Professional Documents
Culture Documents
'.'
'.:
McAllister
Chapter 3
commercialization, and the birth of industrial production in the mid1800s, the household economy yielded to a market-based econorny in
which families increasingly worked outside the homc (Kelly, 1999' p 5)'
Because a market-based economy "...increased the spatial and social
distance between home and work," the differenccs btween public/male
and private/female wcre expanded (Kelly' 1999' p. 20). By the carly
twentieth century, the seParation of the sPheres was in full force With
their spherc being the home, women were isolated from most political'
intotlectual, and public life.
Alihough their political role was greatly limited, affluent white
women found an opportunity io express themselves through the various
women's clubs that supPorted suffrage and through the ideology of the
republican moiher (a romanticism of domestic duties and motherhood in
which women's patriotic duty was to cducate their sons to be virtuous
citizens). Rhetorically grounded in the ideal of the republican mothcr,
they fought for a larger role in setting public policy. Thus, women's
suffrage organizations conducted 480 suffrage campaigns in 33 states
from i870 to 1910, and membership in the National American Womei's
"
ii,
i,
:l.:
rt ;4rrrl:\: -!-i.
Goodman
40
'
fronr 1893 to l9l0 (FlcxncL'
I /J
Suffr[gc Associntion Incrclsco' '"lo
19?51
Kraditor, l98l).
was
Coincidin! with the increase in women's agitation for suffrage
rgc'st-Prrct'
l
threc
thc
including
magazincs
ths lisc of Amcrican humor
widely quoted'
Jutlge, a\d Ldi, Thcsc humor magszines "were read and
orher periodicals
and"they popularizcd humor to such an extent that many
ilttnd ii atlvisablc to mnilltrin dcPartmcnts consisting entircly of originnl
l90l' p 490)
Thc
to"iuf
or.t"nriont,
humor
this chapter] then, is to explore how cartoons in a rcpresentative
the
during
ideologies
antisuffragist
and
masazine reflect suffragist
for
presents
argumcots
also
The
chapter
movement.
*oilcn', srffrog"
and
were
reflecrcd
ideologies
antisuffragist
and/or
suffiagist
why certain
may be'
others ignored as well as what the implications ofthe cartoons
the theoincorporates
In i-nvcstigating.these questions, this chapter
and
media
on
thcories
feminist
retical frameiorki of hegemony and
naturalizadon
systemltic
to
the
refcrs
pakiarchal ideology. Hcgemony
.of
itre ruling classii "alues and'idcas io form mass consent of the
cstabtish;d social ordcr; it is how the ruling class maintains its
dominance without overt force (Gramsci' 19?l; Gitlin, 1980; Shoemaker
& Rcese, 1996). Key to hegemony is the role of ideology' which serves
as a unifying forcJ in socicty (Shoemaker & Rcese, 1996) ''Under
dynamic
hegemony, id-eology is regarded as an essentially conflicted and
oro'..rr. *tti"h
toit
in thcir
own
of
of
it
l'
is
Historianscitcthel848SenecaFallsmeeting_thefirstnational
women's rights convention-as the beginning of the women's suffrage-' ^
movement becuor" pan of the Proposed rcforms wcre for the Yotc.
Although there were many women's rights conventions after the initial
Seneca Falls meeting, the
women's activities.
these
.r
/-
,'
Goodman
lwo leading women's rights factions (Scott & Scott, l9Z5! Kraditor.
l98l). -NAWSA'was able to gain full women's suffrage in Colorado,
-Utah,-and ldaho. between 1890 and
1896. Howcver, from 1896 to 1910,
was enough ofa threat to motivate the opposition's organization (Scott &
Scon,'1975, p. 25). Beginning in the 1870s with thc founding of thc fiIst
rr't'''
43
Wih religion,
(Kraditor, l98l ).
The second type
of
I
Womcn's Suffragc Movement
alrcady had great influcnce over men through the home and raising thcir
sons (Scott & Scott, 1975).
determlnrsm yt"t.t-v"-]
Suffragists countered the biological
point:'^ll:tt"n
th" defense
Thev
. ,"ri"g,t,ti"ii"i, 'i"t'lt
"ttickcd
ot
werc.a
1ru,"-tl::*li*
; .litf"Lcnces by nrgurng rnar rr iirysicalof.nbilitics
scrvicc'should
military
entcring
' votinc legitimacy, onty
feeble
"ttn
of "op"Ut"was not thJcase; elderlv and'
;:ii"ff;;;;i" Thi'vote
"oti""
even though th"f dti,l::,lil" jl:Xt{tl:'l
-"n\i,r"
allowed to
ffil;;;;;;;
!8el):.l"il
menalsowelepreven(edlromvotingbecausetheywerc.illiterate
iill**i', 'Gi,;in"'
T1':-q.*Pl',ll ffi illill'l,l',,*"'"'
--- -.-Suffragists' resPonse to. ar&u-mcn$ 4IJlJu! Pvv"vrvor
emotionalism
and
irn'tionalily
ni^i,i"t'o."iA.a'iltusuadons of men's
French Cham-
in the
ntrce stone Blackw-ell ciiea ini riots
i"t
and. beard-pulling
^u"r "^""ini.t,
Cornmons'
of
fistfights in the House
i
(Blacl(wll
behavior
irrational
men's
Nebraska Senate as cases of
I in the"iili"ir".'
I
iii K;",tli;;;]b8 I j.
i",;[""i"^f
'
sccond, sufrrasists
-compared,':",:-111^Y::.:
uscd cxatnplcs or ttrcn
::;Jtil;;j'b:ilio'' ,ri"" Ilowirtl show
ancl knocking off ench othcr's litj
rH;;;; ti'.".rt "trt"t
"T'ltga
ncve! act rn sucn
ionu"n,ions ond stated women would
t##i$;;iliiaditor,
wcrc
worncn
tlrrt
".riil"or
198l)' As for the rrgurnent
women
gttt
,*","rf v-fii.ti*' suffragists poiotcd out thata comPadson":l-1"-t:'::"
was. unJust
training that men had so such
(Knrrliror, l98l)'
sociologlcal in tlnturc' Suffr gists
Othcr points of dcbate wcrs morc
and therefore'
""h;;;;;;;y
were being taxed withoui iepresentation
women were wage
ballot for self-protection Because more
;;;;;"
needed rhe vore to prolect
ililJ^,'i.,'owio ,"ia *o*ing class women
stanton, 1882) rhev arsucd that their
;#;1;;;i;ifutor, lesi
wages were lorv because *uc::. o:," i:1":1":.^':'::"*'"3::t:::"'i
i"lng pJliticatty inferior' working women cannot
t*,il.'*-t;;t*
*ith noting mcn (Kelley' 1898)'
*"'f,;Jf.*ti*neto;cally
.o*p"t"
countered the taxation-without-rePresen-
They showed.that
ction justification in several ways'
t"tt;;;;;;:ile
'rvitie-n.
taxation without
of
cry
colonists'
the
;"*
ily taxes and that
."p;"*"*i;i'i'"' related to their,dcsi::-i"i,llji"l")i:11::*t:l;li
:ffi!:"i3:1;'il-,;,ii{tit
[il*'"",*il:Hit"",i,;r:*:T;::;]
the {irst tenement housc
inctuding
votc'
their
witho'-ut
il;;;;;*d
said' women
iaws (canhi' 1ee4)' Finalv' it,was
1..- i;;';i;;;;;il
45
l'biologically belonging to neither sex" and urged mcn not to marry thcs
, mannish womcn (Bcnjamin, 1991, p. 82). AntiEuffragisas ven wamcd
, that with cquality of thc sexes women would havc to go to war and
.bacrilice chivalry (Ramee, 1909; Winston, 1896).
Suffrngists of coursc rcsponded (o thcsc point$ in thcir publlc dhtoursc. Thc incrcascd sllrlus and social position of women provided
suffragists' with ftetorical matcrial. Because working womcn live alone,
''men do not represent them (Lowe, l9l2). Suffragists also insisted the
vote would help them in their roles as wives and mothers. Mothers need, cd ihc vote and the knowledge of the inncr workings of the govemment
make their children "loyal and patriotic citizens" (Drukker, 1897, p.
. Without the vote, women "camot possibly be capable of transmitg the enlightencd ideas, the breadth of vision, the power of calm judgwhich come with the exercise of this civic function in a frce gov(Drukker, 1897, p.260). Furthermore, suffragists said the vote
vould help thcm protcct the home from immorality (Winston, 1896).
.i,,. In summary, the content of suffrage and antisuffrag justifications
often biological, religious, or sociological in naiurc, bu! ahe two
were not equally balanced along these three dimensions.
arguments tended to use rcligion and biology as tbeir main
weapons. Their prcdominant sociological justification was thu
,
46
Goodman
;;;;i. ;if;t.
il;;"#;;";"oons
began dominating
ca111t"::l t^::".
.,
,,..":{:#::''i;J?,1-:',"l,il,llffii;;;;i;,t;"
t:
in the media
was
Methodology
l"trt-ii.
and
cite Ly'e as
a.i.rson, 1964) seconi' magazine historicns
Ly'c
p
l42)'.Fin3llv'
inrluential of its time (sloan;' 1987'
iJ""i","io*i,
:;;ft; #,
;;";;;;;il;-pression
,i""
"'i
irl"t^r "".i".t"
hurnoa
same
-was
grad-
."*"r"llt" itt""
folded
and
rime'
;-I"";-d;g
i".r?tt
"iiit""r"
:tit"l:L:1t
j:::''.'J"ffi
:,jl':l
::1i
li:*;:"i:*:*:.:L:t*':.';nff
that supthe interests included' and lhe strategies
ii.'ti"lrr"rv;, """,e,
Along these
;;;;l"o;"l"tv.
:iil; t"id;
will
focus
the
-on
reflected in the
and aniisuffrage ideologies that were
themes that arose from the
cartoons but will also note any additional
prominent suf-frage. and
most
the
4i."",,t.".- a.ti"t discovering
the role of dominant
addresses.
this
."ii*ffr^*" "tt".ents,
implicrtions
ia."j"gv i" tn" J"n"ons, and rhe'hapter
In analyzing the
Lfe
of this ideology
author
cartoons and their ideological imPort' the
Coodman
48
cxamincd thc chtractcrs' facial expressio[s, posturcs, actiols' apPearanccs, and thc unfolding sccne itr general. The author also looked at tl'ts
verbal componcnts of (he cartoons, espccially because captions may
guidc the reader toward the dominant system's prefencd, coded meaning
;rnd au'ay from altcrnativc meanings (Barthcs' 1977).
Suffragists in
,l/c
Magazinc Cartoons
as
Tbe sections below focus on the 158 cartoons that were concordant
with the specific points in the suffragist movement and the debates it
sparked. The cartoons as a whole show a strong leaning toward anti'
suffragist argulncnts.
irzinc cartoons throughout the (ime period studied. Howevcr' alrrong thc
214 cartoons, only the biological and sociological argumcnts wore found,
constituting approximately 7070 of the cartoons (158 of the samplc)' Thc
lack of argurnents based on rcligious issucs reflected in the cartoons may
bc duc to rcligion's conflittion wilh othcr atgumcnts' plrticularly sociological. During this cril, socicty bclicved that womcn had a special in-
as
Goodman
50
5l
t.*r*i'ilitrffi *int**l*:':ru
lr't :ilrit
Iit*jtilitl;l# :ti' ff lji :#:r*:: lnu
ijifr
y_,
^_
l ? J,_
a+.r
"-;ct ,.%h' .
-, lf:x,,..
-r-.----
i.i"ffi'l?':;ki,*li:::l''J'li"l';'il"i"lx?lr;lliii
;lrx*l#-,*T**'m#fftff
r,?:ril":idi
'"ili,"'3Loln",,.onwomen's*ilft
li,,"liliii:?;'i:"*...ii..1,..iifl
'"":litTlt#1#,'ffi
i*r-r'."*"*,"-Jl"T;,':f,'JJl,;:::
;j*,{i$.j''"'1"i:'.".*.'fill*:'*Li,*'.xil:Tl':#I.
Suffragist
SociologY and the
trllntr:##,ntfrT:il#n:ffi
NEWS ITEM
\!^S TIADE YESTI'RDAT
SIII!'RTCI:TTJ:S TO
'\ Trlti coul{l lrorst,
orr: of Tllc
Figurc 3.1. From
'I
ii
Lif. { l9l0,
DESTROY
**n*'l*'i*tggs$sgali$*ffi
:']i' ::il1ff i:
*;ln;*ilru
if;ffi LIT;iiTdt","::
g
I
i
52
Goodman
)J
walking out the door to joiD a march, One of the marchers has a sign
reading, "Man is tyrant." This cartoon clearly supports the antisuffragist
conclusion that women in politics blurs the spheres and eventually leads
to the destruction of the home because the notion of family is built on the
separation of the public and private sphercs (Abbott, 1903; Collins,
l9l2). With the home destroyed, progress ended and racial suicide
ensued.
;.1
ai o.
:F
:<
':-
IL ll,
1to
i.
t\i
t)
Goodman
*Tt'*i##:'#i$'*"'**,''mfiilfu
'n"
lH:iii"i:S"""r,':"i*:';*lil,::,f fitl""",,-"m:i:i"A
;:illff#?*""':
th" antisuffrasist
l"ue.se
claim
;:; ll5l:
*tl"t *j*'::.-'::{:::t'*.i;
:;lli"-"i,.. r"ut
fn:l
uno
";lliy:'
[il[.;tx*''s'zu':$'##il:l;4i;::'nli:i;::*I'*
*-l
on war
which
study
1".;';";.;;;ic
Protcstors'
soci"tal values,
'*1'"',1il1"'f
.'i:|fi
oroer'
ultimately destroys the social
;ff.#T":',if,
$'i1#i*ll;**::r:i:*;lf.:"ruli
ttpbll-TTl?l'*",
iraniagc themes-'
i"i1i"if ;T'-t::":{**'l',:X"*:
that.mamatE-141
canoon (Figure 3 5)' was
ii"*nliio"pi""tT"""ll..'-if ";Jl'f"'ilT'"rt^t""il',::T;'i:il:i"";
and matrimonv-wt* . "
.,eugenics."
are
-t:-"^1';;';:rini.i
rErrxxr'-*ona suf-fragist tents
RePresentatives lrom mc
---,.ra..-ntttft"taor",
d': :li'"Tff;Ti::,':$1"#l;:l
;:i;;"i; ."ii''"
wear glasses' oPrt.3
arc unaufactive,
*:1;;*lr
i:1"'""T"'
"t',:lL1':::u-^*lih*
*rulllr"-;tl r;;' ,',r
"to*a
of
'*: ::i"l:
f#r*Ti;I*1n*"x;1:l;'r*:T:1il:ff l#11:
iiil"" *;,."ot :h'j?ffi$"il;
surftagism
the
.booths_indeed,
'l;ii1"'#l':l
)o
Goodrnan
57
women's fears. During this era, spinsterhood made for an uneasy future
bcclusc wolllcll hrd littlc indcpcndencc and dcpendcd on mcn for thcir
subsistcncc (Kclly, 1999). Thcreforc, a woman's inability to find a
husband thrcatened one's life. Another such carloon, appearing in the
Septcmber 22, 1910 issue, also plays on rhese fears by showing Cupid
holding up his hand in a "STOP'gesture to a group of suffragists to
"ban" them from lovc (p. 468). Clearly, thesc types of cartoons support
(hc anl.isuffragist argumcnt that marriago and family constitute women's
true natures (Abbott, 1903).
:.:
<+
<i
odoli
ct
feminists as dowdy, heavy-set women and thc woman heading for the
nlarriirge tcnt as svcltc and fashionablc. Anothcr canoon, from Fcbnrary
9, l9ll, cvcn showcd irn |at(ractivc "riuffragcttc" drcsscd irr nrasculinc
attiro inquiring to a beardcd lady at a circus sidcshow, ,,How did you
manage it?" (p. 315). Depicting suffragists as unfashionable and
Infltronly would bc a typical tactic of this cra. According to Kclly (1999),
socicty used discourses of fashionablc drcss to dcscribe likcd and
disliked women (p. 238).
As for the eugenics tent, it is marginalizcd in the cartoon by its
position on the far right and by its smaller sign. The cartoon seems to
l9r 3).
58
Goodman
li",,
:,r,-:tll{i i:ilJ;:t"J,jttf"r;;"l*I#1
';H|r:,:li'Ji:lliffi :;',.,.#"Tiiij**rn"l*"1:,1;:
:::Tiliii*"'.T"'!{l{ii:l*x*",fffi inlj*ll*lt
l"d;il
il'1,:,1il11i;l:'1"J.i:t'1'J":J:l"l;il;;?sGpard,'1e85r
Taxstion Witltot't Representalion'
c':
!:F
;5
7,o
r^+
a{
i-
i:
t;
l),
l/i
-several
ilfu i u*;
m$i:l+r1
representn(tol-:]c.:ll"J::i;;
"t::i:rmil;*::
of the taxation without
;;;";;"
".1*.':
j?f"m;:lxH::T;ffi .:r":'"r:iil:l
*irT,uj;r;:u
are.ument
<x
m{
It
Hr#
fiiHltl';.:ni:,"lll"*ll'"ilT";l:::l'J1':i""::ii
the
.A::11i"
without rcprcsentation-and equates
theme-taxation
i[1t*tT'jl*::;;*:"1'*':;qilrri,:ii:":-,1iil
;;;;;;;. r.om- man's 'l*"11;,tir'Ll1iirry, $1i,it"',iSii "T llil;
H:iJ,",1i:'ili:1', ilo.,l,iin'l"nlJ1"*'"n'asist
arsuments'
-.. .
;;9i=
ulj
? aZt=
E=iel
<.=.
>|t{
807o
Considering that more than
of the
t{
IJT
*i"o'ing'nti'ot;o'ioon'
:'"*;*i:*i',:'".',",;**;i*ii:"**i*if
f;
l'1'::;:"lH'o
60
Goodman
6l
?q
e{.
PI'
;tq
ridicule" (Murell, 1938, p. l8). When one ridiculcs and belittles one's
opponcnts, one is attcmpting to sccurc domination. Since cartoons express this "wish for domination and control" (Bogardus, 1945, p. l4l),
one may conclude that, bccause suffragists wcre going against the dominant idcology, suffragc carloons subvcrtod thcir messagc by rcflccting
l|ntisuffragist idcologics and itnagcry to maintilin thc status quo,
rcveal men's view of women, which at this time was domestic. moralsubmissivc, mothcrly, clraste, and dcpendent (Franzen & Ethicl, 19g8, p.
l3t Ev rrs. 196()). ''Rcrcly did carly ctrtoonists conccm thcmsclves with
worncn's own fcclings and dcsircs-e spccially for equality. Thcy wcrc
far more concerned with the threat thcse desires Dosed to their own
cornfortrblc way of lifc" (Franzen & fthiet, tgt8, p. t3): Therefore,
Goodman
-should
/,,-.
,i
^-l',:
,r
.
.
argument
to men
and
1"*"L:,1-"-t::'
;i'.il;;";;l1i*"':.,..rq:ff;J::illf
,H::ii$i,lliii'll;
October 28' 1920 cover ot lqe
rer
the
Uniir-*""
is congratulated-on
o,o*" in which an attraciive suffragist
in sheppard'
duplicated
is
ov r"ay Libeny (this cartoon
ir"r*ii" "",i
1994' D 93)
and
cartoons bolstering dominant
. The imPlication of the earlier cartoons'
mainstream
a
part
of
as
.",t#;#;l''ij;;gv it tt'ut.tr'"tuenced the publrc opinion,about wonega$vety
medium, may
-tnt
(1970)' the Pnm-ary
'*.havc
ro Maurice and cooper
Accoriing
l"tt
."";.
atso
was to mold Dublic opinion Canoons
li"i*" "i "ia"-t tn this-era
of
use
oprnron through its
Td.:! lil
soueht "to influence public
and allusions" (Fisch^er'
'ri'J,l",rt
r nr. Moreover,
ii",jl.'i. ""i""t""d
nlli':1;"i*S"1,"i1:"1;li:T::"ili:
co
deDictions were able to solidlry
ii""r"*.,.*'o"rr*"1'i1,":,10.:",*,fi
l..:lj,';'"";:"'1,ill,l'r.,.1
oY
manncrs, and casily understooc
iiiii;,'rs;?1.;
,*r,
Boss Twced
ftct, Thomas Nast's cartoons of
oruii. "pi"t""
hclPed
(Fischer' 1996)'
and expel him from office
Conclusion
illj"-nt'*"* *a
ffi;""t ;;t,rtil
:t
to
The prevalence or
motherhood' and domesticity
the dominant
suPported
thus
carioons
:l,i"r;?;;-*;i"sies in thesocial
reflecting
Bv
change
;"a helpei subvert
have been inllunceq
in the cartoons' public oPinion may
tl:'::lt:i::
tiiGt
i;;;i;itt
ffi:il"'i;',;::j'::"":"1iff
ff$ifiJ$
ano
l,;':i"j1l'ilfread
"thc most influential cartoon
and wtdety
masazines "were
rl
,il"". tilt';.'i42)
'"-,"ilt:a""i"',v"rlT:1",":i,"J"t"l:f,[$"tt"?*:#';:ff ,:i
io tne u'
and humor
nationwidewomensuffrag,butnotuntillg20,T2yearsaftertheseneca
64
Goodman
Falls Convention.
Cartain ideologies have changed little in 100 years. Friedan's (1963)
observation that the media subjecr womcn to the femininity myth still
applics. This myth asserts lhat women are passivc, dependent, and
fr.
_,
.
^
Prospcct,
ani
ol
proctice
(!n
ed.j.
American women in
Rcfcrenccs
ASSOctaU( n (.)pposcd to
Abbott, L. (1903, Scptcmber). Why women do not wish rhc suffrale. Thc Atla tic
92,289-296.
Addlms, J. (1906, fcbnmry), Thc ntodcrn city nnd thc municipnl frarchisc for
wonrcn. InM,J, Buhlc&P. Bu c (Iids,) (1978) Tlc concisc histrtry of tomu st(fnge:
Selections frorn the classic work oJ Stanton, AnthonJ, Cage, an.t Harpzr
1p.- 3ii).
I
ti[ &
Wm8.
Col nu.
(l), 139-r47.
Bordo, S. (1993). Unbearuble weight: Feminisn, tyestern cuhurc, and lrc bo(l.r.
Berklcy. CAi Universiry ofCalifornia Prcss.
Boskin, J. (1979). /tt rnor ond social changc in ,wcntieth-century Americo. Bostonl
Boston Univcrsity Press.
It)g0-1920.
California Prcss.
coflhrrn, E. (f9791. Ccntlcr alvutisenenLr, Camb.idgc,
D.-.
Uiii.J,y
"f
Irc
eua
Sagc,
f,
es, htoman
tlon h,
yotk:
nurturing and that women's "natural" place is in the home. With this
dcbilitnting myth in placc, wolncn such as thosc who are fcminist or
politically porvcrful tvho go against this are oftc charactcrizcd as a
suffragist-unattractivc and mannish (Wolf, l99l). Becausc this
o)
to
thc quick,
Bcvcrly Hillit
Chclsca
.1".^r
id""iii*'jr")
--
. ..
Li. r_inni,,"rric#;;il"--
Mdson,
66
Goodman
Maurice, A. B.. & Cooper, F. T. (19'10). The histon of the nin.teenth cenutry in
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esralr' London:
Piohlens in narerialism an'! cuhwe: s?l?cted
'"""*ii",n. * ti*ol.
'
- '-winston,
E.
w.
(|
'
186'192'
and econonic
uasozincs in the lJnitei! Statet: Thei social
Chapter 4
most places all over thc world, Hong Kong's comic books, whether
or