes from conifers. Resin used to make
chemicals found in soap, paint, and varnish also comes from
conifers.
Angiosperms are widely used by humans. Many of the
foods you eat come from seed plants. Angiosperms are the
source of many of the fibers used in making clothes. Paper
is made from wood pulp that comes from trees. Desks and
chairs are made from wood.
5.
Explain Why are conifers

important to the economy?
Reading Essentials
293
After You Read

Mini Glossary
angiosperm: vascular plant that owers and produces one
or more seeds inside a fruit
cambium: plant tissue that produces most of the new xylem
and phloem cells
dicot: angiosperm that has two cotyledons inside its seeds
guard cells: cells that surround a stoma and open and close it
gymnosperm: vascular plant that produces seeds that are
not protected by fruit
monocot: angiosperm that has one cotyledon inside its seeds
phloem: plant tissue made up of tubelike cells that are

stacked to form tubes; tubes move food from where it is
made to parts of the plant where it is used
stomata: small openings in the epidermis of the leaf
xylem: plant tissue made up of hollow, tubelike cells that are
stacked one on top of the other to form vessels; vessels
transport water and dissolved substances from the roots
to all other parts of the plant
2. Complete the chart below to list the four main parts of seed plants and describe what
they do.
Parts of Seed Plants
End of
Section
294
Plants
What They Do

seed plants.
explain what xylem and phloem do.
chapter
18
3
Interactions of Living Things
1
section
The Environment
Before You Read

On the lines below, list the factors in your environment that
help you live.
Read to Learn
Ecology
All organisms interact with their environment. Ecology is
the study of the interactions among organisms and their
environment. Scientists who study these relationships are
called ecologists. They organize the factors in the environment
that influence organisms into two groupsabiotic
(ay bi AH tihk) and biotic (bi AH tihk). Abiotic factors are
the nonliving parts of the environment. Living or onceliving organisms in the environment are called biotic factors.
What Youll Learn
the biotic and abiotic

factors in an ecosystem
the different levels of
biological organization
how ecology and the
environment are related

paragraph. This will help you
remember what you read.
Abiotic Factors
Living things in an environment, including humans,
depend on one another for food and shelter. They also
depend on abiotic factors, such as water, sunlight,
temperature, air, and soil. These factors determine which
organisms are able to live in a particular environment.
How do organisms depend on water?
1.
Explain why water is an

important abiotic factor.
All living things need water to survive. The bodies of

most organisms are 50 percent to 95 percent water. Water is
an important part of cells. Processes such as photosynthesis
and digestion can occur only in the presence of water.
Reading Essentials
295
More than 95 percent of Earths surface water is found in

the oceans. The saltwater environment in the oceans is home
to a vast number of species. Freshwater environments, such
as those in rivers, support thousands of species of organisms.
Why are light and temperature important?
Draw Conclusions
Would you expect to nd
a greater variety of plant
and animal life in a part
of the world that has fairly
consistent temperatures or
a place that has seasons?
Explain.
How do organisms depend on air?

The air affects the lives of most species. Air is made up of
a mixture of gases including nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon
dioxide. Most plants and animals depend on the gases in air
for respiration. Polluted air can cause species in an area to
change, move, or die off.
The weather in an area affects all species that live there.
The ozone layer protects organisms from the Suns harmful
radiation. The ozone layer is 20 km to 50 km above Earths
surface. Air pressure, which is the weight of air pressing
down on Earth, changes depending on altitude. Higher
altitudes have less air pressure. Few organisms live at
extreme air pressures.
How is soil important to the environment?
3.
Identify Name one way

that soil varies from place to
place.
296
Soil varies greatly from place to place. The kind of soil a

place has depends on the amounts of sand, silt, and clay it
contains. Various kinds of soil contain different amounts of
nutrients, minerals,
and moisture. Different plants need different kinds of soil. The
types of plants an
area has determines
which other organisms can live in the
area. So soil, as shown
in the figure to the
right, affects every
organism in an
environment.
2.
Light and temperature are other abiotic factors that affect

the environment. The amount of sunlight determines where
green plants and other organisms that use photosynthesis live.
The temperature of a region also helps to determine
which plants and animals can live there. Some areas of the
world have a fairly consistent temperature year round. Other
places have seasons during which temperatures vary.
Biotic Factors
In addition to abiotic factors, organisms depend on other
organisms for food, shelter, protection, and reproduction.
How organisms interact with one another and with abiotic
factors can be described in levels of organization.
Organism An organism is one individual in a population.
A List Make a six-tab book

using notebook paper, as shown
below. For each level of
organization shown, list one fact.
You may want to include
drawings to help you remember
each level.
Population A population is made up of all the individuals

of one species that live in the same area at the same time.
nism
orga
tion
popula
Community The populations of different species that

interact in some way make up a community.
nity
commu
em
ecosyst
Ecosystem All of the communities in an area and the

abiotic factors they interact with make up an ecosystem.
biome
biosphere
Biomes Scientists divide Earth into different biomes

(BI ohmz), or large regions. A biome is made up of plants
and animals that have adapted to the soil and climate of the
region. Many different ecosystems are found in a biome. The
major biomes of the world are shown in the map below.
Arctic Ocean
80
Arctic Circle
Arctic Circle
60
ASIA
NORTH
AMERICA
Atlantic
Ocean
EUROPE
Pacific
Ocean
30
Tropic of Cancer
Pacific
Ocean
AFRICA
Equator
0
Equator
SOUTH
AMERICA
Tropic of Capricorn
Atlantic
Ocean
Indian
Ocean
AUSTRALIA
30
60
Antarctic Circle
Ice
Tundra
Taiga
Grassland
Temperate
forests
Tropical
rain forest
Chaparral
Savanna
Desert
Mountain
Antarctic Ocean
Biosphere The biosphere (BI uh sfihr) is the part of Earth

that supports life. It includes the top part of Earths crust,
the waters that cover Earths surface, the surrounding
atmosphere, and all biomes.
Picture This
4.
Distinguish Circle the

item in the legend that
describes the largest biome
north of the equator.
Reading Essentials
297
After You Read

Mini Glossary
abiotic (ay bi AH tihk) factor: nonliving part of the
environment
biosphere: the part of Earth that supports life
biotic (bi AH tihk) factor: living or once-living organism in
the environment
community: groups of populations that interact with each
other in a given area
ecology: the study of the interactions among organisms and

their environment
ecosystem: a biotic community and the abiotic factors that
affect it
population: all the members of one species that
live together
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that shows
you understand the difference between an abiotic factor and a biotic factor.
2. Complete the diagram below to give examples of some factors in the environment that
influence organisms.
Abiotic Factors
End of
Section
298
Biotic Factors

the environment.
Factors that Inuence Organisms
chapter
18
3
2
section
Interactions Among Living Organisms
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
the characteristics that

describe populations
the different types of
relationships that occur
among populations in a
community
the habitat and niche
of a species in a
community
How would you describe the size of your communitys population? Is the population clumped together or spread out?
Read to Learn
Characteristics of Populations
Every organism on Earth is a member of a population.
Populations can be described by their characteristics such as
spacing and how many members live in an area (density).
Study Coach

a quiz question for each
paragraph. Write the question
the answer on the other side.
know all of the answers.
How is population size measured?

Population can be difficult to measure. If the number of
organisms in a population is small and does not move, then
the size can be determined by counting the individuals.
Usually the individuals are widespread and move around
too much to be counted. Then, scientists count the number
of individuals in a small section to estimate the population
of the larger area. The size of a population is always
changing as organisms are born, die, or move away. As you
can see in the figure on the next page, the human population is increasing each year.
What is population density?

The number of individuals in a population that occupy a
definite area is called population density. For example, if 100
mice live in an area of one square kilometer, the population
density is 100 mice per square kilometer. When more individuals live in a given amount of space, the population is denser.
B Explain Make a six-tab

book using notebook paper,
as shown below. Take notes
about each characteristic of
populations.
lation
popuize
s
lation
popu sity
den
tion
populaing
spac
limiting
factors
carrying
capacity
biotic
l
potentia
Reading Essentials
299
Picture This
World Population: 19502050 (projected)
Identify Circle the year

in which the human
population reached three
billion. Highlight the year in
which the human
population reached six
billion.
Human population (billions)
1.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1960
1980
2000
Year
2020
2040
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base 5-10-00.
What is population spacing?
How do limiting factors affect population?

Populations cannot grow larger forever. All ecosystems have
a limited amount of food, water, and other resources. A
limiting factor is any biotic or abiotic factor that limits the
number of individuals in a population.
Competition is the struggle among organisms to get the
same resources needed to survive and reproduce. As population density increases, so does competition among individuals
for the resources in their environment.
What is the carrying capacity of a population?

2.
Infer What happens to

the size of a population
when the environment has
reached its carrying
capacity?
300
If a population increases in size year after year, eventually

food, space, or other resources become so scarce that some
individuals are not able to survive or reproduce. When this
happens, the environment has reached its carrying capacity.
This is the largest number of individuals of a species that an
environment can support and maintain for a long period of
time. If a population gets bigger than the carrying capacity,
some individuals do not get enough resources. They will die
or be forced to move.
Another characteristic of populations is spacing, or how

the organisms are arranged in a given area. If organisms
have about the same distance between them, they are evenly
spaced. If the spacing between organisms in the population
varies greatly, the spacing is random. Clumped spacing
occurs when animals gather in groups or plants grow near
each other in groups.
What is a biotic potential?

If an environment had no limiting factors, the size of the
population would continue to increase. The maximum rate at
which a population increases when there is plenty of food and
water, when the weather is ideal, and no diseases or enemies
exist, is its biotic potential. Most populations never reach this.
Eventually, the carrying capacity of the environment is
reached, and the population stops increasing.
Symbiosis and Other Interactions

Many species of organisms in an ecosystem have close
relationships that are necessary for their survival. Symbiosis
(sihm bee OH sus) is any close interaction between two or
more different species. Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship
in which two different species of organisms cooperate and
both benefit. Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship that
benefits one organism without affecting the other organism.
Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship between two species in
which one species benefits and the other species is harmed.
C Summarize Use four

quarter sheets of notebook
paper as shown below to take
notes about symbiotic
relationships and predation.
How does predation regulate population size?
Mutualism
Commensalism
Parasitism
Predation
Predation (prih DAY shun) is the act of one organism

hunting, killing, and feeding on another organism. For
example, owls are predators of mice. Mice are their prey.
Predators are biotic factors that limit the size of the prey
population. How much prey is available is a factor that can
limit the size of the predator population. Because predators
are more likely to kill old, sick, or young prey, the strongest
individuals in the prey population are most likely to survive
and reproduce. This improves the prey population over
several generations.
What are habitats and niches?

Every species plays a role in a community. Some are
producers, and some are consumers. Each also has a
particular place to live. The role, or job, of an organism in
the ecosystem is called its niche (NICH). What a species
eats and how it interacts with other organisms are part of
its niche. The place where an organism lives is called its
habitat. An earthworms habitat is soil. An earthworms
niche includes loosening and enriching the soil.
3.
Identify What term

describes the place where
an organism lives?
Reading Essentials
301
After You Read

Mini Glossary
habitat: the place where an organism lives
limiting factor: any biotic or abiotic factor that limits the
number of individuals in a population
niche (NICH): the role, or job, of an organism in the ecosystem
population density: the number of individuals in a

population that occupy a denite area
symbiosis (sihm bee OH sus): any close interaction
between two or more different species
and write a sentence that explains how it affects population or population size.
Symbiotic Relationships
3. How do flash cards help you prepare for a test?
End of
Section
302

the interactions among living organisms.
2. Complete the web diagram by identifying three symbiotic relationships between species.
chapter
18
3
3
section
Matter and Energy
Before You Read
What Youll Learn

a food chain and a food
web
how energy ows
through ecosystems
how materials such as
water, carbon, and
nitrogen are recycled
What does the word recycling mean to you?
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Summarize As you read,
Energy Flow Through Ecosystems

Organisms interact with members of their own species and
members of other species. Most of the interactions among
members of different species occur when one organism feeds
on another. When one organism is food for another organism,
some of the energy in the first organism (the food) is
transferred to the second organism (the eater).
Producers are organisms that take in and use energy from
the Sun or some other source to produce food. Plants are
examples of producers. Consumers are organisms that take
in energy when they feed on producers or other consumers.
When organisms die, other organisms called decomposers
take in energy as they break down the remains of organisms.
The movement of energy through a community can be
shown as a food chain or a food web.
What are food chains?

A food chain is a model, a simple way of showing how
energy passes from one organism to another. In the drawing
of a food chain, arrows show the direction of energy transfer.
For example, a pond food chain looks like the following:
Aquatic plants
Insects
Bluegill
Bass
Humans
make an outline to summarize

the information in the section.
Use the main headings in the
section as the main headings in
the outline. Complete the outline
with the information under each
heading in the section.
D Describe Create a
four-tab Foldable, as shown
below, to describe food chains.
Write the specic species in a
food chain as you read.
Plant
Reading Essentials
303
What happens as energy is transferred?

Food chains usually have only three or four links. This is
because the amount of available energy is less at each link
in the chain. At each transfer of energy, part of the energy is
lost as heat due to the activities of the organisms. The
amount of energy left for the last link is only a small
portion of the energy in the first link.
What are food webs?

E Compare Create a three
tab Foldable, as shown below, to

compare food chains and food
webs.
Food
Chain
Both
Food
Web
A food web is a series of overlapping food chains that exist

in an ecosystem. It shows a more complete model of the way
energy moves through an ecosystem. Food webs show that
organisms are part of more than one food chain in an
eco-system. Humans are a part of several food chains. Most
people eat foods from several different levels of a food chain.
When an herbivore, a plant-eating organism, eats a plant,
some of the energy in the plant passes to the herbivore. Most
of the energy is given off into the atmosphere as heat. The
same thing happens when a carnivore, a meat-eating organism, eats an herbivore. An ecological pyramid, such as the one
below, models the number of organisms at each level of a
food chain. The bottom of an ecological pyramid is made up
of the producers of an ecosystem. The rest of the levels are
made up of consumers.
Picture This
1.
Distinguish Circle the

producer on the pyramid.
Highlight the consumers.
Fox (1)
Birds (25)
Grasshoppers (250)
Grasses (3000)
What are energy pyramids?

An energy pyramid shows the flow of energy from one
organism to another. The pyramid compares the energy
available at each level of the food chain in an ecosystem. An
energy pyramid usually has three or four levels. Only about
ten percent of the energy at each level of the pyramid is
available to the next level.
304
What are ecological pyramids?
The Cycles of Matter

Matter on Earth is never lost or gained. It is used over
and over again, or recycled. Materials such as water, carbon,
and nitrogen cycle through the environment.
What is the water cycle?

Water molecules on Earth constantly rise into the
atmosphere, fall to Earth, and soak into the ground or flow
into rivers and oceans. The water cycle involves the processes
of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.
The heat from the Sun causes water on Earths surface to
evaporate, or change from a liquid to a gas. The water rises
into the atmosphere as water vapor, which is a gas. As the
vapor rises, it hits colder air. The molecules of water vapor
then change back into tiny droplets of water. They condense,
or change from a gas to a liquid. These droplets form clouds.
When the droplets become large and heavy enough, they fall
back to Earth as rain or other precipitation.
2.
List What are the three

main parts of the water
cycle?
What other cycles exist in nature?
All organisms contain carbon. Earths atmosphere contains a

small percent of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide gas. The
movement of carbon through Earths biosphere is called the
carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is shown in the figure below.
Plants use carbon
dioxide from the air
to make carbohydrates.
After the carbon is returned

to the atmosphere, the
cycle begins again.
Picture This
3.
The carbohydrates
are eaten.
Identify Circle the object

in the gure that removes
carbon dioxide from the air.
Respiration, combustion,
and decay return carbon
to the atmosphere.
Nitrogen is found in proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen

cycles through the atmosphere to producers then to
consumers. The matter that organisms need to live is constantly recycled in the biosphere.
Reading Essentials
305
After You Read

Mini Glossary
food chain: a model that shows how energy, in the form of
food, passes from one organism to another
food web: a series of overlapping food chains that exist in an
ecosystem
water cycle: the processes of evaporation, condensation,

and precipitation
explains why a food web gives a more complete picture of an ecosystem than a food
chain does.
End of
Section
306

matter and energy.
chapter
19
3
Conserving Resources
1
section
Resources
Before You Read

Identify two objects in the room you are in. What products
from the environment were used to make them?
Read to Learn
Natural Resources
An earthworm eats decaying plant material. A robin
catches the worm and flies to a tree. The leaves of the tree
use sunlight during photosynthesis. Leaves fall to the ground
and decay. What do these living things have in common?
They rely on Earths natural resources. Natural resources
are the parts of the environment that are useful or necessary
for the survival of living organisms. Like other organisms,
humans need food, air, and water. Humans also use
resources to make everything from clothes to cars.
What Youll Learn

renewable and
nonrenewable
resources
how fossil fuels are used
alternatives to using
fossil fuels
Study Coach
Identify the Main Idea As

you read this section, organize
notes into two columns. On the
left, list a main idea about the
material in each subhead. On
the right, list the details that
support the main idea.
What are renewable resources?

A renewable resource is any natural resource that is
recycled or replaced constantly by nature. For example, the
Sun provides a constant supply of heat and light. Plants add
oxygen to the air when they carry out photosynthesis. Rain
fills lakes and streams with water.
Why are some resources in short supply?

Although renewable resources are recycled or replaced,
they are sometimes in short supply. Sometimes there may
not be enough rain or water provided from melting snow to
supply water to people, plants, and animals. In desert
regions, water and other resources are often scarce.
A Identify Make a
vocabulary book using notebook

paper. As you read the section,
add each boldface underlined
term. Write the denitions under
the tabs.
ral
Natu rce
u
reso
Reading Essentials
307
What are nonrenewable resources?
1.
Explain why petroleum is

a nonrenewable resource.
Natural resources that are used up more quickly than they

can be replaced by natural processes are nonrenewable
resources. Earths supply of nonrenewable resources is
limited. For example, plastics and gasoline are made from a
nonrenewable resource called petroleum, or oil. Petroleum is
formed mostly from the remains of microscopic marine
organisms buried in Earths crust. Petroleum is nonrenewable
because it takes hundreds of millions of years for it to
form.
Fossil Fuels
Coal, oil, and natural gas are nonrenewable resources that
supply energy. Most of the energy you use comes from these
fossil fuels, as you can see in the figure below. Fossil fuels
are fuels formed in Earths crust over hundreds of millions
of years. Cars are powered by gasoline, which is made from
oil. Many power plants use coal to produce electricity.
Natural gas is used for heating and cooking.
2.
Identify On the circle

graph, outline the sections
that represent fossil fuels.
On the line below, write the
percentage of U.S. energy
that comes from sources
other than fossil fuels.
Sources of Energy in the United States

Nuclear power
Renewable energy
8%
8%
Oil
Natural
39%
gas
23% Coal
22%
Why should fossil fuels be conserved?
B Explain Make a two-tab

shown below. Make notes about
the effects of fossil fuels and
alternatives to fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels
308
Alternatives
to
fossil fuels
People all over the world use fossil fuels every day. Earths
supply of these fuels is limited. In the future, fossil fuels
may become more expensive and harder to get.
The use of fossil fuels can cause environmental problems.
Layers of soil and rock are often stripped away when mining
for coal. This destroys ecosystems. Another problem with
fossil fuels is that they have to be burned to release energy.
The burning results in waste gases that cause air pollution.
Two forms of air pollution are smog and acid rain. To reduce
the problems caused by fossil fuels, many people suggest
using fossil fuels less and finding other sources of energy.
Picture This
Reducing the Use of Fossil Fuels You can turn off the
television when you are not watching it. This will reduce the
use of electricity. You can ride in a car pool or use public
transportation to reduce the use of gasoline. Walking or
riding a bicycle also can reduce the use of fossil fuels.
Alternatives to Fossil Fuels

Another way of reducing the use of fossil fuels is to find
other sources of energy. Power plants use fossil fuels to
power the turbines that produce electricity. Alternative
energy sources such as water, wind, and nuclear energy can
be used instead of the fossil fuels to turn the turbines.
Another alternative is solar cells that use only sunlight to
produce electricity.
How can water generate electricity?

Water is a renewable resource that can be used to produce
electricity. Hydroelectric power is electricity that is made
when the energy of falling water is used to turn the turbines
of an electric generator. Hydroelectric power does not burn
fuel, so it does not cause air pollution. However, this type of
power can cause environmental problems. To build a
hydroelectric plant, usually a dam needs to be constructed
across a river. The dam raises the water level to produce the
energy that is needed to make electricity. Many acres of land
behind the dam are flooded, destroying land habitats and
turning part of the river into a lake.
3.
Identify one advantage

and one disadvantage of
hydroelectric power.
How can wind be used to produce energy?

Wind power is another renewable energy source that can
be used to make electricity. Wind turns the blades of a
turbine, which powers an electric generator. Wind power
does not cause air pollution. However, electricity can be
produced only when the wind is blowing.
Where does geothermal energy come from?

The hot, molten rock that lies beneath Earths surface is
another energy source. You can see the effects of this energy
when a volcano erupts. Geothermal energy is the heat energy
contained in Earths crust. Geothermal power plants use this
energy to produce steam to produce electricity. Geothermal
energy is available only where there are natural geysers or
volcanoes. Iceland, an island nation, was formed by volcanoes.
Geothermal energy supplies most of Icelands power.
4.
Explain the source of

geothermal energy.
Reading Essentials
309
What is nuclear power?

Another alternative to fossil fuels is nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy is released when billions of atomic nuclei
from uranium, a radioactive element, are split apart in a
nuclear fission reaction as shown below. This energy is used
to make the steam that turns the turbines of an electric
generator.
Nuclear power does not cause air pollution, but it does
cause other problems. Mining uranium can harm ecosystems.
Nuclear power plants produce radioactive wastes that can
harm living organisms. Disposing of these wastes can be a
problem. Accidents also are a danger.
5.
Describe Use the gure

to explain to a partner how
heat is produced from
uranium.
Uranium atom
Radiation
The collision splits the

atom, releasing more
neutrons, which collide
with other atoms.
This produces heat.
A fast-moving
neutron from the
nucleus of a
uranium atom
crashes into
another atom.
Neutron
What is solar energy?

Solar energy is another alternative to fossil fuels. Solar
energy comes from the Sun. It is an inexhaustible source of
energyit cannot be used up. One use of solar energy is to
heat buildings. During winter in the northern hemisphere, the
parts of a building that face south receive the most sunlight.
Large windows on the south side of the building let in
warm sunshine during the day. The floors and walls of
solar-heated buildings are made of materials that absorb
heat during the day. At night, the heat is slowly released,
keeping the building warm.
6.
Determine What do PV
cells use to produce
electricity?
310
What are solar cells?

A solar-powered calculator uses photovoltaic (foh toh
vohl TAY ihk) cells to turn sunlight into electric current.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, also known as solar cells, are small
and easy to use. But they can produce electricity only in
sunlight. Batteries are needed to store electricity for use at
night or on cloudy days. PV cells are considered too
expensive to use to make large amounts of electricity.
Picture This
After You Read

Mini Glossary
fossil fuel: fuel formed in Earths crust over hundreds of
millions of years
geothermal energy: heat energy within Earths crust that is
available only where geysers and volcanoes are found
hydroelectric power: electricity produced when the energy
of falling water turns the blades of a turbine that
generates electricity
natural resource: part of the environment that is useful or
necessary for the survival of living organisms
nonrenewable resource: natural resource that is used up

more quickly than it can be replaced by natural processes
nuclear energy: energy released when billions of uranium
nuclei are split apart in a nuclear ssion reaction
petroleum: nonrenewable resource formed from the remains
of microscopic marine organisms buried in Earths crust
renewable resource: natural resource that is recycled or
replaced constantly by nature
explains the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources.
2. Complete the chart below to compare the advantages and disadvantages of using each of
the following forms of energy.
Energy Source
Advantages
Disadvantages
fossil fuels
hydroelectric power
wind power
nuclear power
geothermal power
solar power

resources.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
311
19
3
2
section
Pollution
What Youll Learn
the types of air pollution

the causes of water
pollution
how erosion can be
prevented
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards to help

you learn more about the
section. Write a quiz question
for each paragraph on one side
of the ash card and the answer
on the other side. Keep quizzing
yourself until you know all of
the answers.
Before You Read

What do you think are the major causes of pollution in
your community?
Read to Learn
Keeping the Environment Healthy
More than six billion people live on Earth. This puts a
strain on the environment. You can help protect the
environment by paying attention to how your use of natural
resources affects air, water, and land.
Air Pollution
C Describe Make a trifold

shown below. Use the Foldable
to describe the three types of
pollution.
Air pollution
Water pollution
Soil loss and pollution
312
On a still, sunny day in most large cities, you might see a

dark haze in the air. The haze comes from pollutants that form
when wood or fuels are burned. A pollutant is a substance that
contaminates the environment. Air pollution is likely wherever
there are cars, airplanes, factories, homes, and power plants.
Volcanic eruptions and forest fires also can cause air pollution.
What is smog?
Smog is a form of pollution that is created when sunlight
reacts with pollutants produced by burning fuels. Smog can
irritate the eyes and make it difficult for people who have
lung diseases to breathe. Smog can be reduced if more
people take buses or trains instead of driving. Other
vehicles, such as electric cars, that produce fewer pollutants
also can help reduce smog.
chapter
Acid Precipitation
Water vapor condenses on dust particles in the air to
form droplets. The droplets create clouds. Eventually, the
droplets become large enough to fall as precipitationmist,
rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Air pollutants from the burning of
fossil fuels can react with water in the atmosphere to form
strong acids. Acidity is measured by a value called pH. Acid
precipitation has a pH below 5.6, as shown in the figure
below.
1.
Explain the causes of acid

precipitation.
Acid rain Pure water

0
14
More acidic
Neutral
More basic
Picture This
What are the effects of acid rain?

Acid precipitation, or acid rain, washes nutrients from the
soil. This can cause trees and plants to die. Acid rain runs
off into lakes and ponds, lowering the pH of the water. If
the water is too acidic, it can kill the algae and microscopic
organisms in the water. This means that fish and other
organisms that depend on them for food also die.
2.
Identify You measure

the pH of rainwater several
times. For each reading
below, use the scale to
determine if it is acid
precipitation. Write Yes or
No beside each
measurement.
pH of 3.2
How can acid rain be prevented?

When factories burn coal, sulfur is released into the air.
Vehicle exhaust contains nitrogen oxide. Sulfur and nitrogen
oxide are the main pollutants that cause acid rain. Using
low-sulfur fuels, such as low-sulfur coal or natural gas, can
reduce acid rain. However, these fuels are more expensive
than high-sulfur coal. Smokestacks that remove sulfur
dioxide before it enters the air can also help reduce acid
rain. Reducing automobile use or using electric cars can
help reduce acid rain caused by nitrogen oxide pollution.
pH of 8.5
pH of 6.0
Greenhouse Effect
When sunlight reaches Earths surface, some of it is
reflected back into space. The rest is trapped by atmospheric
gases. This heat-trapping feature of the atmosphere is the
greenhouse effect. Without it, temperatures on Earth would
probably be too cold to support life.
Reading Essentials
313
What are greenhouse gases?
3.
Describe the trend

shown on this graph.
Parts per million
Picture This
The gases in the atmosphere that trap heat are called

greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the most
important greenhouse gases. CO2 is a normal part of the
atmosphere. It is also a by-product of burning fossil fuels.
Over the past century, more fossil fuels have been burned
than ever before. This is
increasing the percentage of
Carbon Dioxide Levels
CO2 in the atmosphere, as
370
you can see in the graph
360
above. The atmosphere might
be trapping more of the Suns
350
heat, making Earth warmer. A
340
rise in Earths average temper330
ature, possibly caused by an
320
75 80 85 90 95 00
increase in greenhouse gases,
Year
is known as global warming.
Between 1895 and 1995, Earths average temperature
increased 1C. No one is certain whether the rise in
temperature was caused by human activities or is a natural
part of Earths weather cycle.
Global warming might have several effects. It might cause
a change in rainfall patterns, which can affect ecosystems.
The rate of plant growth and the plants that can be grown
in different parts of the world may change. The number of
storms might increase. The polar ice caps might begin to
melt, raising sea levels and flooding coastal areas. Many
people think that the possibility of global warming is a good
reason to reduce the use of fossil fuels.
4.

possible effects of global
warming?
314
Ozone Depletion
Ozone (OH zohn) is a form of oxygen in the atmosphere.
Ozone molecules are made of three oxygen atoms. They are
formed in a chemical reaction between sunlight and oxygen.
The oxygen you breathe has two oxygen atoms in each
molecule.
The ozone layer is found about 20 km above Earths
surface, as shown in the figure at the top of the next page.
The ozone layer in Earths atmosphere absorbs some of the
Suns harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This radiation can
damage living cells.
Is Earths average temperature changing?
CFCs The ozone layer becomes thinner over

each polar region during the spring. This
thinning of the ozone layer is called ozone
depletion. It is caused by pollutant gases,
especially chlorofluorocarbons (klor oh FLOR oh
kar bunz) (CFCs). These gases are sometimes
used in the cooling systems of refrigerators and
air conditioners. When CFCs leak into the air,
they rise in the atmosphere until they reach the
ozone layer. CFCs react chemically with ozone,
breaking apart the ozone molecules.
Why is ozone depletion a problem?
Because of ozone depletion, the amount of UV radiation

that reaches Earth could be increasing. This radiation may
be causing an increase in the number of skin cancer cases in
humans. The ozone layer is important to the survival of life
on Earth. For this reason, many countries and industries
have agreed to stop making and using CFCs.
The ozone that is high in the atmosphere protects life on
Earth. However, ozone that is near Earths surface can be
harmful. Ozone is produced when fossil fuels are burned.
This ozone stays lower in the atmosphere and pollutes the air.
Ozone damages lungs and other tissues of animals and plants.
Mesosphere
Ozone layer
Stratosphere
Troposphere
Earth
Picture This
5.
Identify Add the

approximate height at
which the ozone layer can
be found to the gure.
6.
Explain why carbon
Indoor Air Pollution

Air pollution also can occur indoors. Buildings today are
better insulated to conserve energy. The insulation reduces
the flow of air into and out of a building, so air pollutants
can build up indoors. Burning cigarettes release hazardous
particles and gases into the air. Even people who do not
smoke can be affected by this secondhand cigarette smoke.
For this reason, smoking is not allowed in many buildings.
Other dangerous gases in buildings are released by paints,
carpets, and photocopiers.
What is carbon monoxide?

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous gas. It is produced
when fuels such as charcoal and natural gas are burned. CO
is colorless and odorless, so it is difficult to detect. CO
poisoning can cause illness or even death. Today, fuelburning stoves and heaters have to be designed to prevent
CO from building up indoors. Many buildings today have
alarms that warn of buildups of CO.
monoxide is hard to detect.
Reading Essentials
315
What is radon?
Radon is a naturally occurring, radioactive gas that is
given off by some types of rock and soil. It has no color or
odor. It can seep into basements and lower floors in
buildings. Radon exposure is the second leading cause of
lung cancer in the United States. Radon detectors sound an
alarm if the levels of radon in a building are too high. If
radon is present, increasing a buildings ventilation can
eliminate any damaging effects.
Water Pollution
7.

causes of water pollution?
Pollutants enter water, too. Air pollutants can drift into

water or be washed out of the sky by rain. Wastewater from
factories and sewage-treatment plants is often released into
waterways. Pollution also occurs when people dump litter
and waste into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Some water pollutants can poison fish and other animals.
People who swim in or drink the polluted water can be
harmed. Pesticides used on farms can wash into lakes and
streams. The chemicals can harm the insects that fish eat.
The fish may die from a lack of food.
Another effect of water pollution is algal blooms. Fertilizers and raw sewage contain large amounts of nitrogen. If
they are washed into a lake or pond, they can cause algae to
grow quickly. When the algae die, bacteria decompose them.
The bacteria use up much of the oxygen in the water during
this process. Fish and other organisms can die from a lack
of oxygen in the water.
How is ocean water polluted?

8.
Explain how a polluted

river will eventually affect
an ocean.
Rivers and streams flow into oceans, bringing their

pollutants along. Ocean water can be polluted by the
wastewater from factories and sewage-treatment plants along
the coast. Oil spills also cause pollution. About 4 billion kg
of oil are spilled into ocean waters every year.
How is groundwater polluted?

Groundwater comes from precipitation and runoff that
soaks into the soil. This water moves slowly through layers
of rock called aquifers. If the water comes in contact with
pollutants as it moves through the soil, the aquifer could
become polluted. Polluted groundwater is difficult to clean.
316
What happens when surface water is polluted?
Soil Loss
Most plants need fertile topsoil in order to grow. New
topsoil takes hundreds or thousands of years to form.
Topsoil can be blown away by wind and washed away by
rain. The movement of soil from one place to another is
called erosion (ih ROH zhun). Eroded soil that washes into
a river or stream can block sunlight and slow photosynthesis.
It also can harm fish and other organisms. Erosion happens
naturally, but human activities increase the rate of erosion.
For example, when a farmer plows a field, soil is left bare.
Bare soil is more easily carried away by rain and wind.
Some methods of farming can help reduce soil erosion.
9.
Identify What is erosion?
Soil Pollution
Soil becomes polluted when air pollutants fall to the
ground or when water leaves pollutants behind as it flows
through the soil. Soil also becomes polluted when people
throw litter on the ground or dump trash in landfills.
What happens to solid wastes?

Most of the trash that people throw away every week is
dumped in landfills. Most landfills are designed to seal out
air and water to keep pollutants from seeping into
surrounding soil. However, this also slows normal decay
processes. Food scraps and paper, which usually break down
quickly, can last for many years in landfills. By reducing the
amount of trash that people produce, the need for new
landfills can also be reduced.
What happens to hazardous wastes?

Waste materials that are harmful to human health or
poisonous to living organisms are hazardous wastes.
Pesticides and oil are hazardous wastes. Many household
items such as leftover paint and batteries also are hazardous
wastes. Hazardous wastes should be treated separately
from regular trash to prevent them from polluting the
environment.
10.
Explain why hazardous

wastes should not be
dumped into landlls.
Reading Essentials
317
After You Read

Mini Glossary
acid precipitation: precipitation that has a pH below 5.6
erosion: the movement of soil from one place to another
greenhouse effect: the heat-trapping feature of the atmosphere that keeps Earth warm enough to support life
hazardous waste: waste materials that are harmful to

human health or poisonous to living organisms
ozone depletion: the thinning of the ozone layer
pollutant: a substance that contaminates the environment
and write a sentence explaining how it can harm the environment.
3. How do flash cards help you remember what you have read?
End of
Section
318

pollution.
chapter
19
3
3
section
The Three Rs of Conservation
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
how use of natural

resources can be
reduced
how resources can be
reused
that many materials can
be recycled
In what ways do you and your family help to conserve

natural resources?
Read to Learn
Conservation
Conserving resources can help prevent shortages of natural
resources. It also can slow the growth of landfills and lower
levels of pollution. You can conserve resources in several ways.
The three Rs of conservation are reduce, reuse, and recycle.
Identify Main Ideas

Highlight the main idea of each
paragraph. Then underline the
details that support the main
idea.
Reduce
You help conserve natural resources when you reduce
your use of them. For example, you use less fossil fuel when
you walk instead of ride in a car. You also can reduce your
use of natural resources by buying only the things that you
need. You can buy products that use less packaging or that
use packaging made from recycled materials.
Reuse
Another way to conserve natural resources is to use items
more than once. Reusing an item means that it can be used
again without changing it or reprocessing it. Bring reusable
canvas bags to the grocery store to carry home your
purchases. Donate outgrown clothes to charity so that
others can reuse them.
D Describe Make a layeredlook Foldable using notebook

paper, as shown below. Make
notes describing the three Rs of
conservation.
The Three Rs of
Conservation
Reduce
Reuse
Recycle
Reading Essentials
319
Recycle
If you cannot avoid using an item, and if you cannot reuse
it, then you may be able to recycle it. Recycling is a form of
reuse that requires changing or reprocessing an item or
natural resource. Many communities have a curbside recycling
program. Items that can be recycled include glass, paper,
and plastics. The figure below shows the rates at which
some household items are recycled in the United States.
Picture This
1.
Identify Circle the

products on the chart that
show increasing recycling
rates. Place an X through
products that show
declining recycling rates.
Percent
Recycling Rates of Key Household Items

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990
Aluminum
cans
Yard
waste
Old
newsprint
Steel
cans
1995
2000
Plastic soda Glass

bottles containers
Source: U.S. EPA, 2003
E Identify Make a folded

table using notebook paper, as
shown below. For each material
listed in the rst column, identify
a recycled product that is made
from it. Write the product in the
second column.
Material
Recycled
Products
plastic
metals
glass
paper
compost
320
Plastic is more difficult to recycle than other items

because there are several types of plastic. Every plastic
container is marked with a code that tells the type of plastic
it is made of. Plastic soft-drink bottles are the type of plastic
easiest to recycle. Some types of plastics cannot be recycled
at all because they are made of a mixture of different
plastics. Before plastic can be recycled, it has to be separated
carefully. One piece of a different type of plastic can ruin an
entire batch.
How are metals recycled?

About one quarter of steel used in cans, appliances, and
automobiles is recycled steel. Using recycled steel saves iron
ore and coal, the resources needed to make steel. Metals
such as iron, copper, and aluminum also can be recycled.
You can conserve metals by recycling food cans, which are
mostly steel, and aluminum cans. It takes less energy to
make a can from recycled aluminum than from raw
materials. Also, a can that is recycled is not taking up space
in landfills.
What makes plastic difficult to recycle?
How is glass recycled?

Glass bottles and jars can be sterilized and then reused.
They also can be melted and made into new bottles. Glass
can be recycled again and again. Most glass bottles today
already contain at least 25 percent recycled glass. Recycling
glass saves the mineral resources needed to make glass.
Recycling glass requires less energy than making new glass.
What are some uses of recycled paper?

Used paper can be recycled to make paper towels,
newsprint, and cardboard. Ranchers and farmers sometimes
use shredded paper instead of straw for bedding in barns
and stables. Used paper can be made into compost.
Recycling one metric ton of paper saves 17 trees. It also
saves water, oil, and electric energy. You can help by
recycling newspapers, notebook paper, and junk mail.
Why is composting useful?
When grass clippings, leaves, and fruit and vegetable scraps

are dumped in landfills, they stay there for many years
without breaking down. Instead, these items can be turned
into compost, which can help to enrich the soil. Many
communities distribute compost bins to encourage residents
to recycle fruit and vegetable scraps and yard waste.
2.
Explain In addition to
trees, what resources are
saved when paper is
recycled?
How are recycled materials used?

Many people have learned to recycle. As a result, many
recyclable materials are piling up just waiting to be put to
use. When you shop, check labels and buy products that
contain recycled materials. Buying products made of
recycled material will reduce the backlog of recyclable
material.
Reading Essentials
321
After You Read

Mini Glossary
recycling: a form of reuse that requires changing or
reprocessing an item or natural resource
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence explaining how
you can participate in recycling.
Three Rs of
Conservation
End of
Section
322

the three Rs of conservation.
2. Use the web diagram below to explain the three Rs of conservation. In the ovals, identify
the three Rs and include an example of each.
636_p01-10_MSS05_RE 6/9/04 1:46 PM Page 1 impos06 301:goscanc:Reading Essentials - PS:layouts:
chapter
20
3
1
section
Physical and Chemical Properties
Before You Read

How would you describe what someone looks like to a friend?
Read to Learn
Physical Properties
How would you describe a bike to your friends? Maybe
you will tell them that it is blue with a black seat. Maybe
you will tell them that it is a mountain bike with knobby
tires. The color and type of the bike and the tires are
characteristics, or physical properties. A physical property is
a characteristic that you can observe without changing or
trying to change the substance. How an object looks, smells,
sounds, or tastes are examples of physical properties. You
can describe matter by its physical properties.
What Youll Learn
about physical and

chemical properties of
matter
how to describe objects
based on physical
properties
Study Coach
Create a Quiz As you read,

write quiz questions about the
main ideas and vocabulary
terms. When you nish reading,
answer your quiz questions. If
you miss any answers, nd the
correct answer in the section.
How can your senses help describe matter?

Some physical properties describe what matter looks like.
You can use your senses of sight, smell, or taste to describe
matter. For example, you can see the color and shape of an
object. You also can touch objects and describe what they
feel like. You can smell odors and taste flavors of some
objects. (You should never taste anything in the laboratory.)
How can matter be described by state?

When you describe matter, you need to describe its state, or
form. Is it a solid, a liquid, or a gas? This property is known
as state of matter. Your chair, book, and pen are examples of
matter in the solid state. Milk, gasoline, and vegetable oil are
examples of matter in the liquid state. Helium in a balloon
or the air you breathe are matter in the gas state.
A Classify
Make the
following folded table to help
you list the physical and
chemical properties of different
kinds of matter.
Matter
Physical Chemical
Properties Properties
Reading Essentials
323
Can matter exist in all three states?

Water is one substance that youve probably seen or felt in
all three states. You drink or swim in liquid water. You
might put solid water, or ice, in your soft drink. You might
even skate on solid water in the winter. Water in the gas
state is in the air you breathe.
What properties depend on size?

1.
Identify Name two

properties that depend
on size.
Volume Suppose you need to know the volume, or the

amount of space inside a box. To find the volume, you
multiply its width, height, and depth measurements. Volume
is a physical property that depends on size.
Mass and Weight Mass is another physical property that
depends on size. Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
A bowling ball has more mass than a basketball. Weight
depends on the mass of the object, but it also depends on
gravity. On other planets your weight would be different,
but not your size or your mass.
Density Some physical properties, such as density, do not

depend on size. Density is the amount of mass in a given
volume. To find the density of an object, divide the objects
mass by its volume. Water in a drinking glass has the same
density as water in a bathtub. If either the mass or the
volume of an object changes, the density also changes.
2.
Explain The boiling

point of water in a tea kettle
is the same as the boiling
point in a 20 qt soup pot.
Why?
324
Melting and Boiling Point Melting and boiling point also

do not depend on size. Melting point is the temperature at
which a solid changes into a liquid. Boiling point is the
temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas.
Solubility Another property that does not depend on size is
solubility (sahl yuh BIH luh tee). Solubility is the number of
grams (g) of one substance that will dissolve in 100 g of
another substance at a given temperature. For example, the
number of grams of sugar that dissolves in 100 g of water
does not change if the water is in a large pitcher or poured
into a drinking glass.
The table on the next page shows the physical properties
of several substances.
What properties do not depend on size?
Picture This
Physical Properties of Several Substances
3.
lity in
water
0 mL)
Substance
List the different physical

properties shown in the
table.
Ammonia
Bromine
Calcium carbo
014
Iodine
29
Potassium hyd
Sodium chlorid
Water
What are magnetic properties?
Some matter can be described by the way it behaves. For

example, some materials pull iron toward them. These are
called magnetic. Lodestone is a rock that is magnetic. Other
materials can be made into magnets like the magnets on
your refrigerator. The table below shows which properties
depend on size and which do not.
Picture This
Properties of Matter
4.
physical properties depend

on size or not depend on
size?
Physical Properties
Depends
on size
Does not
depend
Compare Do more
volume, mass, weight

sity, melting/boiling point, solubility,
ty to attract a magnet, state of matter, color
Chemical Properties
A chemical property is a characteristic that you cannot
observe without changing a substance. Imagine that you
didnt know what a match was. Could you tell just by looking
at it that it would burn? The ability to burn is a chemical
property. After a match burns, the match is permanently
changed.
5.
Identify What is an
example of a chemical
property?
Reading Essentials
325
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chemical property: characteristic that cannot be observed
without changing a substance
physical property: characteristic that can be observed

without changing or trying to change the substance
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain in your own words
the difference between chemical properties and physical properties.
2. Fill in the Venn diagram below to compare and contrast physical and chemical
properties. Include examples of each type of property.
Ways to
Describe Objects
Physical
Properties
Chemical
Properties
Denition
Examples
Example
3. At the beginning of the section, you were asked to make a quiz about the main ideas and
vocabulary terms. How did you decide what the main ideas were?
End of
Section
326

physical and chemical properties.
Denition
chapter
20
3
2
section
Physical and Chemical Changes
Before You Read

A fast-growing tree can grow in height at a rate of one-half
meter per year. Is it still the same tree at the end of two
years? Explain.
Read to Learn
Physical Changes
What happens when an artist changes a lump of clay into
a pot? Does what is in the clay change? No, what is in the
clay does not change. Only the way the clay looks changes.
The shape of the clay changes from a lump of clay to a pot
that can be used. This kind of change is a physical change.
A physical change is a change in the way an object looks, but
not in what the object is made of.
For example, a frozen pond in winter looks totally
different than the pond in the summer. The water changes
state from a solid (ice) to a liquid (water) because of the
temperature. However, the water molecules are still made of
the same elementshydrogen and oxygen.
How is changing shape a physical change?

Have you ever crumpled a piece of paper into a ball? If
so, you caused a physical change. The crumpled ball is still
the same piece of paper. When you cut a banana, the fruit is
still a banana. You change only its form. When you cut, tear,
grind, or bend matter, you cause a physical change.
What Youll Learn
to compare physical
and chemical changes
examples of physical
and chemical changes
Underline Main Ideas

Underline the main ideas of
physical and chemical changes
as you read about them. Then
highlight an example of each
kind of physical and chemical
change.
B Compare and Contrast

show how physical changes and
chemical changes are similar
and different.
ical
Phys s
ge
Chan
Chem
ic
Chan al
ges
Reading Essentials
327
How is dissolving a physical change?

What happens when you add sugar to iced tea? Does the
sugar disappear? It may seem to disappear. But, if you taste
the tea, it is sweet. The sugar dissolves in the tea. The particles
of sugar spread out in the tea. The form of the sugar
changes, but the make-up of the sugar stays the same. So,
dissolving is a physical change.
1.
Infer When you take a hot

shower, water droplets may
appear on the bathroom
mirror. What is this an
example of?
Picture This
2.
Explain Look at the

gure. Tell what two
processes happen when a
solid changes rst to a
liquid and then to a gas.
Matter can change from one state to another. Solid ice

that melts is still water. Liquid water can freeze into ice.
Both are made up of water molecules. So, changes in state
are physical changes.
A liquid also can change to a gas. A change from a liquid
to a gas is vaporization (vay pruh ZAY shun). Water
vaporizes when it boils and turns into steam. When a gas
changes into a liquid it is called condensation (kahn den
SAY shun). What happens to a glass of ice water if it sits at
room temperature? Water forms on the outside of the glass.
This is an example of condensation.
Sublimation (sub luh MAY shun) is a change directly from
a solid to a gas without becoming a liquid first. Dry ice
sublimates. When dry ice melts, it turns into carbon dioxide
gas. You may have seen smoke made from dry ice while
watching a play. Deposition (de puh ZIH shun) is a process
in which a gas changes directly to a solid without becoming
a liquid first. Frost that forms on the ground on a cold,
humid night is an example of deposition. The figure shows
these changes in state.
Sublimation
Solid
Melting
Freezing
Vaporization
Condensation
Liquid
Gas
Deposition
Chemical Changes
3.
Identify What happens

in a chemical change?
328
Do you enjoy fireworks? The explosions and colors are

examples of chemical changes. In a chemical change,
substances are changed into different substances. This means
the makeup of the substance changes. When fireworks
explode, compounds change into different compounds.
How is changing state a physical change?
Have you ever seen a bike that was left out in the rain?
What happened to the bike? You may have noticed that steel
objects can rust after a while. This happens when oxygen
and water in the air react with the iron in steel. The iron
and oxygen atoms combine to form a reddish, powdery
substance that we call rust. So, rusting is an example of a
chemical change.
Signs of Chemical Changes
Physical changes are usually easy to spot. You can see

when something changes shape or state. But, how do you
know when chemical changes happen? You have probably
seen chemical changes beforeyou just did not know it.
Have you seen the leaves on trees change color in the fall?
If so, you have seen a chemical change. The change in the
color of the leaves is not caused by a green pigment changing
into a red pigment. A pigment is a chemical that makes
things certain colors. Paints have pigments in them.
In summer, trees make a green pigment called chlorophyll
(KLOHR uh fihl). This makes the leaves green. Where do the
bright fall colors come from? In fall, trees stop making
chlorophyll. The chlorophyll already in the leaves changes into
colorless chemicals. Then, we can see the yellow, red, and
orange pigments that have been in the leaves all along.
4.
Explain What is the

green pigment in leaves?
How is color a sign of a chemical change?

Have you ever seen an apple slice turn brown? A chemical
change occurs when an apple reacts with oxygen in the air.
The chemical change makes the apple turn brown. Heat also
causes chemical changes in food. Bread turns brown as it
cooks because a chemical change occurs.
How is energy a sign of chemical change?

Many substances must absorb energy to have a chemical
change. For example, what do you add to pancake batter to
make it turn into a pancake? Energy in the form of heat is
added. The energy is absorbed by the runny pancake batter
as it undergoes a chemical change. A solid pancake is the
result. Many chemical changes require heat.
A release of energy is another sign of a chemical change.
Fireworks release energy in the form of light when they
undergo a chemical change. Fossil fuels release energy in
the form of heat and light when they burnanother
chemical change.
5.
Apply Name another

example of how color is a
sign of chemical change in
food.
Reading Essentials
329
How is odor a sign of chemical change?
6.
Explain What is a sign of

a chemical change in food?
Have you ever opened a container that has been in the

refrigerator too long? Did the food inside smell bad? The
bad smell is a sign that the food has spoiled. When foods
spoil, they undergo a chemical change. Odor is a sign of
chemical change. This sign can save lives. A bad odor is a
sign that you should not eat the food.
How are the formation of gases or solids a

sign of chemical change?
You can see bubbles if you pour vinegar on baking soda.
The bubbles in the vinegar are a gas. The gas formed in a
chemical reaction. Gas formation is a sign of chemical change.
Sometimes, when you mix two liquids, a solid forms. This
solid is called a precipitate (prih SIH puh tut). When a
precipitate forms, it is a sign of a chemical change.
Can physical and chemical changes

be reversed?
Check Understanding
Which process cannot be
reversed, a physical change
or a chemical change?
Physical Versus Chemical Change
Picture This
8.
Use Scientific
Explanations Give
another example of a
substance undergoing a
physical change and a
chemical change.
330
Here are the important things to remember about physical

and chemical changes. In a physical change, the makeup of
the substance does not change. However, the substance does
change form. In a chemical change, the makeup of the
substance changes and the substance changes form.
The table below shows some examples of physical and
chemical changes.
Examples of Physical and Chemical Changes

Substance
Apple
Egg
Copper
Wood
Physical Change
Being cut into pieces
Mixing together egg white and yolk
Being pounded and bent
Being cut into lumber
Chemical Change
Cut surfaces turning brown
Spoiling and giving off an odor
Green patina forming
Burning
7.
Ice can melt and become water, then freeze again to

become ice. Melting and freezing are physical changes.
Substances made by chemical changes cannot be changed
back to their original substances. When a log burns, the
gases and ash that form cannot be changed back into a log.
Pancakes cannot be turned back into batter.
Physical Changes To make the Statue of Liberty, copper

sheets were bent and pounded into shape. Trees are cut into
lumber. The lumber may be used to build chairs. These are
physical changes.
9.
Chemical Changes When the Statue of Liberty was new, it

was bright and shiny. Over time, the copper reacted with air
to form a green coating called patina. This is a chemical
change, similar to the rusting of iron. Wood can be burned to
form gases and ash. Burning wood is also a chemical change.
Explain If the patina

were cleaned off of the
Statue of Liberty, would it
be a physical change or a
chemical change?
Conservation of Mass
In a chemical change, the makeup, or the composition, of
the matter changes. Particles in the matter rearrange and
new substances are created. When wood burns, the particles
of the wood rearrange and turn into gases and ash. The
particles are not created or destroyed. A scientific law has
been written to explain the fact that particles are not
destroyed. The law of conservation of mass states that the
total mass of matter is the same before and after physical or
chemical changes. So, matter cannot be created or destroyed.
A scientist, Antoine Lavoisier (AN twan luh VWAH see
ay), proved the law of conservation of mass in the 1700s.
This law can sometimes be difficult to understand. When a
candle burns, some of it seems to disappear. Lavoisier realized
that the mass of a candle doesnt disappear. The mass
changes form into the gases given off when the candle burns.
Applying Math
10.
Apply A log with a mass

of 2 kg is burned. What is
the mass of the gases and
ash that are produced when
the log burns?
How are physical processes used in recycling?

Recycling is a way to separate used items into their different
parts. Then you can reuse the parts. Recycling involves
physical and sometimes chemical changes. Rubber tires can
be shredded and added to asphalt pavement and playground
surfaces. Glass bottles can be smashed and used in asphalt
pavement, new containers, and even artwork. Some plastics
can be melted and formed into new products. Recycling
objects helps keep our landfills from getting too full.
Reading Essentials
331
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chemical change: a change that happens when substances
are changed into different substances
condensation: a change from a gas into a liquid
deposition: process by which a gas changes directly to a
solid without becoming a liquid rst.
law of conservation of mass: the total mass of matter is
the same before and after physical or chemical changes
physical change: a change in the way an object looks, but

not in what the object is made of
sublimation: a change directly from a solid to a gas without
becoming a liquid rst
vaporization: a change from a liquid to a gas
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. On a sunny winter day, ice
and snow sometimes seems to disappear. What term describes this change in state?
Explain the term in a sentence.
2. Write physical change or chemical change in the blank after each example to tell what
kind of change each example is.
a. Spoiled food ______________________________
c. Making wood into furniture ______________________________

d. Fireworks exploding ______________________________
e. Nails rusting ______________________________
f. Bending metal sheets ______________________________
3. You were asked to underline ideas about physical and chemical changes and then highlight an example of each kind of change. Did this strategy help you learn about physical
and chemical changes? Why or why not?
End of
Section
332

physical and chemical changes.
b. Sublimation ______________________________
chapter
21
3
Substances, Mixtures,
and Solubility
1
section
What is a solution?
Before You Read

Do you add sugar to your tea? How do you know that the
white substance will make your drink sweeter?
What Youll Learn
the differences
between substances
and mixtures
two types of mixtures
how solutions form
different types of
solutions
Read to Learn
Underline As you read,
Substances
Water, salt water, and pulpy orange juice are different
liquids. Their differences can be explained by chemistry. Think
about pure water. If you freeze it, melt it, or boil it, it is still
water. But, if you boil salt water, the water turns to gas and
leaves the salt behind. If you strain pulpy orange juice, it loses
its pulp. How does chemistry explain these differences? The
answer has to do with the chemical makeup of these materials.
underline words and sentences

that you think are important to
remember. After you read,
review what you have
underlined.
What are atoms, substances, and elements?

Atoms Recall that atoms are the basic building block of
matter. Each atom has its own chemical and physical
properties. These properties are determined by the number
of protons the atom has.
Substances A substance is matter that has the same fixed
makeup and properties throughout. A substance cannot be
broken down into simpler parts by a physical process. For
example, you can freeze, boil, stir, and filter water, but it is
still water. The only way to change a substance is by a
chemical process. The table on the next page shows some
examples of physical processes and chemical processes.
A Classify
Use quartersheets of paper to help you

organize denitions and
examples of substances and
mixtures.
Substance
Mixture
Heterogeneous
Mixture
Homogeneous
Mixture
Reading Essentials
333
Picture This
1.
Explain How do physical

processes differ from
chemical processes?
Examples of Physical and Chemical Processes

Physical Processes
(do not change substances)
Boiling
Changing pressure
Cooling
Sorting
Chemical Processes
(do change substances)
Burning
Reacting with other chemicals
Reacting with light
Elements An element is an example of a pure substance.

An element cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
The number of protons in an element cannot change unless
the element changes.
What are compounds?
Classify Why is water a

compound and not an
element?
Mixtures
Imagine drinking a glass of salt water. You would know
right away that it is not pure water. Salt water is not a pure
substance. It is a mixture of salt and water. Mixtures are made
when two or more substances come together but do not
chemically bond together to make a new substance. The substances can be separated by physical processes. For example,
you can boil salt water to separate the salt from the water.
Mixtures do not contain an exact amount of each substance like a compound. Lemonade can be weak tasting or
strong tasting. It depends on how much lemon juice is
added to the water. It also can be sweet or sour, depending
on how much sugar is added. No matter how strong, weak,
sweet, or sour, it is still lemonade.
What are heterogeneous mixtures?

Some mixtures are easy to see. A watermelon is a mixture
of fruit and seeds. But, the fruit and seeds arent mixed
evenly. A heterogeneous (he tuh ruh JEE nee us) mixture is
a mixture where the substances are not mixed evenly. The
substances in heterogeneous mixtures are usually easy to tell
apart. A bowl of cereal with milk is another example of a
heterogeneous mixture.
334
Substances, Mixtures, and Solubility
2.
Water is a compound. A compound is a substance made

of two or more elements that are chemically combined. The
makeup of a compound is always the same. For example, a
water molecule always has two hydrogen atoms combined
with one oxygen atom. All water, whether frozen, liquid, or
vapor, has the same ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms.
What are homogeneous mixtures?

When you mix sugar and water together you dont see the
sugar particles floating in the water. Sugar water is a
homogeneous (ho muh JEE nee us) mixture. A homogeneous
mixture has two or more substances in which the molecules
mix evenly but do not bond together. Another name for a
homogeneous mixture is a solution. The figure shows the
mixture of sugar and water molecules in a solution of sugar
water.
Picture This
Sugar
Water
3.
Describe Look at the

gure. How would you
describe the sugar and
water molecules in a
solution of sugar water?
Circle the answer.
a.
b.
c.
d.
How Solutions Form
not mixed evenly

combined
mixed evenly
compounded
When you mix sugar and water together, you cant see the
sugar particles in the water. The sugar doesnt actually
disappear. The sugar molecules spread out until they are
evenly spaced throughout the water molecules, forming a
solution. This is called dissolving. The substance in a
solution that dissolves, or seems to disappear, is called the
solute. The substance that dissolves the solute in a solution
is the solvent. In the sugar water solution, the sugar is the
solute and water is the solvent.
How can solids form from solutions?

Sometimes, a solute can come back out of a solution and
form a solid. This process is called crystallization.
Crystallization Crystallization happens because of a physical
change. For example, crystallization can happen when a
solution is cooled. Crystallization also can happen when
some of the solvent evaporates. A stalactite, or hanging rock,
in a cave is an example of crystallization. Minerals dissolve
in water as it flows through rocks. When the solution drips
from the ceiling of the cave, some of the water evaporates.
The minerals in the solution crystallize to form the
stalactite.
4.
Apply Minerals dissolve

in water as it ows through
rocks at the top of the cave.
In this solution, what is the
solute and what is the
solvent?
Reading Essentials
335
Precipitate Formation When some solutions are mixed, a

chemical change happens and a solid forms. A solid that
forms when solutions are mixed and a chemical change
happens is a precipitate (prih SIH puh tut). Precipitate
formation is different from crystallization because a chemical
change takes place. A precipitate can form in a shower.
Minerals that are dissolved in water can react chemically
with soap. This chemical reaction forms a precipitate called
soap scum.
Types of Solutions
Not all solutions are solid solutes dissolved in liquid
solvents. Solutions can be made up of combinations of
solids, liquids, and gases. See the examples in the table.
Picture This
Examples of Common Solutions
Interpret Data Name

two solutions that have
carbon dioxide as one of
the solutes.
Solution
Solute
State
of
ion
Earths
atmospher
gas
ioxide
as
Carbonated
beverage
ioxide
Brass
Liquid Solutions
Sugar water and salt water are examples of solutions with
liquid solvents and solid solutes. The solute in a solution
can be a solid, another liquid, or even a gas. The state of the
solution will usually be the same as the state of the solvent.
For example, sugar is a solid and water is a liquid. When
sugar and water are mixed together to form a solution, the
solution is a liquid, not a solid.
6.
Explain What does the

state of a solution usually
depend on?
336
What are liquid-gas and liquid-liquid solutions?

Liquid-Gas Carbonated drinks are examples of solutions
with liquid solvents and gas solutes. The gas solute is carbon
dioxide. Water is the liquid solvent. Carbon dioxide gives the
drinks their fizz.
5.
Liquid-Liquid Vinegar is an example of a liquid-liquid

solution. Water is the liquid solvent and acetic acid is the
liquid solute. In vinegar, only 5 percent of the solution is
acetic acid. Water makes up 95 percent of the solution.
Gaseous and Solid Solutions

Gas Solutions Sometimes, a small amount of one gas is
dissolved in a larger amount of another gas. This is a
gaseous solution, also called a gas-gas solution. The air you
breathe is a gaseous solution. About 78 percent of air is
nitrogen, which is the solvent. About 20 percent of air is
oxygen, which is one of the solutes. Other solutes in air are
carbon dioxide, argon, and some other gases in small
amounts.
Solid Solutions There are also solid solutions. In a solid

solution, the solvent is solid. The solute can be a solid,
liquid, or gas. The most common solid solutions are solidsolid solutions. Both the solvent and solute are solids. Steel is
a solution of carbon dissolved in iron. A solid-solid solution
made from two or more metals is called an alloy. Brass is an
alloy of zinc dissolved in copper. The figure shows what
microscopic views of steel and brass might look like.
Iron atoms
Copper atoms
Carbon atoms
Zinc atoms
7.
Identify What states can

the solutes be in a solid
solution?
Applying Math
8.
Interpret a Scientific
Illustration Look at the
sample of brass in the
gure. What is the ratio of
copper atoms to the total
number of atoms?
Steel
Brass
Reading Essentials
337
After You Read

Mini Glossary
heterogeneous mixture: a mixture where the substances
are not mixed evenly
homogeneous mixture: a mixture that has two or more
substances in which the molecules mix evenly, but do
not bond together
precipitate: a solid that forms when solutions are mixed and
a chemical change happens
solute: the substance in a solution that dissolves, or seems to

disappear
solution: another name for a homogeneous mixture
solvent: the substance that dissolves the solute in a solution
substance: matter that has the same xed makeup and
properties throughout
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence using at
least one glossary term to describe the mixture of vegetables in a salad.
2. Fill in the graphic organizer with important facts about mixtures and solutions
Mixtures
Heterogeneous
Example:
Homogeneous
Description:
Example:
Solutions
Description:
3. As you read this section, you underlined words and sentences that you thought were
important. How did you decide what to underline?
End of
Section
338

weathering.
Description:
chapter
21
3
and Solubility
2
section
Solubility
Before You Read

What happens when you put one teaspoon of sugar in a
glass of water? What would happen if you put one cup of
sugar in a glass of water?
Read to Learn
WaterThe Universal Solvent

Water is a solvent for many solutions, including fruit juice
and vinegar. A solution in which water is the solvent is
called an aqueous (A kwee us) solution. Water dissolves
things so well it is often called the universal solvent.
What Youll Learn
why water is a good

solvent
how much of a solute
will dissolve in a solvent
how temperature
affects chemical
reactions
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards As you

read, write important questions
on note cards. Write the answer
to each question on the back of
the card. After you read, see if
you can answer your questions
without looking at the answers.
What are molecular compounds?

You know that atoms can join with other atoms to form
compounds. When certain atoms form compounds, they
share electrons. Sharing electrons is called covalent
(co VAY lent) bonding. Compounds that have covalent
bonds are called molecular compounds, or molecules.
Nonpolar Molecules In some molecules, the atoms share
their electrons equally. When the
Hydrogen Molecule
electrons are shared evenly, the
molecule is called nonpolar. Look at
H
H
the hydrogen molecule. A hydrogen
molecule is nonpolar.

show how molecular
compounds and ionic
compounds are alike and
different.
Molecular
Ionic
Compound Compound
Reading Essentials
339
Picture This
1.
Circle the shared

electrons in the gure.
Water Molecule
Polar Molecules The atoms in
(Partial
negative charge)
some molecules do not share their
electrons equally. Look at the water
molecule. Two hydrogen atoms
O
share electrons with one oxygen
atom. But, the electrons spend
more time around the oxygen atom
H
H
than they spend around the hydrogen atom. This makes the oxygen
(Partial positive charge)
part of the water molecule have a
slightly negative charge. The hydrogen parts have a slightly
positive charge. The total charge of the water molecule is
neutral. Molecules that have slightly positive and slightly
negative charges are called polar molecules. The bonds
between its atoms are called polar covalent bonds.
2.
Summarize Write the

correct words to complete
the sentence on the lines
below: Atoms in an ionic
compound ____a.
_____ or
____b.
_____ electrons.
a.
b.
Some atoms do not share electrons when they join to form

compounds. Instead, these atoms lose or gain electrons making the number of protons and electrons in the atom no
longer equal. The atom becomes either positively charged or
negatively charged. Atoms with a charge are called ions. Bonds
between ions are called ionic bonds. The compound that is
formed is called an ionic compound. Table salt is an ionic
compound. It is made of sodium ions and chloride ions. Each
sodium atom loses an electron to a chlorine atom and becomes
positively charged. The chlorine atoms gain the electrons
from the sodium atoms and become negatively charged.
How does water dissolve ionic compounds?
Picture This
3.
Highlight Use a
highlighter to circle the part
of the gure that shows the
dissolved table salt.
340
Remember that a water molecule is

polar. It attracts positive and negative
ions. Look at the figure. When sodium
chloride, or table salt, is added to water,
the sodium (Na) ions and chloride (Cl)
ions are attracted by the water molecules.
The slightly negative end of a water
molecule attracts positive sodium ions
(Na+). The slightly positive end of a
water molecule attracts negative chloride
ions (Cl). When an ionic compound is
mixed with water, the ions are pulled
apart, or dissolved, by the water
molecules.
Water

C I
Na
Sodium
Chloride
Water
C I

Na
What are ionic bonds?
How does water dissolve molecular compounds?

Water does dissolve molecular compounds, like sugar, that
are not made of ions. But, water does not break sugar molecules apart as it does in ionic compounds. Sugar molecules are
polar, like water molecules. Polar water molecules are attracted
to the positive and negative ends of the sugar molecules.
The water molecules move in between sugar molecules and
spread them apart. When this happens, the sugar dissolves.
What will dissolve?

When you put a teaspoon of sugar in iced tea and stir it,
what happens? The sugar dissolves. Why doesnt the spoon
dissolve? A substance that dissolves in another substance is
soluble, or able to be dissolved in that substance. Sugar is
soluble in water. You would say the metal of the spoon is
insoluble in water because it does not dissolve.
What does like dissolves like mean?

Chemists use the phrase like dissolves like to remember
which solvents can dissolve which solutes. Like dissolves
like means polar solvents dissolve polar solutes. Also, nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes. Sugar and water are
both polar, so water dissolves sugar. Why does water dissolve
sodium chloride? Remember, the sodium and chloride ions
have charges like polar molecules. So, water reacts with these
ions in the same way it reacts with other polar molecules.
Have you ever mixed oil and water in a glass? They do
not form a solution. Instead, the two liquids separate and
form layers in the glass. Oil molecules are nonpolar. Polar
water molecules are not attracted to them. So, oil will not
dissolve in water.
4.
Recall What does like

dissolves like mean?
How much will dissolve?

Solubility (sahl yuh BIH luh tee) is the measurement that
describes how much solute dissolves in a given amount of
solvent. Usually, solubility is the amount of solute that can
dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a certain temperature. Some
solutes are highly soluble. This means that a large amount
of solute can be dissolved in 100 g of solvent. For example,
63 g of potassium chromate will dissolve in 100 g of water
at 25C. But, some solutes are not very soluble. Only
0.00025 g of barium sulfate will dissolve in 100 g of water at
25C. This solubility is so low that it is called insoluble.
Use two quarter-sheets of paper

to write information about
solutions and how they dissolve.
What
Dissolves
Dilute vs.
Concentrated
Reading Essentials
341
How does temperature affect solubility?

The solubility of many solutes changes with the
temperature of the solvent. Sugar dissolves faster in hot tea
than it does in iced tea. Also, more sugar can dissolve in hot
tea than in iced tea. The solubility and the rate that sugar
dissolves in water increases as temperature increases.
This is not true of all solutes. The graph shows the
solubility at different temperatures of several solutes in
water. An increase in temperature decreases the solubility of
a gas in a liquid-gas solution. That is why cold sodas fizz
less than warm sodas when you open them.
Applying Math
Interpret Data How
480
440
400
360
Sucrose (sugar)
320
280
240
Sodium chloride
200
160
Potassium chloride
120
80 Calcium carbonate
40
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (C)
What are saturated solutions?
6.
Apply Tell whether this

solution is saturated or
unsaturated: 50 g of sugar
in 100 g of water at 25C.
342
If you add potassium chromate to 100 g of water at 25C,

only 63 g of it will dissolve. A solution that contains all of
the solute that it can hold under the given conditions is
saturated. When a solution has less solute than what is
needed to become saturated, it is called an unsaturated
solution. Look at the graph above. A saturated sugar water
solution would contain about 204 g of sugar in 100 g of
water at 25C. If less sugar is used, the solution is unsaturated.
A hot solvent usually can hold more solute that a cold
solvent. When a saturated solution cools, some of the solute
usually falls out of solution. But, if a saturated solution is
cooled slowly, sometimes the extra solute can stay dissolved.
This is called a supersaturated solution.
many grams of sugar will

dissolve in 100 g of water at
60C?
Solubility (grams per 100 g of water)
5.
Solubility
Rate of Dissolving
A solute dissolves faster when the solution is shaken or
stirred or heated. These actions make the surfaces of the
solute come into contact with the solvent more quickly. You
can do the same thing by breaking up or grinding the solute
into smaller pieces. For example, granules of sugar dissolve
more quickly than sugar cubes. Grinding increases the
surface area of the solute that is exposed to the solvent.
Chemical reactions happen when molecules bump into
each other. At colder temperatures, chemical reactions
happen more slowly. Refrigerators slow the chemical
reactions that cause food to spoil. So, food stays fresh longer
in a refrigerator than at room temperature.
Concentration
The concentration of a solution tells you how much
solute is in a solution compared to the amount of solvent. A
concentrated solution has a lot of solute for a given amount
of solvent. A dilute solution has little solute for a given
amount of solvent.
7.
Infer A metal worker

needs an acid to dissolve
metal. Does she probably
need an acid that is
concentrated or dilute?
8.
Determine What do
How do you measure concentration?

Doctors need to give the exact concentration of medicines
so patients will be treated correctly. One way to give an
exact concentration is to give the percentage of the volume
of the solution that is made of solute. The label of a fruit
juice container might say, contains 10 percent juice. This
means that 10 percent of the container is the solute: juice.
Ninety percent is the solvent: water and other substances
like sugar.
How do solute particles affect solvents?

Solutes often change the freezing and boiling points of
solvents. When liquids freeze, their molecules arrange
themselves in certain ways. Solute particles can change the way
the molecules arrange themselves and lower the freezing point.
When liquids boil, their molecules gain enough energy to
move from the liquid state to the gaseous state. Solute
particles can interfere with the change from liquid to gaseous
state. More energy is needed to make the solvent particles
escape from the liquid. This increases the boiling point.
solutes often change in

solvents?
Reading Essentials
343
After You Read

Mini Glossary
aqueous: a solution in which water is the solvent
concentration: how much solute is in a solution compared
to the amount of solvent
saturated: a solution that contains of all the solute that it

can hold under given conditions
solubility: the measurement that describes how much
solute dissolves in a given amount of solvent
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use two of the terms in one
or two sentences to describe a bottle of orange juice.
2. In the graphic organizer, explain how water dissolves the types of compounds shown.
Water:
The Universal Solvent
Molecular Compounds
3. How could you use lemonade to teach others about the concentrations of solutions?
End of
Section
344

weathering.
Ionic Compounds
chapter
21
3
and Solubility
3
section
Acidic and Basic Solutions
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
about acids, bases, and

their properties
uses of acids and bases
pH of acids and bases
Name some sour foods that you like.
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Outline Make an outline of
Acids
If you like sour foods like dill pickles and lemons, you
like foods that have acids. An acid is a substance that
releases positively charged hydrogen ions (H) in water.
When an acid mixes with water, it dissolves, releasing
hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions then join with water
molecules to form hydronium ions. A hydronium ion is a
positively charged ion that has the formula H3O. The
figure shows how a hydronium ion is made.
H

Hydrogen
ion
H2O
this section as you read. When

you nish reading, look over
your outline to make sure you
understand what you have
written down.
H3O

Water
molecule
Hydronium
ion
What are the properties of acidic solutions?

Sour taste is one property of acidic solutions. Remember,
you should never taste substances in the laboratory. Many
acids can cause severe burns to body tissues. Acidic solutions
also can conduct electricity. Hydronium ions are good
carriers of electric charges in an electric current. This is why
some batteries contain acids.
D Compare and Contrast

show how acids and bases are
alike and different.
Acid
Base
Properties Properties
Reading Essentials
345
Many acids are corrosive. This means they can break

down certain substances. Many acids can corrode fabric,
skin, and paper. Some acids react strongly with metals.
When these acids are put on metal, metal compounds and
hydrogen gas form, leaving holes in the metal.
What are some uses of acids?

Vinegar contains acetic acid. It is used in salad dressings.
Citrus fruits like lemons, limes, and oranges taste sour because
they contain citric acid. Your body needs vitamin C, which is
ascorbic acid. Ants that sting inject formic acid into their
victims. The figure shows products that are made with acids.
Picture This
1.
List the products in the
Sulfuric acid is used to make fertilizers, steel, paints, and

plastics. It is also called battery acid because it is used in
many batteries, such as car batteries. Hydrochloric acid is
also called muriatic acid. It is used to remove impurities
from the surfaces of metals. Hydrochloric acid also can be
used to clean mortar from brick walls. Nitric acid is used to
make fertilizers, dyes, and plastics.
Where are acids found in nature?
2.
Name three acids found

in nature.
346
Caves form because of acids. Carbonic acid is made when

carbon dioxide from soil dissolves in water. The carbonic acid
solution dissolves limestone rock in the ground. Over many
years, enough limestone dissolves to form a cave. Stalactites
and stalagmites, hanging rocks and columns in caves, are also
made when a carbonic acid solution drips from the ceiling of
a cave. As the water evaporates, the solution becomes less
acidic and the limestone comes out of solution.
When fossil fuels burn, many compounds are released into
the air. Some of these compounds form nitric acid and sulfuric acid. These strong acids mix with water vapor and fall back
to Earth as rain, sleet, snow, or fog. The acid rain can corrode
stone statues, damage forests, and make people sick.
gure that you have seen

or used.
Bases
Many window and floor cleaners contain an ammonia
solution. Ammonia contains a base. A base is a substance
that can accept hydrogen ions. When bases dissolve in water,
they release a hydroxide ion (OH). For example, when
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dissolves in water, it separates
into sodium ions (Na+) and hydroxide ions (OH). Ammonia (NH3) is different. When it dissolves in water, it pulls a
hydrogen atom away from water. This leaves a hydroxide
ion. Look at the figure below.
Picture This
3.
Draw and Label Circle

the hydroxide ion in this
reaction.
What are the properties and uses of bases?

Properties Most soaps are bases. How does soap feel? Basic
solutions, like soap, feel slippery. Bases are corrosive like
acids. They can cause burns and damage body tissue. Thats
why you should never touch, smell, or taste a substance to
find out if it is a base or an acid. Bases can conduct electricity like acids. They are not as corrosive to metals as acids.
E Organize Information
Use quarter-sheets of paper to

help you organize and list
information about pH.
Uses Many uses for bases are shown in the figure below.
Bases are used in plastics, soap, ammonia, and other cleaning products. Hydroxide ions can react with dirt and grease
to wash them away. Calcium hydroxide, often called lime, is
used to mark lines on athletic fields. It also can make soil
less acidic. Sodium hydroxide is a base called lye. Lye is a
strong base that can cause burns and other health problems.
It is used to make soap, clean ovens, and unclog drains.
PH
PH scale
Picture This
4.
Circle the base in the

gure that is used in
classrooms every day.
Reading Essentials
347
What is pH?
pH is a way to measure how acidic or basic a solution is.
Perhaps youve seen someone check the pH of a swimming
pool. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Acids have a pH
below 7. Bases have a pH above 7. Solutions with a pH of 7
are called neutral. They are neither acids nor bases. Strong
acids, like hydrochloric acid, have a pH of 0. Strong bases
have a pH of 14.
The pH of a solution depends on its concentration of
hydronium ions (H3O+) and hydroxide ions (OH). Acids
have more hydronium ions than hydroxide ions. Neutral
solutions have equal numbers of each ion. Basic solutions
have more hydroxide ions than hydronium ions.
Applying Math
Calculate Look at the pH
scale. How many times
more acidic is an acid with a
pH of 2 than an acid with a
pH of 5?
How does the pH scale work?

Each pH unit is a change in acidity that is multiple of 10.
The lower the number, the more acidic a solution is. An acid
with a pH of 2 is 10 times stronger than an acid with a pH of
3 and 100 times stronger than an acid with a pH of 4. A base
with a pH of 13 is 10 times stronger than a base with a pH
of 12 and 100 times stronger than a base with a pH of 11.
Vinegar
Hydrochloric
acid
0
Egg white
Gastric contents
Milk
Soft drinks Tomatoes
Baking
soda
8
Blood plasma
Sodium hydroxide
Ammonia
9
10
11
12
13
14
Milk of
magnesia
What makes a strong acid or a strong base?
Picture This
6.
Label In the gure above,

write the labels Acids,
Bases, and Neutral at the
correct places.
348
Some acids give foods a sour taste, and some other acids
are so strong that they can cause burns. Vinegar, or acetic
acid, makes pickles sour, but you can eat pickles because the
acid is weak. Hydrochloric acid, a strong acid, would
dangerously burn your mouth. What makes these acids
different? The ions of strong acids break apart in water more
easily than the ions of weak acids. Strong acids form many
more hydronium ions than weak acids. More hydronium
ions give a lower pH, which is more acidic. Strong bases
form many more hydroxide ions than weak bases. More
hydroxide ions give a higher pH, which is more basic.
5.
Indicators
Is there a safe way to find out how acidic or basic a
solution is? Yes, you can use an indicator. An indicator is a
compound that turns a certain color in acidic or basic
solutions, depending on the pH. An example of an indicator
is litmus. This compound is soaked into paper strips. You
place the paper strips in a solution and look at the color.
Litmus paper turns red in acids and blue in bases.
Neutralization
Have you ever heard of heartburn? Someone with
heartburn might take an antacid tablet. The prefix antmeans opposite of. Heartburn is caused by having too
much hydrochloric acid in the stomach. An antacid tablet
neutralizes the extra acid. How does an antacid tablet work?
An antacid is made from a base that neutralizes the extra
acid in the stomach. Neutralization (new truh luh ZAY shun)
is the reaction of an acid with a base. It is called this because
properties of both the acid and the base are reduced, or
neutralized. When a base and acid are mixed, they usually
form water and a salt. Because of the reaction, there are
fewer hydronium and hydroxide ions in the solution. This
makes the pH of the solution more neutral. So, when a base
such as magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, in an antacid
reacts with hydrochloric acid in the stomach, some of the
acid is neutralized. The figure shows the relative amounts of
hydronium and hydroxide ions between pH 0 and pH 14.
pH 0
14
7.
Apply To neutralize a
solution that contains lye,
what would be added?
Picture This
8.
Compare At pH 7, how
does the amount of
hydronium ions compare to
the amount of hydroxide
ions?
How does neutralization occur?

When a solution is neutralized, hydronium and hydroxide
ions react with each other. During neutralization, equal
numbers of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions react to
produce water molecules. Pure water has a pH of 7, which
means it is neutral.
Reading Essentials
349
After You Read

Mini Glossary
acid: a substance that releases positively charged hydrogen
ions (H+) in water
base: a substance that can accept hydrogen ions
hydronium ion: a positively charged ion that has the
formula H3O+
indicator: a compound that turns a certain color in acidic or

basic solutions, depending on the pH
neutralization: reaction of an acid with a base
pH: a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write one or two sentences
to explain the pH of pure water.
2. Label the location of pure water on the pH scale. Label the acidic side of the scale in red
and the basic side in blue.
2
10
11
12
13
14
3. How much stronger is a pH of 9 than a pH of 4?
4. Suppose you add water to solutions to make acids of different strengths. You add 100 mL
of water to an acid to make an acid with pH of 6. How much water would you add to
make an acid with pH of 5? Explain.
End of
Section
350

acidic and basic solutions.
pH 1
chapter
22
3
States of Matter
1
section
Matter
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
that matter is made of

particles that are always
moving
how the particles are
arranged in the three
states of matter
Think about your classroom. On the lines below, describe

some of the things in your classroom that take up space.
Read to Learn
What is matter?
Look around you. Maybe you see a glass of water. Maybe

you see books on a shelf. These are examples of matter. Matter
is anything that takes up space and has mass. You cannot
always see matter. For example, air is matter.
Identify States of Matter

As you read the section, draw a
circle around the name of each
state of matter. Then underline
the denition of each state.
What determines a materials state of matter?

All matter is made up of tiny particles such as atoms,
molecules, or ions. Each particle attracts other particles.
These particles are always moving. A materials state of matter is determined by the movement of the particles and the
strength of attraction between them.
There are four different states, or forms, of matter. They are
solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Plasma only happens at very
high temperatures. It is found in stars, lightning, and neon
lights and is not common on Earth. This chapter will focus
on the three main states of mattersolid, liquid, and gas.
Solids
A solid is matter with a definite shape and volume. What
happens to a rock when you put it in a bucket? It does not
change shape or size. A solid does not change to take the
shape of the container it is in. This is because the particles
of a solid are packed close together.
A Find Main Ideas Make

the following Foldable to record
the main ideas about solids,
liquids, and gases. Be sure to
include examples.
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Reading Essentials
351
Do the particles in a solid move?

The particles in all types of matter are always moving. A
solids particles are vibrating in place, however, they do not
have enough energy to move out of their fixed positions.
What are crystalline solids?
Picture This
1.
Identify Write the name

of an item in the classroom
that is close to the same
shape as this crystal of
sodium chloride.
Some solids have particles

Sodium
Chlorine
arranged in a threedimensional pattern. This
repeating pattern is called
a crystal. Solids with this
pattern are crystalline solids.
Sodium chloride, or table
salt, is an example. You can
see the arrangement of the
particles in sodium chloride in the figure. They are in the
shape of a cube. Sugar, sand, and snow are crystalline solids.
What are amorphous solids?

Some solids come together without forming crystals. They
are called amorphous (uh MOR fuhs) solids. Their large
particles are arranged randomly (in no certain order).
Rubber, plastic, and glass are amorphous solids.
2.
Describe Circle the

sentence(s) that are true
about a liquid.
It can change shape.
It has a denite shape.
Its volume stays the same.
You use liquids every day. Water is a liquid and so is

orange juice. A liquid is matter that has a definite volume
but no definite shape. A liquid takes the shape of its
container but keeps the same volume. What happens if you
pour 50 ml of orange juice from a bottle into a glass? You
still have the same volume of orange juice, 50 ml, but the
shape of the juice changes.
How are particles arranged in a liquid?
Picture This
3.
Contrast How are

particles in a liquid different
from particles in a solid?
352
States of Matter
The particles in a liquid move

more freely than those in a solid.
So a liquid can have different
shapes. The particles in a liquid
have enough energy to move past
one another. But they do not have
enough energy to move far apart.
The figure shows the arrangement
of the particles in a liquid.
Liquid
Liquids
Do all liquids flow like water?

You know that honey flows slower than water. Other
liquids do too. Some liquids flow more easily than others.
Viscosity is how much a liquid resists flowing. The slower
a liquid flows, the higher its viscosity. Honey has a high viscosity. It does not flow easily. Water has a low viscosity. It
flows very easily. Viscosity describes the attraction between
the particles of a liquid. For many liquids, viscosity increases
as the liquid becomes colder.
4.
Compare Which has the

higher viscosity,
mayonnaise or honey?
What is surface tension?

Did you know that a needle will float on the surface of
water? It floats because the particles on the surface of a liquid
pull themselves together and resist being pushed apart. This
happens because of the attractive forces between the particles.
Particles below the surface of a liquid are pulled in all directions. But particles at the surface of a liquid are pulled toward
the center of the liquid and sideways along the surface. There
are no particles above to pull on them. Surface tension is the
uneven forces acting on the particles on the surface of a liquid. Surface tension makes it seem like there is a thin film
stretched across the surface of a liquid.
5.
Determine Is the
following sentence true or
false? Particles below the
surface of a liquid are
pulled in all directions.
Gases
Gas is matter that does not have
a definite shape or volume. The particles in gas are far apart, as shown
in the figure. Gas particles move
quickly in all directions. They spread
out evenly as far apart as possible. A
gas will fill the container it is in. A
gas can expand or be compressed.
Gas
Think of a balloon filled with air.
What happens if you squeeze the air into a smaller part of
the balloon? The gas particles get closer together. This happens because you decreased the volume of the container the
gas was in. Most gases are invisible. The air you breathe is a
mixture of gases.
Picture This
6.
Describe the
arrangement and
movement of the particles
in a gas.
What is vapor?
Water is a liquid at room temperature. But water can also
be a gas. The gas state of water is called water vapor. Vapor
is matter that is in the gas state but is usually found as a
liquid or solid at room temperature.
Reading Essentials
353
After You Read

Mini Glossary
gas: matter that does not have a denite shape or volume
liquid: matter that has a denite volume but no denite
shape that can ow
matter: anything that takes up space and has mass
solid: matter with a denite shape and volume

surface tension: the uneven forces acting on the particles
on the surface of a liquid
viscosity: how much a liquid resists owing
1. Read the key terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. On the lines below, tell
how a solid and a liquid are similar.
2. Complete the chart below. Identify the three main states of matter and give two examples
of each.
3. Think of a way of organizing the traits of solids, liquids, and gases to help you remember their characteristics.
End of
Section
354
States of Matter

matter.
States of Matter
chapter
22
3
States of Matter
2
section
Changes of State
Before You Read

How could you turn an ice cube into water? How could you
turn water into an ice cube?
Read to Learn
Thermal Energy and Heat

Imagine a swan ice sculpture. As time passes, drops of
water begin to fall from the sculpture. Drip by drip, the
swan becomes a puddle of liquid water. What makes matter
change from one state to another? To answer this question,
you need to think about the particles that make up matter.
What Youll Learn
about thermal energy

and temperature
changes in thermal
energy and changes
of state
to show changes on a
graph
Highlight Main Ideas As

you read, highlight each way
that matter can change from
one state to another. For
example, drops of water falling
from an ice sculpture
demonstrate a change from a
solid to a liquid.
How does energy affect particles?

Energy is the ability to do work or cause change. The
energy of motion is called kinetic energy. Particles in matter
are always moving. How much they move depends on how
much kinetic energy they have. Particles with more kinetic
energy move faster and farther apart. Particles with less
kinetic energy move slower and stay closer together.
What is thermal energy?

Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of all the particles in a sample of matter. Thermal energy depends on the
number of particles in a substance and the amount of energy
each particle has. The thermal energy of a substance changes
if the number of particles changes. It also changes if the
amount of energy each particle has changes. Suppose you
have one cup of warm water and one cup of hot water. The
hot water has more thermal energy. When you have the same
size sample, the warmer substance has more thermal energy.

compare and contrast thermal
energy and temperature.
Thermal
Energy
Temperature
Reading Essentials
355
Applying Math
1.
Calculate What is the

average of the following
ve numbers: 6, 5, 3, 5, 6?
Show your work.
Picture This
2.
Infer Which tea has more

thermal energy?
What is temperature?
Not all of the particles in a sample have the same amount
of energy. Some have more energy than others. Temperature
is the average kinetic energy of all the particles of a substance.
You find an average by adding a group of numbers and
dividing the total by the number of items in the group. For
example, the average of the numbers 2, 4, 8, and 10 is
(2 4 8 10) 4 6. Temperature is different from
thermal energy, because thermal energy is a total and
temperature is an average.
The iced tea in the figure
is colder than the hot tea.
In other words, the temperature of the iced tea is
lower than the temperature
of the hot tea. So the
average kinetic energy of
the particles in the iced tea
is less than the average
kinetic energy of the
Particles in Motion
particles in the hot tea.
What happens when you stand close to a fire? You get
warm. When a warm object is close to a cooler object,
thermal energy moves from the warm object to the cooler
one. Heat is the movement of thermal energy from a
substance at a higher temperature to a substance at a lower
temperature. When a substance is heated, it gains thermal
energy. This means its particles move faster. The temperature
of the substance rises. A substance loses thermal energy
when it is cooled. Its particles move more slowly and the
temperature of the substance drops.
Specific Heat
3.
Predict On a bright,
sunshiny day at the beach,
which will heat up more
quickly, the water or the
sand?
356
States of Matter
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat

needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of the substance 1C.
Substances that have a low specific heat cool down and heat
up quickly. They need only small amounts of heat to make
their temperatures rise. A substance with a high specific heat
cools down and heats up slowly. A larger amount of heat is
needed to make its temperature rise or fall. Water has a high
specific heat. Most metals and sand have a low specific heat.
What is heat?
Changes Between the

Solid and Liquid States
4.
Infer Is an ice cube that is

melting gaining or losing
thermal energy?
Matter can change from one state to another when thermal

energy is absorbed or released. This change is known as
change of state.
What is melting?
As ice is heated, it absorbs thermal energy. The temperature
of the ice rises. At some point, the temperature stops rising.
The ice begins to change into liquid water. Melting is the
change from the solid state to the liquid state. The temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid is
called the melting point. The melting point of water is 0C.
Amorphous solids melt differently than crystalline solids.
Amorphous solids do not have crystal structures to break
down. They do not melt into liquids. They simply get softer
and softer. For example, glassblowers can shape glass into
beautiful vases while it is hot because glass is an
amorphous solid.
A liquid can be changed back into a solid by cooling it.
Freezing is the change from the liquid state to the solid
state. As the liquid cools, it loses thermal energy. Its particles
slow down and come closer together. Attractive forces begin
to trap particles and crystals form. Freezing and melting are
opposite processes.
As you can see in the graph, the temperature at which a
substance changes from the liquid state to the solid state is
called the freezing point. The freezing point of the liquid
state of a substance is the same temperature as the melting
point of the solid state. For example, solid water melts at
0C and liquid water freezes at 0C.
Gas
Temperature
What is freezing?
Vaporization
100 C
Condensation
Liquid
Picture This
5.
Reading a Graph Look

at the graph. What two
processes, besides melting
and freezing, happen at the
same temperature?
Melting
0 C
Freezing
Solid
Thermal Energy
Reading Essentials
357
When does the temperature change again?

The temperature of a substance stays the same while it is
freezing. Energy is released during freezing because particles
in a liquid have more energy than particles in a solid. This
energy is released into the surroundings. The temperature of
the substance begins to decrease again after all of the liquid
has become solid.
Changes Between the

Liquid and Gas States
It rained overnight. You and your friends have fun
jumping in puddles the next morning. But by afternoon, the
puddles are gone. The liquid water in the puddles changed
into a gas. Matter changes between the liquid and gas states
through vaporization and condensation.
Picture This
6.
Label Draw arrows to

show the direction of the
movement of bubbles in
the boiling water.
When liquid water is heated, its

temperature rises until it is 100C. At
this point, liquid water changes into
water vapor. Vaporization is the change
from a liquid to a gas. The temperature
of a substance does not change during
vaporization. But, the substance absorbs
thermal energy. This energy makes
the particles move faster until they have
enough energy to escape the liquid as
Vaporization
gas particles.
There are two forms of vaporization.
Vaporization below the surface of a liquid is called boiling.
When a liquid boils, bubbles within the liquid rise to the
surface, as shown in the figure. The temperature at which a
liquid boils is called the boiling point.
What is evaporation?
7.
Name the two forms of

vaporization.
358
States of Matter
Vaporization at the surface of a liquid is called evaporation. Evaporation happens at temperatures below the boiling
point. Evaporation explains how puddles dry up. Imagine
that you could see individual water molecules in a puddle.
You would see that they move at different speeds. Remember temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of the molecules. Some of the molecules that are moving
fastest pull away from the attractive forces of the other
molecules and escape from the surface of the water.
How does a liquid change to a gas?
During evaporation, the fastest molecules also must be close

to the surface of the liquid. They also have to be moving in
the right direction and they have to keep from hitting other
molecules as they leave. The particles that are still in the
liquid are the slower, cooler ones. Evaporation cools the
liquid and anything near the liquid. Evaporation cools you
when you sweat. Perspiration evaporates from your skin.
What is condensation?
What happens to a glass of cold lemonade on a hot day?
The outside of the glass becomes covered with drops of
water. What happened? As a gas cools, its particles slow down.
The particles slow down enough for their attractions to
bring them together. When the particles come together, they
form droplets of liquid. This process is called condensation.
Condensation is the change from a gas to a liquid. It is the
opposite of vaporization.
As a gas condenses to a liquid, it releases the thermal energy
that it absorbed when it became a gas. The temperature of
the substance does not change during condensation. The
decrease in energy changes the arrangement of the particles.
After the change of state is complete, the temperature
continues to drop.
Condensation formed the water droplets on your glass of
lemonade. Condensation also is how rain forms. Water
vapor in the atmosphere condenses to make water droplets
in clouds. When the droplets are large enough, they fall to
the ground as rain.
8.
Explain What is the

opposite of vaporization?
9.
Determine Why are
Changes Between the Solid and Gas States

Some substances can change from the solid state to the gas
state without ever becoming a liquid. This process is called
sublimation. During sublimation, the particles on the surface of the solid gain enough energy to become a gas.
One example of a substance that goes through sublimation
is dry ice. Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide. At
room temperature and pressure, carbon dioxide is not a
liquid. It is a gas. Therefore, as dry ice absorbs thermal
energy from the objects around it, it changes directly into a
gas. When dry ice becomes a gas, it absorbs thermal energy
from water vapor in the air. The loss of thermal energy
causes the water vapor to cool and condense into liquid
water droplets. This causes fog to form.
some substances able to go

directly from a solid state to
a gas state?
Reading Essentials
359
After You Read

Mini Glossary
condensation: the change from a gas to a liquid
freezing: the change from the liquid state to the solid state
heat: movement of thermal energy from a substance at a
higher temperature to a substance at a lower temperature
melting: the change from the solid state to the liquid state
temperature: the average kinetic energy of all the particles

of a substance
thermal energy: the total kinetic energy of all the particles
in a sample of matter
vaporization: the change from a liquid to a gas
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. How is freezing related
to melting?
2. Above each arrow, write the name of the process needed to make the change in states
of matter.
Water
Water
Vapor
Water
3. You were asked to highlight each way that matter can change states. How did
highlighting help you to learn the ways?
End of
Section
360
States of Matter

changes of state.
Ice
Water
chapter
22
3
States of Matter
3
section
Behavior of Fluids
Before You Read

What happens to a balloon if you keep blowing air into it?
On the lines below, describe what happens and why.
Read to Learn
Pressure
Suppose you and your friends want to play volleyball, but
the ball is flat. You pump air into the ball until it is firm.
The ball is firm because of the movement of the air particles
inside the ball. The air particles inside the ball bump into
each other and against the walls of the ball. When the
particles bump into the walls of the ball, they push with a
force on the walls. The force pushes the surface of the ball
outward. The forces of all the individual particles add
together to make up the pressure of the air inside the ball.
What Youll Learn
why some things oat

and others sink
how pressure is moved
through uids
Locating Information
Underline every heading in the
reading that asks a question.
Then, highlight the answers to
those questions as you nd them.
What is pressure?
Pressure is equal to the force put on a surface divided by
the total area over which the force is applied.
force
pressure area
When force is measured in newtons (N) and area is measured in square meters (m2), pressure is measured in newtons
per square meter (N/m2). This unit of pressure is called a
pascal (Pa). A more useful unit when talking about atmospheric pressure is the kilopascal (kPa), which is 1,000 pascals.
Applying Math
1.
Compute A person
standing on one foot is
applying a force of 500 N. If
the foot covers 100 cm2,
what is the pressure? Show
your work.
Reading Essentials
361
How are force and area related to pressure?
2.

to pressure when the area
decreases but the force
stays the same?
The formula for pressure tells you that pressure depends

on the amount of force and the area over which the force is
applied. This means that as the force increases over a given
area, pressure increases. If the force decreases in that same
area, pressure decreases.
The opposite is true if the force stays the same, but the
area over which it is applied changes. If a force is applied to
a smaller area, pressure increases. If the same amount of
force is spread out over a larger area, pressure decreases.
The figures below show this. The force of the dancers
weight remains the same. However, the area where the force
is applied changes. Her pointed toes have less area than her
flat feet. So, the pressure of the dancers weight on pointed
toes is greater than the pressure on her flat feet.
3.
Identify In the gure,

circle the greater area
amount. Put a box around
the greater pressure
amount.
Force 530 N
Area 335 cm2
Pressure 1.6 N/cm2
Force 530 N
Area 37 cm2
Pressure 14 N/cm2
What is atmospheric pressure?

You cannot see it and you usually cannot feel it, but the
air around you presses on you with great force. Air pressure
on objects is known as atmospheric pressure because air
makes up the atmosphere around Earth. Atmospheric
pressure is 101.3 kPa at sea level. So, air puts a force of
about 101,000 N on every square meter it touches. This is
about the weight of a large truck.
362
States of Matter
Picture This
How does air pressure help you?

Air pressure helps you.
Air pressure allows you to
drink from a straw. Look
at the figure. When you
first suck on a straw, you
remove the air from it.
Air pressure pushes
down on the liquid in
your glass and forces it
up into the straw. If you
tried to drink through a
straw in a sealed, airtight
container, it would not work. The air would not be able to
push down on the surface of the drink.
Picture This
4.
Label By the arrow in the

gure, write what is
pushing down on the liquid
in the glass.
Why dont you feel the force of air?

You dont feel the force of air because pressure from the
fluids in your body balances it. The fluids in your body put
an outward pressure on your body. This pressure balances
the pressure from the air on the surface of your body.
How does atmospheric pressure change?

Atmospheric pressure changes with altitude. Altitude is the
height above sea level. As altitude increases, atmospheric
pressure decreases, because there are fewer air particles in a
given volume. Since there are fewer particles, they bump into
each other less often, and therefore there is less pressure.
A French physician
named Blaise Pascal was
the first one to test this
idea. He partially filled
a balloon with air. The
balloon was carried to
the top of a mountain.
The figure shows what
happened. The balloon
expanded while being
carried up the mountain.
The amount of air inside
the balloon stayed the
same. But, the air pressure
pushing in on it from the outside decreased. This allowed
the particles of air inside the balloon to spread out further.
Picture This
5.
Infer What will happen as

the hiker brings the balloon
back down the mountain?
Reading Essentials
363
How does air pressure affect travelers?

Have you ever been in an airplane? Have you driven up a
mountain? If so, you have probably felt a popping sensation
in your ears. As the air pressure drops, the air pressure in
your ears increases. Soon the air pressure in your ears is
greater than the air pressure outside your body. When some
air is released from your ears, you hear a pop. This release
of air makes the pressure inside and outside your ears the
same. The pressure in an airplane is controlled so the pressure does not change greatly during a flight.
6.
Explain What causes

your ears to pop when you
are ying?
Changes in Gas Pressure

The pressure of a gas in closed containers can change just
like atmospheric pressure can change. The pressure of a gas
in a closed container changes with volume and temperature.
If you squeeze part of a filled balloon, the rest of the

balloon gets firmer. When you squeeze a balloon, you
decrease its volume. The same number of particles is now in
a smaller space. The particles bump into each other and the
walls of the container more often. This increases the pressure.
Any time you decrease the volume of a space without
changing its temperature, pressure increases.
What happens if the volume of a

gas increases?
Look at the figures below. They show a piston moving and
changing the pressure of the gas particles. If you make a
container larger and do not change its temperature, the
particles will bump into each other less often. Therefore, the
pressure will be less. So, as volume increases, pressure
decreases.
Picture This
7.
Interpret Circle
the piston that has the
least pressure.
As volume increases, pressure decreases.
364
States of Matter
What happens if the volume of a gas in a

closed container decreases?
How does temperature affect pressure?

Recall that temperature rises as the kinetic energy of the
particles in a substance increases. The greater the kinetic
energy, the faster the particles move. The faster the particles
move, the more they bump into each other. This makes the
pressure greater, even though the volume of the gas stays the
same. If the temperature of a gas in a closed container
increases, the pressure of the gas also will increase.
Float or Sink
Water pressure pushes on you in all directions when you are
under water. Water pressure increases as you go deeper in the
water. The pressure pushing up on the bottom of an object
becomes greater than the pressure pushing down on it. This
is because the bottom of the object is deeper in the water.
What makes an object float in water?

Suppose you throw a
small log in a lake. As
Pressure
shown in the figure, the
pushing
down
water pressure under the
log is greater than the
water pressure above the
log. This pushes the log
Pressure
up and makes it float.
pushing
Buoyant force is the
up
force that pushes up on
an object in a fluid.
Buoyant force cannot make everything float. If the buoyant
force is equal to the weight of an object, the object will float
like the person shown below. But if the buoyant force is less
than the weight of an object, the object will sink.
Picture This
8.
Determine In the rst

gure, why are the arrows
under the log longer than
the arrows above the log?
Picture This
9.
Weight
Describe What would

happen to the person in the
second gure if the weight
arrow were longer than the
buoyant force arrow?
Buoyant
force
Reading Essentials
365
What is Archimedes Principle?
Applying Math
10.
Calculate You are given

a sample of a solid that has
a mass of 12.0 g. Its volume
is 4.0 cm3. What is its
density in g/cm3? Will it
oat in water? (The density
of water is 1.0 g/cm3.) Show
your work.
What determines the buoyant force? Archimedes

(ar kuh MEE deez) principle states that the buoyant force
of an object is equal to the weight of the fluid removed by
the object. Think about a beaker that is filled to the top
with water. If you put an object in the beaker, some water
will spill out. If you weigh the spilled water, you will find
the buoyant force on the object.
What is density?
Understanding density can help you decide if an object
will float. Density is mass divided by volume.
density
amassa
volume
If an object is less dense than the fluid it is in, it will float.

If an object is more dense than the fluid it is in, it will sink.
What if an object has the same density as the fluid? It will
not float or sink. It will stay at the same level in the fluid.
Write down information about

Archimedes and Pascals
principles on two quarter sheets
of paper.
Archimedes
Principle
11.
Pascals
Principle
Identify What does a

hydraulic system increase
using Pascals principle?
366
States of Matter
What happens if you squeeze a plastic container filled

with water? If the container is closed, the water has nowhere
to go. The pressure in the water increases by the same
amount everywhere in the containernot just where you
squeeze. Pascals principle states that when a force is
applied to a fluid in a closed container, the increase in pressure is moved equally to all parts of the fluid.
How do hydraulic systems work?

Have you ever wondered how a car is raised and lowered at
the mechanics shop? A device called a hydraulic (hy DRAW
lihk) system is used. It uses Pascals principle to increase
force. Look at the figure of the hydraulic lift on the next
page. There is a downward force on the piston on the left.
This increases the pressure in the fluid in the tube. The
increased pressure is moved to the piston on the right. Why
is the piston on the right able to lift the car? Recall that
pressure is equal to force divided by area.
force
pressure area or force pressure area
Pascals Principle
Greater Area If the two pistons on the tube have the same
area, the force on both pistons will be the same. But the
piston on the right has a greater surface area. If you
multiply the same pressure by a larger area, the force is
greater. So the force on the right will be greater.
Picture This
Hydraulic Lift
12.
Downward force 500 N

Area 1 m2
Calculate How many

times greater is the upward
force on the car than the
downward force on the
piston? (Hint: Divide the
upward force by the
downward force.)
Area 20 m2
Upward
force 10,000 N
a.
b.
c.
d.
Pressure in tube 500 N/m2
5
10
20
25
What are force pumps?

If you punch a hole in the top of a closed milk carton,
the milk is pushed out the hole when you squeeze the
carton. This is known as a force pump. A force pump
makes it possible to squeeze toothpaste out of a tube.
A heart has two force pumps. One force pump pushes the
blood from the heart to the lungs. The blood picks up
oxygen in the lungs and returns to the heart. Another force
pump pushes the blood with oxygen in it to the rest of the
body. The two force pumps in a heart are shown below.
Picture This
13.
Blood from
body
Blood to body
Blood to lungs
Blood from
lungs
Interpreting
Diagrams Use a
highlighter to trace the
path of the blood as it
enters and leaves the heart.
Start where the blood
comes in from the body.
Reading Essentials
367
After You Read

Mini Glossary
Archimedes principle: the buoyant force of an object is
equal to the weight of the uid removed by the object
buoyant force: the force that pushes up on an object that is
in a uid
density: mass divided by volume
Pascals principle: when a force is applied to a uid in a

closed container, the increase in pressure is moved
equally to all parts of the uid
pressure: the force put on a surface divided by the total area
over which the force is applied
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Rewrite Archimedes
principle in your own words.
2. Complete the table by circling whether pressure increases or decreases as a result of

the event.
Pressure
Force increases
increases / decreases
Force decreases
Area over which force is applied increases
Volume decreases
Temperature increases
3. You were asked to highlight the answers to the headings that were questions as you read.
How did this help you make sure you understood the main ideas of the heading?
End of
Section
368
States of Matter

behavior of uids.
Event
chapter
23
3
Newtons Laws of Motion
1
section
Motion
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
about distance and

displacement
about speed, velocity,
and acceleration
how to calculate speed
and acceleration
When you walk from one place to another, how do you

know that you have moved?
Read to Learn
What is motion?
Look around and you can see all kinds of motion. People
and cars move. Even Earth moves. What is the distance
between your home and school? Is it short enough to walk?
To answer these questions, you need to understand motion.
Highlight Important
Information Use a
highlighter to highlight words
and sentences you think are
important in this section. When
you nish reading, review what
you highlighted.
What are distance and displacement?

You can describe motion by how an object changes
position. There are two ways to describe how something
changes position. One way is to describe the path an object
travels. The dotted line on this map shows the path traveled
by a hiker. She traveled 7 km north, 4 km southeast, and
11 km northeast. This total distance traveled was 22 km.
Now look at the dashed line on the map. This line shows
the hikers displacement, or
N
the distance and direction
Finish
between her start and end
Displacement
points. The end position is
12 km northeast of the start
position. This means that
the displacement is 12 km
northeast. The path this
Start
Distance
hiker actually took was
0 1 2 km
longer.
A Classify Make the

following four-tab Foldable to
help you learn denitions and
examples of displacement,
speed, velocity, and
acceleration.
t
Displacemen
Speed
Velocity
Acceleration
Reading Essentials
369
How are reference points used?

Something that is in motion changes its position, or moves.
To tell if something has moved, compare it to something that
has not moved. The object that does not move is the reference point. Suppose you look out your window and see a
truck parked next to a tree. You look out later and find that
the truck is parked farther away from the tree. The tree is
your reference point. You know the truck has been in motion
because it is now in a different position compared to the tree.
Speed
When you travel in a car, you sometimes want to know
the distance you travel. But you probably also want to know
your speed, or how fast you are moving. Speed is the
distance traveled divided by the time needed to travel the
distance. The equation below shows how to find speed.
1.
Apply A car travels 125 m

in 5 s. What is the cars speed
in m/s? Show your work.
distance (in meters)

time (in seconds)
d
s
t
speed (in meters/second)
The unit for speed is a distance unit divided by a time

unit. The SI unit for speed is meters per second, or m/s.
Speed is also measured in other units. A cars speedometer
shows kilometers per hour, or km/h.
What is constant speed?

Have you ever been in a car when the driver was using
the cruise control? When the cruise control is on, the speed
doesnt change. The car moves at a constant speed. When
you travel at a constant speed, the speed is always the same.
What is changing speed?
2.
Explain What is
average speed?
370
Speed is not always constant. Suppose you are riding your

bike to a friends house. You go faster when you ride
downhill and slower when you pedal uphill. You must stop
at a stop sign. Your average speed is the total distance you
traveled divided by the time you were riding. Your average
speed is probably different than the speed you were going
when you were riding downhill. If you had a speedometer
on your bike, you could see your speed at any one moment.
Speed at any moment in time is instantaneous speed. When
speed is constant, instantaneous speed and average speed are
the same.
Applying Math
Velocity
Sometimes you might want to know the direction you are
going as well as your speed. If so, you want to know your
velocity. Velocity is displacement divided by time. Remember
that displacement is a distance and a direction. So, velocity
is a speed with a direction. If you say that a small airplane
travels at 200 km/h, you describe its speed. If you say that a
plane traveled north at 200 km/h, you describe its velocity.
Airplane pilots need to know velocity. They need to know
how fast they are flying and in what direction.
Acceleration
Displacement and velocity describe how far, how fast, and
where something is moving. But sometimes you need to
know how motion changes, such as speeding up or changing
direction. Acceleration is the change in velocity divided by
the time it takes the change to happen. Velocity includes
both speed and direction. So if an object changes its speed,
direction, or both, it accelerates.
How can objects accelerate?
3.
Describe what happens

when an object accelerates.
What is the name of the pedal in a car that makes it

speed up? Its called the accelerator pedal. You probably
think that accelerate means to move faster. But, slowing
down is also acceleration. Why? Acceleration is a change in
velocity. Slowing down is a change in velocity. So, slowing
down is acceleration.
Imagine riding your bike at a constant speed and going
around a curve. Even though your speed is constant, you are
accelerating. Changing direction is acceleration.
How do you calculate acceleration?

If an object changes speed, but not direction, you can use
this equation to find acceleration.
acceleration (in m/s )
2
final speed (in m/s) initial speed (in m/s)

time (in s)
s si
a f
t
Applying Math
4.
Apply A skateboarder is
skating at 2 m/s. Then she
speeds up to 8 m/s. It takes
her 12 s to speed up. What
is the skateboarders
acceleration in m/s2? Show
your work.
In the equation, s f is the final speed and s i is the initial

speed. The SI unit for acceleration is m/s2, which means
meters/(seconds seconds).
Reading Essentials
371
After You Read

Mini Glossary
acceleration: change in velocity divided by the time it takes
the change to happen
displacement: distance and direction between the start and
end points
speed: the distance traveled divided by the time needed to

travel the distance
velocity: displacement divided by time; speed and direction
of a moving body
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence for the
terms velocity and acceleration that show your understanding of the terms.
2. Match the example in the left column with the best description of the motion in the
right column. Write the letter of the description in the blank in front of the motion.
Motion
a. displacement
b. average speed
c. instantaneous speed
d. velocity
e. acceleration
3. At the beginning of the section, you were asked to highlight words and sentences that you
thought were important. Did highlighting help you learn about motion? Why or why not?
End of
Section
372

motion.
Example
____ 1. An airplane traveling at 200 km/h north,
turns east, but stays at 200 km/h.
____ 2. A camper moves to a new campsite
8 km southwest of her first campsite.
____ 3. Jaime is riding his bike and looks at his
speedometer. He sees that he is traveling
30 km/h.
____ 4. Lynn traveled 80 km each hour while
driving for a total of 6 hours.
____ 5. A sailboat is traveling southeast at 20 km/h.
chapter
23
3
2
section
Newtons First Law
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
what force is
Newtons rst law of
motion
about balanced and
unbalanced forces
Imagine throwing a ball. How do you know what will happen to the ball after you let go of it?
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Creating a Quiz As you
Laws of Motion
Have you ever seen a gymnast flip backward off a balance
beam and land perfectly on the floor? Her motion may
seem smooth and simple. The gymnast actually makes many
different motions to make the flip smooth. What causes
these motions to happen? Each of the gymnasts motions
follows a set of rules that were first explained by Isaac
Newton. These rules are called Newtons laws of motion.
What is force?
An objects motion changes because of a force. A force is
a push or a pull. A force has a size and a direction. The size
and direction of a force determine an objects motion. In the
figure below, the student pushes the box. This push, or force,
moves the box. If he pushes harder, the box moves faster.
When you push something, the force is called a contact force.
Thats because you are touching, or contacting, the object.
read, write questions about

important facts on a sheet of
paper. When you nish reading,
answer the questions as a quiz
to see if you learned the facts.
B Find Main Ideas Make

the following half-book Foldable
to help you identify the main
ideas of Newtons rst law
of motion.
Newton's
First Law of Motion
Picture This
1.
Label Circle the area of

contact force in the gure.
Reading Essentials
373
What other forces can act on an object?

There can be a force even if there is no contact. Suppose
you bring a magnet close to a paper clip. What happens?
The paper clip will move toward the magnet. The paper clip
moves, but the magnet did not touch it. The force acting on
the paperclip is called a long-range force. The long-range
force on the paper clip is magnetism. What happens when
you drop a ball? The ball falls to the ground. The long-range
force acting on the ball is gravity. Long-range forces can
change an objects motion without touching it. Electricity,
like magnetism and gravity, is a long-range force.
The SI unit of force is the newton, or N. The unit is
named for Isaac Newton. One newton is about the amount
of force it takes to lift a half cup of water.
2.
Apply How do you know

that a rock in your garden
will not move by itself?
Imagine riding in a car. The driver slams on the brakes.

When the car stops, you continue to move forward. Your
seatbelt stops your forward motion and pulls you back into
your seat. This is an example of Newtons first law of motion.
Newtons first law of motion states that a resting object will
stay at rest and a moving object will continue to move in a
straight line at a constant speed unless a force changes it.
Think about what happens in the car. When the car stops,
you keep moving forward. But, the seatbelt applies a force
that makes you stop moving. If your backpack is on the
seat, it will move forward until something stops its motion.
How are inertia and mass related?
3.
Explain What does

inertia depend on?
374
Inertia is the tendency of an object to remain at rest or

keep going with a constant velocity. Inertia depends on
mass. The more mass an object has, the more inertia it has
and the harder it is to change the motion of the object.
Suppose you roll a table tennis ball and a bowling ball
down a lane at a bowling alley. The table tennis ball has very
little mass and probably wont make it all the way to the
pins. If it does, the pins will stop the forward motion of the
table tennis ball. The bowling ball is much heavier than the
table tennis ball and will roll quickly down the lane. It will
hit the pins and continue forward to knock them over.
Inertia also makes a bowling ball harder to start moving
than a table tennis ball. You can make a table tennis ball
move by blowing on it. This will not work with a bowling
ball. You must use force to start the bowling ball moving.
Newtons First Law of Motion
Adding Forces
Newtons first law of motion states that the motion of an
object changes only if a force acts on the object. Sometimes
there is more than one force acting on an object. Have you
ever tried to push a car? Why is it easier to push a car if
several people help push it? Motion depends on the size and
direction of all the forces.
Balanced Forces If two people push in opposite directions
on a wagon, the wagon wont move. These forces are
balanced, or equal. Balanced forces are forces that are equal,
but in opposite directions so they cancel each other out.
When balanced forces act on an object, such as the wagon
in the figure below, the motion of the object does not
change. The total force acting on the object is zero.
4.
Explain What is the total

force acting on an object
when there are balanced
forces?
Unbalanced Forces If one force pushing on an object is

greater than the other forces, the forces do not cancel. The
wagon in the figure below will move in the direction of the
greater force. Unbalanced forces are unequal forces acting
on an object that do not cancel. The motion of an object
changes only if the forces acting on it are unbalanced.
Balanced Forces
Unbalanced Forces
Picture This
5.
Describe Look at the

wagon with unbalanced
forces acting on it. Which
force is greater?
How are changes in forces and motion related?

The motion of an object changes only when unbalanced
forces act on it. Think of a ballet dancer. When the dancer
jumps, she pushes down on the floor with her leg. This
force is greater than the force of gravity holding her to the
floor. This makes the forces acting on her unbalanced. She
moves in the direction of the greater forceup. After she
leaves the floor, the only force acting on her is gravity.
Again, the forces are unbalanced, and she moves in the
direction of the force of gravitydown to the floor.
Reading Essentials
375
After You Read

Mini Glossary
balanced forces: forces that are equal, but in opposite
directions so they cancel each other out
rst law of motion: a resting object will stay at rest and a
moving object will continue to move in a straight line at
a constant speed unless a force changes it
force: a push or a pull

unbalanced forces: unequal forces acting on an object that
do not cancel
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe an example of
unbalanced forces.
2. On the lines, label each figure below with the terms balanced forces or unbalanced forces
to show whether the forces acting on each object are balanced or unbalanced. If the
forces are unbalanced, use an arrow to show the direction of the greatest force.
a.
b.
d.
3. How could you use a shopping cart to show balanced and unbalanced forces to a group
of elementary students?
End of
Section
376

Newtons rst law of motion.
c.
chapter
23
3
3
section
Newtons Second Law
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
How do you know how hard to kick a ball to get it to a friend?
Read to Learn
how to use Newtons

second law.
gravitational force
between objects
types of friction
Study Coach
Identifying the Main

Point As you read, write down
The Second Law of Motion
Can you tell how fast a soccer ball will accelerate when
you kick it? You can find out with Newtons second law of
motion. Newtons second law of motion states that an
object acted on by an unbalanced force will accelerate in
the direction of the force. You can use this equation to find
the acceleration.
force (in N)
mass (in kg)
F
a
m
the main point or idea of each

paragraph. After you nish
reading, make sure you
understand each main point.
acceleration (m/s2)
If more than one force acts on the object, the total force
is used in the equation. If force is zero, acceleration is zero.
Using the Second Law

The second law of motion is used to calculate the
acceleration of an object. If you know an objects acceleration,
you can figure out its speed or velocity at any time. For
example, if an object has an acceleration of 5 m/s2 in a
straight line, its speed increases by 5 m/s every second. You
can multiply both sides of the acceleration equation by
mass. This gives you the equation for force.
F
a
m
m
F
ma
m
F ma
C Classify Make the
following quarter-fold notebook

paper Foldable to help you
organize information about
Newtons second law of motion
and friction. Fold the Foldable
again, as shown, to display it on
your chapter project.
Second Law
Newton's
Second
Law
Closed
Static Friction
Sliding Friction Rolling Friction
Open
Reading Essentials
377
How does the force of gravity affect objects?

A gravitational force is a force exerted by every object on
every other object. The amount of gravitational force
depends on two thingsmass and distance.
Mass Massive objects like Earth exert enough gravitational
force that you can feel it. Gravitational forces between the
Sun and planets are strong enough to hold the solar system
together. Less massive objects, like people and books, exert
very small gravitational forces. Gravitational forces from
these objects are so small you cant even feel them.
Distance Gravity also depends on distance. For example,
Earth has the strongest force on objects on Earths surface
because Earth is by far the most massive nearby object.
Earths gravity causes all objects near its surface to fall
toward Earths center at the same acceleration. The acceleration of Earths gravity is 9.8 m/s2. When any object is
falling, the force of gravity on the object is
1.
Explain What is the

acceleration of Earths
gravity?
F m (9.8 m/s2)
Earth is pulling on you with this force. When you are
standing, you are at rest because the ground exerts an
upward force on you. This balances the force of gravity.
Picture This
2.
Apply Use information

from the gure. What
would an astronauts mass
be on the Moon if his mass
on Earth is 82 kg?
378
More weight
Weight and mass
same mass
are not the same. An
Less weight
same mass
objects weight is the force
of Earths gravity on the
object. An objects mass is
the amount of matter in
Moon
an object. Weight depends
Earth
Weight: 65.3 N
on gravity. Objects weigh
Weight: 408 N Mass: 41.6 kg
less on the Moon than on
Mass: 41.6 kg
Earth. But, their mass
would be the same. The force of gravity on the moon is
only about 16 percent of the force of gravity on Earth. As
shown in the figure, you have the same amount of matter
on the Moon as on Earth.
Remember that inertia is how hard it is to change the
motion of an object. Inertia is related to mass but not to
weight. So, gravity does not affect inertia. A bowling ball
traveling at 5 m/s on Earth has the same inertia as it has
traveling at 5 m/s in space.
How are mass and weight different?
Friction
Friction is a force that resists sliding motion between
surfaces that are touching. You can feel friction between
your hands when you rub them together. Friction slows
them down. If you put lotion on your hands, they slide
more easily. There is less friction. Having anything sticky on
your hands causes more friction.
There is always friction when surfaces of objects slide past
each other. Friction makes a book stop sliding when it is
pushed across a table. Friction is needed for everyday
motion. Friction lets you walk up a ramp, ride a bike, or
even sit in a chair without sliding to the ground.
What is static friction?
3.
Explain What is needed

for everyday motion such as
walking or riding a bike?
4.
Infer Which of the
Gently push a book on your desk. If you push gently

enough, it wont move. Static means having little change or
motion. Static friction between your book and the desk keeps
the book from moving when a small force is applied to it.
The static friction and the gentle push are balanced forces.
What is sliding friction?

When you push a book across a table, it slides, then slows
down, and stops. The force that slows and stops the book is
sliding friction. Sliding friction happens when two surfaces
slide past each other. To keep the book moving, you have to
keep applying a force to overcome the sliding friction.
What is rolling friction?

Rolling friction makes a wheel roll forward or backward.
Without rolling friction, a wheel would just spin like the
wheels of a car that is stuck in the mud. Rolling friction
applies a force to the wheel in the same direction that the
wheel is moving. When there is no rolling friction, like in
slippery mud, there is no force and the wheel just spins.
What is air resistance?

Have you ever tried to ride a bike into a strong wind? It
feels like the wind is pushing against you. It makes you
pedal harder. Molecules of air bump into forward-moving
objects, slowing their motion down. This is called air
resistance. Air resistance is less for a narrow, pointed object.
It is greater for a large, flat object. When a skydiver first
jumps from a plane, she falls quickly. Then, when she opens
her parachute, she falls slowly. The parachute has a greater
air resistance because it is large.
following would have the

least air resistance?
a. truck
b. bike
c. car
d. bus
Reading Essentials
379
After You Read

Mini Glossary
friction: force that resists sliding motion between surfaces
that are touching
gravitational force: force exerted by every object on every
other object
second law of motion: an object acted on by an unbalanced force will accelerate in the direction of the force
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe friction in your
own words.
2. Fill in the table below to tell about friction.

Type of Friction
Denition
Examples
Static Friction
Rolling Friction
Air Resistance
3. What is a good way to show gravitational force to your classmates?
End of
Section
380

Newtons second law of motion.
Sliding Friction
chapter
23
3
4
section
Newtons Third Law
Before You Read

Imagine bumping into something so hard that you fall
down. Write a sentence describing what would happen.
What Youll Learn
about Newtons third

law of motion
how all three laws affect
motion
Read to Learn
The Third Law of Motion

Imagine jumping into a pool. You push with your legs.
Then, you accelerate into the air and fall down into the
water. When you accelerate, a force must be exerted on you.
But, no one pushed you. Where did the force come from?
Newtons third law of motion states that forces always act
in equal but opposite pairs. This idea often is restatedfor
every action there is an equal but opposite reaction. So,
when you push on the side of the pool with your legs to
jump in, the side of the pool pushes back on you. This
made you accelerate into the air.
What are action and reaction forces?

When you jump, you first push down with your legs. This
is called the action force. Then, the ground pushes up on you
with an equal but opposite force. This is called the reaction
force. Every action force has a reaction force. They are equal
forces in the opposite direction. Action and reaction forces
happen no matter what kind of objects are involved.
Applying the Third Law

Action and reaction forces are not the same as balanced
forces. Balanced forces act on the same object and cancel
each other. Action and reaction forces act on different objects.
Underline Important
Information Underline
important words and phrases as
you read the section. After you
nish reading, review what you
have underlined.
D Find Main Ideas Make
the following Foldable to help

gather information about the
main ideas. Use Newtons Third
Law of motion, Using Friction,
Gravity, and Combining the
Laws of Motion as your labels.
Fold the Foldable again, as
shown, to display it on your
chapter project.
Newton's
Third
Law
Closed
Third Law
Using Friction
Gravity
Combining
the Laws
Open
Reading Essentials
381
What force causes motion to change?

When you kick a soccer ball, your foot applies a force on
the ball. The ball also applies a force on your foot. Have you
ever kicked a ball so hard that it hurt? The pain came from
the force of the ball on your foot. Action and reaction forces
can cause the motion of objects to change. The motion of
objects cannot change in balanced forces.
Picture This
1.
Infer Look at the gure.

What must the reaction
force of the door be equal
to if you are not to fall down?
When you push on a heavy

door, you exert a force on the
door. But, the door also exerts a
force on you. Why doesnt this
force make you fall down?
When you push on the door,
your feet are touching the floor,
as shown in the figure. Static
friction between your feet and
the floor keeps you from sliding
and falling down. The reaction
force from the door is not
strong enough to overcome the
force of the static friction.
What if you wear slippery
shoes or the floor is very
Static
Reaction
friction force from
smooth? Your feet might slide
force
door
when you push on the door.
Static friction forces are less
when the surfaces are smooth. The static friction force
might not be enough to keep you from sliding. When this
happens, the reaction force from the door acts only on you,
not on you and the floor together.
How is motion caused by force pairs?
2.
Explain What affects the

acceleration of objects in a
force pair?
382
Action and reaction forces in a force pair are the same

size. However, they can cause different effects on the objects
they act on. Suppose a 50-kg student and a 20-kg box are in
the middle of an ice rink. The student pushes on the box
with a force of 10 N. The box slides on the ice. The box
exerts a reaction force of 10 N on the student in the opposite direction. The student slides in the opposite direction.
The forces exerted may be the same, but the acceleration
of the box and the student are different. Why? The student
and the box have different masses.
How do you use friction?
Remember, to find acceleration you divide force by mass.

So, the acceleration of the box is 0.5 m/s2 and the acceleration
of the student is 0.2 m/s2.
How does gravity obey the third law?

Gravity is always pulling you down to the ground. The
third law says that you arent just pulled toward Earth, but
that Earth also is pulled toward you. How far does Earth
move when you jump into a swimming pool? The force you
exert on Earth is the same strength as the force it exerts on
you. But, Earth is trillions of times more massive than you.
Because the mass of Earth is so large, you dont notice the
force you exert on Earth.
Do Newtons laws apply to objects in space?
3.
Explain Why dont you

move Earth when you jump
into a swimming pool?
4.
Think Critically When
Gravitational forces are at work even in distant galaxies.

The Sun exerts a gravitational force on Earth and the other
planets. The planets exert an equal but opposite force on the
Sun. The forces the planets exert on the Sun affect its
motion a little. When astronomers study stars that are very
far away, they observe the motion of these stars. They look
for differences in their motion that might be caused by
planets. By doing this, astronomers are able to find planets
that they cant see because they are too far away.
Combining the Laws

When you jump, which laws of motion can tell you what
will happen? All three laws can. For example, when you
push on the ground to jump, the ground pushes up on you
with an equal force in the opposite direction. This is the
third law. When the ground pushes up on you, there are
two forces acting on you: the push up from the ground, and
a pull down from gravity. The upward force is stronger, so
the second law tells you that you will move up.
When you leave the ground, the only force acting on you
is gravity. The second law tells you that you will accelerate
in the direction of the unbalanced force. So, gravity slows
you down and then pulls you back toward the ground.
When your feet hit the ground, the ground exerts an
upward force on you. This force is greater than the downward
force of gravity. So, you stop moving down. When you stop
moving, all of the forces acting on you are balanced. The
first law of motion tells you that you will then stay at rest.
you jump into water, the

water exerts a force on you.
It slows you down, but it
does not stop you. Why?
Reading Essentials
383
After You Read

Mini Glossary
third law of motion: forces always act in equal but
opposite pairs
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. What is another way to state the
third law of motion?
a.
b.
3. How can you show the third law of motion with two marbles?
End of
Section
384

Newtons third law of motion.
2. Look at the figure. Use the third law of motion. Label the forces that are applied to each
object as the bowling ball hits the pin.
chapter
24
3
Energy and Energy Resources
1
section
What is energy?
Before You Read

What does the phrase She has a lot of energy mean to you?
Read to Learn
The Nature of Energy
Energy is the ability to cause change. An object that has

energy can make things happen. Look around you. Changes
are happening. Someone might be walking by. Sunshine
might be warming your desk. Maybe you can see the wind
move the leaves on a tree. What changes are happening?
What Youll Learn
what energy is
kinetic energy and
potential energy
the different forms of
energy
Highlight Forms of
Energy As you read this
section, highlight the different
forms of energy. Then write an
example of each type of energy
next to the places you
highlighted.
When is energy noticed?

You have a lot of energy. So does everything around you.
But you only notice this energy when a change takes place.
When a change happens, energy moves from one object to
another. Energy from sunlight moves to the spot on the
desktop and makes it warm. Energy from the wind moves to
leaves. All objects, including desktops and leaves, have energy.
Energy of Motion
Things that move can cause change. Suppose a bowling ball
rolls down the alley and knocks down some bowling pins.
Does this involve energy? A change happens when the pins
fall over. The bowling ball causes this change. Since energy is
the ability to cause change, the bowling ball has energy. The
energy in the movement of the bowling ball makes the pins
fall. The energy an object has because of its motion is kinetic
energy. So as a bowling ball moves, it has kinetic energy. If
an object is not moving, it does not have kinetic energy.
A Organize Information

organize information about the
nature of energy, the energy of
position, and the different forms
of energy.
Reading Essentials
385
How are kinetic energy and speed related?

What would happen to the bowling pins if the bowling
ball rolls faster? More of the pins might fall down or they
might move farther. A faster bowling ball causes more
change to happen than a slower bowling ball. The faster the
bowling ball goes, the more kinetic energy it has. This is
true for all moving objects. Kinetic energy increases as an
object moves faster.
Apply Does a slowermoving object have more
or less kinetic energy than a
faster-moving object?

compare and contrast kinetic
energy and potential energy.
Picture This
2.
Determine Which vase

on the shelves has the most
potential energy?
386
How are kinetic energy and mass related?

Suppose you roll a volleyball down the alley at the same
speed as a bowling ball. Will the volleyball move the pins as
far as the bowling ball will? The answer is no. The volleyball
might not knock down any pins.
How are the volleyball and the bowling ball different?
They are moving at the same speed, but the volleyball has
less mass. The volleyball has less kinetic energy than the
bowling ball because it has less mass. Kinetic energy
increases as the mass of an object increases.
Energy of Position
An object can have energy even if
it is not moving. Look at the vase on
top of the bookcase. The vase does not
have any kinetic energy because it is
not moving. What if it accidentally
falls to the floor? Changes happen.
Gravity pulls the vase downward. The
vase has kinetic energy as it falls.
Where did this energy come from?
When the vase was sitting on the
shelf, it had potential (puh TEN chul)
energy. Potential energy is the energy
stored in an object because of its
position. The position of the vase is
its height above the floor. As the vase
falls, the potential energy is
transformed, or changed, from one form to another. It is
transformed into kinetic energy. A vase has more potential
energy if it is higher above the floor. Potential energy also
depends on mass. The more mass an object has, the more
potential energy it has. The objects in the figure have
different amounts of potential energy.
1.
Forms of Energy
Food, sunlight, and wind have energy. But they have
different kinds of energy. The energy in food and sunlight is
different from the kinetic energy in the wind. The warmth
you feel from sunlight is different from kinetic energy or
potential energy.
What is thermal energy?

When you sit near a sunny window, you get warm. The
feeling of warmth is a sign that you are getting more
thermal energy. Thermal energy is energy of an object that
increases as the objects temperature increases. All objects
have thermal energy. In the figure below, a cup of hot
chocolate has more thermal energy than a bottle of cold
water. The bottle of cold water has more thermal energy
than a block of ice with the same mass.
Picture This
3.
Identify Circle the object

with the greatest thermal
energy. Put a box around
the object with the least
thermal energy.
4.
Explain What has stored

chemical energy that your
body uses?
Your body makes thermal energy all the time. Chemical

reactions that happen inside your cells make thermal energy.
Where does this energy come from? Thermal energy is
released by chemical reactions. Thermal energy comes from
another kind of energy called chemical energy.
What is chemical energy?

Chemical energy is the energy stored in chemical bonds.
Some of this energy is released when chemicals are broken
apart and new chemicals are made.
For example, food has chemical energy that your body
uses to help you think, move, and grow. Food has chemicals,
such as sugar. The chemicals are made of atoms that are
bonded together. Energy is stored in the bonds between
atoms. These chemical bonds can be broken down in your
body to release energy.
Also, the flame of a candle comes from chemical energy
stored in wax. When the wax burns, chemical energy changes
into thermal energy and light energy.
Reading Essentials
387
What is radiant energy?
5.
Summarize When does

light energy change to
thermal energy?
Light from the candle flame travels very fast through the
air. It moves at a speed of 300,000 km/s. This is fast enough
to circle Earth almost eight times in 1 s. When light hits an
object, three things can happen. The light can be absorbed
by the object, reflected by the object, or be passed through
the object. When an object absorbs light energy, the object
can get warmer. The light energy changes into thermal
energy. You can feel this happening if you wear a black shirt
outside on a sunny day.
The energy carried by light is radiant energy. You can
use electrical energy to make radiant energy. Imagine a
metal heating coil on an electric stovetop. As it is heated,
it becomes red hot. The hotter it gets, the more radiant
energy it gives off. Electrical energy is being used to make
the heating coil warmer.
6.
Compare Which of the

following can carry the
most current?
a.
b.
c.
d.
9-V battery
220-V electrical outlet
12-V battery
110-V electrical outlet
Electrical energy is used in many ways. Electrical energy

is carried by the electric current that comes out of batteries
and electrical outlets. Electrical lighting uses electrical energy.
Look around at all the devices that use electrical energy.
The amount of electrical energy depends on the voltage.
The current out of a 120-V electrical outlet can carry more
energy than the current out of a 1.5-V battery. Large power
plants are needed to make the huge amount of electrical
energy people use every day. About 20 percent of the
electrical energy made in the United States comes from
nuclear power plants.
What is nuclear energy?

Nuclear power plants use the energy stored in the nucleus
of an atom to make electricity. Nuclear energy is the energy
in the nucleus of every atom. Nuclear energy can be
transformed into other kinds of energy. Releasing nuclear
energy is difficult. Complicated power plants are necessary
to produce nuclear energy. Releasing nuclear energy from an
atom is very different from releasing chemical energy from
wood. To do that, all you need is a lighted match.
388
What is electrical energy?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chemical energy: the energy stored in chemical bonds
electrical energy: the energy carried by the electric current
that comes out of batteries and electrical outlets
energy: the ability to cause change
kinetic energy: the energy an object has because of
its motion
nuclear energy: the energy in the nucleus of every atom.

potential energy: the energy stored in an object because of
its position
radiant energy: the energy carried by light
thermal energy: the energy of an object that increases as
temperature increases
1. Read the key terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. On the lines below,
explain the difference between the terms potential energy and kinetic energy.
2. Match the forms of energy with the correct examples. Write the letter of each example in
Column 2 on the line in front of the form of energy it matches in Column 1.
Column 1
Column 2
1. potential energy
a. the energy that makes a television work
2. kinetic energy
b. a lamp giving off light
3. electrical energy
c. the energy in food
4. thermal energy
d. a ball rolling
5. chemical energy
e. a book sitting on a shelf
6. nuclear energy
f. the energy in a cup of hot tea
7. radiant energy
g. the energy in an atoms nucleus
3. You were asked to highlight the different forms of energy in this section. What do you
think would be another way to help you remember the different forms of energy?

energy.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
389
chapter
24
3
2
section
Energy Transformations
What Youll Learn
to apply the law of

conservation of energy
energy changes form
how electric power
plants make energy
Before You Read

Explain how you used one kind of energy today.
Read to Learn
Highlight the main point in each
paragraph as you read this
section. Study the main points,
then state each point in your
own words.
Energy can have different forms such as chemical,

thermal, radiant, and electrical. All around you, at all times,
energy is being transformed. This means it is changing from
one form to another. You see some of these transformations
when you notice a change in your environment. Forest fires
are an example of a change involving energy. They can
happen naturally because of lightning strikes. Changes also
happen as a mountain biker pedals up a hill.
How can you track energy transformations?
C Describe Make the
following Foldable. Inside,

describe the law of conservation
of energy and give examples.
Law of
Conservation
of Energy
390
A mountain bikers leg muscles transform chemical energy

into kinetic energy as he pedals. The kinetic energy of his
leg muscles is transformed into kinetic energy of the bicycle
as he pedals. As he moves up the hill, some of this energy is
transformed into potential energy.
Some energy also is transformed into thermal energy. His
body is warmer because chemical energy is being released.
The parts of the bicycle are warmer too because of friction.
When energy is transformed, heat energy usually is made.
People exercising, cars running, and living things growing
all produce heat.
The Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy states that energy is
never created or destroyed. The only thing that changes is
the form of the energy.
Changing Forms of Energy

Identify Main Ideas
When the biker is resting at the top of the hill, all of his
original energy is still around. Some of his energy changed
into potential energy. Some changed into thermal energy.
No energy is missing. It can all be accounted for.
Changing Kinetic and Potential Energy

The law of conservation of energy can be used to identify
energy changes in a system. For example, tossing a ball into
the air and catching it is a simple system. As the ball leaves
your hand, most of its energy is kinetic. As it rises, it gets
slower. It loses kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is changed
into potential energy. The amount of kinetic energy that it
loses equals the amount of potential energy that it gains.
The total amount of energy stays the same.
1.
Draw Conclusions
At what point does the ball
have the most potential
energy?
a. when it reaches its
highest point
b. when it leaves your hand
c. just before you catch
the ball
d. halfway up in the air
Energy Changes Form

Energy changes form all the time all around you. Many
machines transform energy from one kind to another. For
example, an automobile engine transforms the chemical
energy in gasoline into kinetic energy. Some of the chemical
energy also is transformed into thermal energy, making the
engine hot. An engine that converts chemical energy into
more kinetic energy and less thermal energy is a more
efficient engine. New kinds of cars use an electric motor
along with a gasoline engine. These engines are more
efficient so the car can travel farther on a gallon of gas.
How is chemical energy transformed?

Chemical energy can be transformed into kinetic energy
inside your body. This happens in muscle cells. Chemical
reactions take place and cause certain molecules to change
shape. Many of these changes make your muscles contract.
This makes a part of your body move.
Biomass Biomass is the matter in living organisms.
Biomass contains chemical energy. When organisms die,
chemical compounds in their biomass break down. Bacteria,
fungi, and other organisms help change these chemical
compounds into simpler chemicals. These simpler chemicals
are used by other living things.
Thermal energy also is released when these biomass
breaks down. For example, as a compost pile decomposes,
chemical energy is changed into thermal energy. The
temperature of a compost pile can reach 60C.
2.
Summarize What kind

of energy does bacteria and
fungi help transform?
Reading Essentials
391
How is electrical energy transformed?

You use electrical energy every day. When you flip a light
switch or turn on a radio, electrical energy is transformed
into other forms of energy. You use electrical energy when
you plug something into an electrical outlet or use a battery.
Hearing Sounds The figure shows how electrical energy is
transformed into other kinds of energy when you listen to a
radio. A loudspeaker in the radio changes electrical energy
into sound waves. The sound waves travel to your ear. This is
energy in motion. The energy carried by the sound waves
makes parts of your ear move too. This energy of motion is
transformed into chemical and electrical energy in nerve
cells. The nerve cells send the energy to your brain. Your
brain figures out that the energy is a voice or music. Where
does the energy go after the brain? It finally is transformed
into thermal energy.
Picture This
Identify What kind of
energy travels through the
air from a radio?
Electrical
energy
of radio
signal
Kinetic
energy
of
speaker
Sound
energy
of air
Kinetic
energy
of eardrum
and fluid
Electrical
energy
of brain and
nerve cells
What changes into thermal energy?
4.
Check Understanding
How can thermal energy be
used to make kinetic energy?
392
Different kinds of energy can be transformed into thermal

energy. When something burns, chemical energy changes into
thermal energy. Electrical energy changes into thermal energy
when a wire that is carrying an electrical current gets hot.
Thermal energy can be used to heat buildings and keep
you warm. Thermal energy also can be used to heat water.
If you heat water to its boiling point, it changes to steam.
Steam can be used by steam engines to make kinetic energy.
Steam engines were once used on steam locomotives to pull
trains. Thermal energy also can be transformed into radiant
energy. This happens when you heat a metal bar until it is
so hot that it glows and gives off heat.
3.
Energy Transformations
How does thermal energy move?

Thermal energy can move from one place to another. A
cup of hot chocolate has thermal energy. Its thermal energy
moves from the cup to the cooler air around it. Thermal
energy only moves from something at a higher temperature
to something at a lower temperature.
5.
Describe Imagine you

are taking a hot pan out
of the oven using an oven
mitt. Describe where
thermal energy moves in
this example.
6.
Define What machine
Generating Electrical Energy

Where does the electrical energy in an electrical outlet
come from? It must be made all the time by power plants.
In fossil fuel power plants, coal, oil, or natural gas is burned
to boil water. Steam from the boiling water rushes through a
turbine. A turbine is a machine that has a set of fan blades
that are close together. The steam pushes on the blades and
turns the turbine. The turbine rotates a shaft in the
generator A generator is a device that changes kinetic
energy into electrical energy. All power plants work in a
similar waythey use energy to turn a generator.
Are there different kinds of power plants?

Almost 90 percent of the electrical energy in the United
States comes from nuclear and fossil fuel power plants. Other
kinds of power plants are hydroelectric (hi droh ih LEK trihk)
and wind. Hydroelectric power plants use generators to
change the kinetic energy of moving water into electrical
energy. Wind power plants use generators to change the
kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy.
You can diagram the energy transformations in a power
plant using arrows. A power plant that burns coal makes
energy through the following energy transformations.
Nuclear power plants also use energy transformations like
the ones below.
turns a generator to make

electricity?
chemical
thermal
kinetic
kinetic
electrical
energy energy energy energy of energy out
of coal
of water of steam
turbine
of generator
How are hydroelectric power plants different?

Hydroelectric power plants do not change water into
steam. This is because the water hits the turbine. So the first
two steps in the diagram are not needed. The process starts
with the kinetic energy of the water.
Reading Essentials
393
After You Read

Mini Glossary
generator: a device that transforms kinetic energy into
electrical energy
law of conservation of energy: states that energy is
never created or destroyed
turbine: a set of steam-powered fan blades that spins a

generator at a power plant
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a paragraph about
how a turbine and a generator are used to make electrical energy.
2. Fill in the blanks to tell what type of energy is being transformed as a biker rides
a bicycle.
energy.
Energy from the food makes the bikers muscles contract. So the energy from the food is transformed into
energy in the muscles.
The movement of the bikers muscles

makes the biker hot. So some of the
energy in the muscles is transformed into
energy.
End of
Section
394
The bikers contracting muscles move

the pedals on the bike. So some of the
energy in the muscles is transformed into
energy in the pedals.

energy transformations.
When a biker eats food, the food is transformed into
chapter
24
3
3
section
Sources of Energy
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
You must plug in most appliances before they will work.

Where does the energy in an electrical outlet come from?
Read to Learn
what renewable,
nonrenewable, and
alternative resources are
the advantages and
disadvantages of using
different energy sources
Identify Details As you
Using Energy
Energy is used every day to provide light and heat to

homes, schools, and workplaces. The law of conservation of
energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It
can only change form. If a car or refrigerator cannot create
energy, where does the energy come from?
read this section, highlight the

text each time that you read
about an energy source.
Energy Resources
Energy must come from the natural world. The surface of
Earth gets energy from two places. It comes from the Sun
and radioactive atoms in Earths interior. Earth gets far more
energy from the Sun than is made in Earths interior. Almost
all the energy you use today can be traced to the Sun. Even
the gasoline used to power a car can be traced to the Sun.
Surface
of Earth
Radiant
energy
from
the Sun
D Organize Information

organize information about the
fossil fuels, nuclear energy,
hydroelectric energy, and
alternative sources of energy.
Thermal energy
from radioactive
atoms
Reading Essentials
395
Fossil Fuels
Picture This
1.
Identify What three

things changed the plant
molecules into coal
molecules?
Fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas. Oil and natural
gas were made from the remains of microscopic organisms.
These organisms lived in Earths oceans millions of years
ago. Heat and pressure slowly turned these organisms into
oil and natural gas. Coal was formed in a similar way.
As shown in the figures below, coal was made from the
remains of plants that once lived on land. Through
photosynthesis (foh toh SIHN thuh sus), ancient plants
transformed the radiant energy from sunlight into chemical
energy. The chemical energy is stored in molecules. Over
time, heat and pressure changed these molecules into fossil
fuel. Chemical energy stored in fossil fuels is released when
the fossil fuels are burned.
Time
Heat
Pressure
Coal mine
Can fossil fuels be replaced?

E Compare and Contrast
Use three quarter-sheets of

notebook paper to help you
compare and contrast
nonrenewable resources,
renewable resources, and
inexhaustible energy sources.
Nonrenewable
Resources
Renewable
Resources
Inexhaustible
Resources
396
Most of the energy you use comes from fossil fuels. It

takes millions of years to replace each drop of gasoline and
each lump of coal that is burned. This means that the
amount of fossil fuels on Earth will keep decreasing as
it is used. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources. A
nonrenewable resource is an energy source that is used up
much faster than it can be replaced.
Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels Burning fossil fuels also
makes chemical compounds that cause pollution. Each year
billions of kilograms of air pollutants are made by burning
fossil fuels. These pollutants cause respiratory illnesses and
acid rain. Carbon dioxide gas is made when fossil fuels are
burned. This carbon dioxide gas might cause Earths climate
to warm.
Radiant energy
Nuclear Energy
Can you imagine 1 kg of fuel that has almost 3 million
times more energy than 1 L of gas? What could have so
much energy in so little mass? The answer is the nuclei of
uranium atoms. When these nuclei break apart, they release
huge amounts of energy. This energy is used to make
electricity by heating water. The figure shows this process.
The water makes steam that spins an electric generator. The
generator makes electricity.
Picture This
2.
Identify What type of

energy does the steam and
the turbine have in a
nuclear power plant?
Electrical Energy from Nuclear Energy

1. Nuclear energy
of atoms
2. Thermal energy
of water
3. Kinetic energy
of steam
4. Kinetic energy
5. Electrical energy
of turbine
Generator
What are the advantages of nuclear energy?

Making electricity by using nuclear energy helps make the
supply of fossil fuels last longer. Nuclear power plants also
produce almost no air pollution. In one year, a typical nuclear
power plant makes enough energy to supply 600,000 homes
with electricity. To do this, it produces only 1 m3 of waste.
What are the disadvantages of nuclear energy?

One disadvantage of nuclear energy is that uranium is a
nonrenewable resource. It comes from Earths crust. Another
disadvantage is that nuclear waste is radioactive and can be
dangerous to living things. Some of the materials in nuclear
waste will remain radioactive for many thousands of years.
This means nuclear waste must be carefully stored so no
radioactivity will be released into the environment for a
long time.
3.
Determine What are

two disadvantages of
nuclear energy?
Reading Essentials
397
How can nuclear waste be stored?

One way to store nuclear waste is to seal it in a ceramic
material that is put in protective containers. Then the containers are buried far underground. The place to bury them
has to be chosen carefully. It cannot be near underground
water supplies. It also has to be safe from earthquakes and
other natural disasters. Earthquakes and other natural
disasters could cause the radioactive material to leak.
Hydroelectricity
Infer Which of the

following is a renewable
resource? Circle your
answer.
a.
b.
c.
d.
water
coal
oil
natural gas
Picture This
5.

energy does the water have
when it ows through the
dam?
1. Potential energy
of water
The potential energy of water trapped behind a dam can

be transformed into electrical energy. Energy made this way
is called hydroelectricity. This is shown in the figure below.
About 20 percent of the worlds electrical energy comes
from water. Hydroelectricity is the largest renewable source
of energy. A renewable resource is an energy source that is
replaced continually. As long as rivers flow, hydroelectric
power plants can make electricity.
Hydroelectricity makes little pollution. This is an advantage
over some other sources of electricity. However, the production of hydroelectricity does have a major disadvantage. It
upsets the life cycle of some animals that live in the water.
Dams have caused problems for salmon in the Northwest.
Salmon return to the spot where they were hatched to lay
their eggs. Many salmon cannot reach these places because
of dams. There are plans to remove some dams and build
fish ladders to help fish go around other dams.
2. Kinetic energy
of water
3. Kinetic energy
of turbine
398
4. Electrical energy
out of generator
Long-distance
power lines
4.
Are energy consumption and production equal?

More energy is being consumed, or used, in the United
States than is being produced, or made. You use energy
every dayto get to school, to watch TV, and to heat or
cool your home. The amount of energy used by an average
person has increased. Therefore, more energy must be made.
The graph shows energy consumption and production by
the United States from 1949 to 1999.
Applying Math
Energy (quadrillion Btu)
U.S. Energy Overview, 19491999

6.
120
90
Consumed in
the United States
About what year did the

United States start
consuming more energy
than it produced?
Energy imports
60
30
Reading Graphs
Produced in
the United States
0
1949 1954 1959 1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999
Year
Alternative Sources of Energy

There are many ways to make electrical energy. Each has
disadvantages that can affect the environment and humans.
Alternative resources are being researched. Alternative
resources are new sources of energy that are safer and less
harmful to the environment. Alterative resources include
solar energy, wind energy, and geothermal energy.
Solar Energy
The Sun is an inexhaustible resource. An inexhaustible
resource is an energy source that cannot be used up by
humans. The amount of solar energy that hits the United
States in one day is more than the total amount of energy
used by the country in one year. But less than 0.1 percent of
the energy used in the United States comes directly from
solar energy. One reason is that solar energy is more expensive to use than fossil fuels. However, as the supply of fossil
fuels decreases, it might become more expensive to find and
mine fossil fuels. It might also become more expensive to
mine them from Earth. Then, it might be cheaper to use
solar energy or other energy sources to make electricity.
7.

resource is the Sun?
Reading Essentials
399
How is the Suns energy collected?

Two types of collectors take in the Suns rays. Have you
ever seen large rectangular panels on the roofs of houses or
buildings? These are collectors for solar energy.
Thermal Collector If the panels had pipes coming out of
them, they were thermal collectors. A thermal collector uses
a black surface to absorb the Suns radiant energy. Black
absorbs more radiant energy than any other color. The
thermal collector uses the Suns radiant energy to heat water.
The water can be heated to about 70C. The hot water can
be pumped through a house to provide heat. It can also be
used for washing and bathing.
8.
Apply Why are thermal

collectors black?
Photovoltaic If the panel has no pipes, it is a photovoltaic

(foh toh vohl TAY ihk) collector. A photovoltaic is a device
that transforms radiant energy directly into electrical
energy. Photovoltaics are used in calculators and satellites.
They also are used on the International Space Station.
Imagine you could go to the center of Earth, about 6,400

km below the surface. As you went deeper and deeper, the
temperature would increase. After going only about 3 km,
the temperature would be warm enough to boil water. At a
depth of 100 km, the temperature could be over 900C.
The heat made inside Earth is called geothermal energy.
Some geothermal energy is made when unstable radioactive
atoms inside Earth decay. This transforms nuclear energy
into thermal energy. At some places deep within Earth, the
temperature is hot enough to melt rock. Melted, or molten,
rock is called magma. Magma rises up close to the surface
through cracks in Earths crust. Magma reaches the surface
when a volcano erupts. In other places, magma gets close to
the surface and heats the rock around it.
What are geothermal reservoirs?
9.
Determine What does

the magma in geothermic
reservoirs turn water into?
400
In some places, magma is very close to Earths surface.

Rainwater and water from melted snow can seep down to
the magma through the cracks and openings in Earths
surface. The magma heats the water and it can become
steam. The hot water and steam can be trapped under high
pressure in cracks and pockets. These are called geothermal
reservoirs. Geothermal reservoirs are sometimes close
enough to the surface to make hot springs and geysers.
Geothermal Energy
How is geothermal power made?

Wells can be drilled to reach geothermal reservoirs in
places where the reservoirs are less than several kilometers
deep. Hot water and steam from geothermal energy is used
by geothermal power plants to make electricity.
Picture This
Geothermal Power Plant

The steam is cooled
in the cooling towers
and condenses into
water.
10.
pumped back down into a

geothermic reservoir from a
geothermic power plant:
steam, hot water, or cool
water?
The water is
pumped back
down into the
geothermal
reservoir.
Hot water from

a geothermal
reservoir forces
its way through
a pipe to the
surface where it
turns to steam.
Interpret an
Illustration Which is
es
The steam turns a

turbine that is
connected to an
electric generator.
The figure shows how geothermal reservoirs make

electricity. Geothermal power is an inexhaustible resource.
But geothermal power plants can be built only where
geothermal reservoirs are close to Earths surface, like in the
western United States.
How are heat pumps used?

Geothermal heat usually keeps the temperature of the
ground that is several meters deep at 10 to 20C. This
constant temperature can be used to heat or cool buildings
by using a heat pump.
During the summer, the air is warmer than the ground
below. A heat pump sends warm water from the building
through the cooler ground. The water cools and then is
pumped back to the building to absorb heat. In the winter,
the air is cooler than the ground below. Then, the cool
water absorbs heat from the ground and releases it from the
heat pump into the building.
11.
Explain Why does the

cool water in the building
absorb heat in the summer?
Reading Essentials
401
Energy from the Oceans
12.
Explain What kind of

resource is the movement
of the ocean?
The ocean is constantly moving. If you have been to the

seashore, you have seen the waves roll in. If you spent the day
at the beach, you may have also seen the level of the ocean
rise and fall. The rise and fall in the ocean level is called a
tide. The movement of the ocean is an inexhaustible source
of mechanical energy. Mechanical energy can be transformed
into electric energy. Several electric power plants that use the
motion in ocean waves, or tidal energy, have been built.
How much change in water level is needed?

A high tide and a low tide each happen about twice a day.
In most places, the level of the ocean changes by only a few
meters. In some places, it changes by much more. In the Bay
of Fundy in Eastern Canada, the ocean level changes by
16 m between high tide and low tide. Almost 14 trillion kg
of water move into or out of the bay between high tide and
low tide. This tidal energy makes enough electricity to
power about 12,000 homes.
Picture This
13.
Highlight Use a
highlighter to trace the ow
of water into and out of the
tidal power plant.
The figures below show how the power plant that has
been built along the Bay of Fundy works. The first figure
shows that as the tide rises, water flows through a turbine.
The turbine causes a generator to spin, which makes
electricity. The water is then trapped behind a dam. The
second figure shows that when the tide goes out, the
trapped water is released. It flows through the turbine
making the generator spin. This makes more electricity.
Electric power is made each day for about 10 hours.
Tidal energy is a clean, inexhaustible resource. But, only a
few places have a large enough difference between high and
low tide to build an electric power plant.
Tidal Power Plant
Ocean
Ocean
Turbine
402
Turbine
How is tidal energy used to make electricity?
Wind
Wind is another inexhaustible supply of energy. Modern
windmills, like the ones in the figure, transform the kinetic
energy of the wind into electrical energy. Electrical energy is
made when wind spins the propeller. The propeller is
connected to a generator, which makes electricity. These
windmills produce almost no pollution. But windmills do
make a lot of noise. You also need a large area of land to
place a lot of windmills. Also, studies have shown that birds
sometimes are killed by windmills.
Picture This
14.
Infer Why do you think
the windmills shown in the

gure are placed on top of
mountains instead of
between hills or
mountains?
Conserving Energy
Fossil fuels are a valuable resource. They are burned to
provide energy. Oil and coal can be used to make plastics
and other materials. To make the supply of fossil fuels last
longer, people need to use less energy. Using less energy is
called conserving energy.
You can save money by conserving energy. You should
turn off appliances like televisions when you are not using
them to conserve energy. Keep doors and windows closed
tightly when it is hot or cold outside. This will keep heat
from leaking out of or into your house. If cars were used
less or were made more efficient, they would use less gas
and oil, and therefore less energy. You also help conserve
energy when you recycle aluminum cans and glass.
15.
Describe What is
another way you can
conserve energy?
Reading Essentials
403
After You Read

Mini Glossary
alternative resources: new renewable or inexhaustible
energy sources
inexhaustible resource: an energy source that cannot be
used up by humans
nonrenewable resource: an energy source that is used up
much faster than it can be replaced
photovoltaic: a device that transforms radiant energy

directly into electrical energy
renewable resource: an energy source that is replaced
continually
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. What is the difference
between a renewable resource and a nonrenewable resource?
2. Write as many examples of renewable, nonrenewable, and inexhaustible resources in the

chart as you can.
Nonrenewable Resources
Inexhaustible Resources
3. You were asked to highlight the text each time you read about an energy source. How
did this help you learn about energy sources?
End of
Section
404

sources of energy.
Renewable Resources
Nat7_p405-IBC_MSS05_RE 6/9/04 2:05 PM Page 405 impos06 301:goscanc:Reading Essentials - FM-BM-AK:layouts:
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

Gas
Columns of elements are called groups. Elements in

the same group have similar chemical properties.
Liquid
Element
Atomic number
Hydrogen
1
Lithium
3
H
1.008
The first three symbols tell you the state

of matter of the element at room
temperature. The fourth symbol
identifies elements that are not present
in significant amounts on Earth. Useful
amounts are made synthetically.
Beryllium
4
Li
Be
6.941
9.012
Sodium
11
Magnesium
12
Na
Mg
22.990
24.305
Potassium
19
Calcium
20
Scandium
21
Titanium
22
Vanadium
23
Synthetic
State of
matter
Symbol
Atomic mass
1.008
Solid
Hydrogen
Chromium
24
Manganese
25
Iron
26
Cobalt
27
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
39.098
40.078
44.956
47.867
50.942
51.996
54.938
55.845
58.933
Rubidium
37
Strontium
38
Yttrium
39
Zirconium
40
Niobium
41
Molybdenum
42
Technetium
43
Ruthenium
44
Rhodium
45
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
85.468
87.62
88.906
91.224
92.906
95.94
(98)
101.07
102.906
Cesium
55
Barium
56
Lanthanum
57
Hafnium
72
Tantalum
73
Tungsten
74
Rhenium
75
Osmium
76
Iridium
77
Cs
Ba
La
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
132.905
137.327
138.906
178.49
180.948
183.84
186.207
190.23
192.217
Francium
87
Radium
88
Actinium
89
Rutherfordium
104
Dubnium
105
Seaborgium
106
Bohrium
107
Hassium
108
Meitnerium
109
Fr
Ra
Ac
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
(223)
(226)
(227)
(261)
(262)
(266)
(264)
(277)
(268)
The number in parentheses is the mass number of the longest-lived isotope for that element.
Rows of elements are called

periods. Atomic number
increases across a period.
The arrow shows where these

elements would fit into the
periodic table. They are moved
to the bottom of the table to
save space.
Cerium
58
Lanthanide
series
Actinide
series
Praseodymium
59
Neodymium
60
Promethium
61
Samarium
62
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
140.116
140.908
144.24
(145)
150.36
Thorium
90
Protactinium
91
Uranium
92
Neptunium
93
Plutonium
94
Th
Pa
Np
Pu
232.038
231.036
238.029
(237)
(244)
Metal
Visit gpscience.com for updates to
the periodic table.
Metalloid
18
Nonmetal
13
Nickel
28
11
Boron
5
12
Copper
29
15
16
17
He
4.003
The color of an elements block

tells you if the element is a
metal, nonmetal, or metalloid.
10
14
Helium
2
Zinc
30
Carbon
6
Nitrogen
7
Oxygen
8
Fluorine
9
Neon
10
Ne
10.811
12.011
14.007
15.999
18.998
20.180
Aluminum
13
Silicon
14
Phosphorus
15
Sulfur
16
Chlorine
17
Argon
18
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
26.982
28.086
30.974
32.065
35.453
39.948
Gallium
31
Germanium
32
Arsenic
33
Selenium
34
Bromine
35
Krypton
36
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
58.693
63.546
65.409
69.723
72.64
74.922
78.96
79.904
83.798
Palladium
46
Silver
47
Cadmium
48
Indium
49
Tin
50
Antimony
51
Tellurium
52
Iodine
53
Xenon
54
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
106.42
107.868
112.411
114.818
118.710
121.760
127.60
126.904
131.293
Platinum
78
Gold
79
Mercury
80
Thallium
81
Lead
82
Bismuth
83
Polonium
84
Astatine
85
Radon
86
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
195.078
196.967
200.59
204.383
207.2
208.980
(209)
(210)
(222)
Darmstadtium
110
Unununium
111
Ununbium
112
Ununquadium
114
Uub
Uuq
Ds
(281)
* Uuu
(272)
(285)
* * 116
* * 118
(289)
names and symbols for elements 111114 are temporary. Final names will be selected when the elements discoveries are verified.
* TheElements
116 and 118 were thought to have been created. The claim was retracted because the experimental results could not be repeated.
**
Europium
63
Gadolinium
64
Terbium
65
Dysprosium
66
Holmium
67
Erbium
68
Thulium
69
Ytterbium
70
Lutetium
71
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
151.964
157.25
158.925
162.500
164.930
167.259
168.934
173.04
174.967
Americium
95
Curium
96
Berkelium
97
Californium
98
Einsteinium
99
Mendelevium
101
Nobelium
102
Lawrencium
103
Fermium
100
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
(243)
(247)
(247)
(251)
(252)
(257)
(258)
(259)
(262)

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After You Read

physical property: characteristic that can be observed

Properties and Changes of Matter

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The Nature of Science

How Science Works

Before You Read

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What Youll Learn

about the science of

Underline Main Ideas

Is that buried treasure?

A Find Main Ideas Make

the following Foldable to help

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Infer Which of the

Ms. Garcia reminded the students that the pottery might

Juan used an encyclopedia to find out that archaeology is a

Identify A land bridge

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Researching the Past

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Explain What kind of

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What happened to artifacts found at a site?

Infer Why do you think

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After You Read

technology: use of knowledge gained through scientic

A scientist called an ____________________________ is contacted to study the object.

Hand shovels and ____________________________ are used to uncover artifacts.

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Scientic Problem Solving

Before You Read

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What Youll Learn

the steps in scientic

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What are the steps in a scientific method?

Make the following Foldable to

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Prepare Name another

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