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vine. Finally, as he lies dying, Something is there, the rabbi murmured. / The war between the
rabbi of Bechev and God had come to an end.
If short stories are perhaps Singers most influential form, his output of novels was prodigious.
They range from medieval historical tales to sweeping family narratives to shtetl memories to
Holocaust survivors in America. The Slave (1962), a novel set in 17th Century Poland, portrays a
love affair between a Jewish servant and a Polish woman. Shosha tells of an affair in Poland interrupted by the onset of the Nazis. Enemies, a Love Story, combines several paradigmatic Singer
themes, showing the travails of Herman Broder, a Holocaust survivor fled to America, maneuevering between affairs with three different women, also refugees from Poland. In many of
Singers novels, the protagonists romances with multiple women, of very different background
and temperament, signify the choices pulling at him, between religious and secular, between Jew
and Christian, between old world and new, a range of options simply impossible to satisfy. It is
in his later novels that Singer portrays Jews in America, often Holocaust survivors and can lay at
least some claim to being a Jewish American novelist (beyond translating the shtetl for American readers). His portrait of America is a mixed one; true it is a savior from the Nazis, but it
takes away Jews traditions, perhaps their souls. As John Guzlowski documents, for Singer the
idols that America worships are materialism, sex, and violence; yet the portrayal is mixed and
contradictory. As voiced by various characters in several novels it is impossible to say which is
Singers real portrait of America, the beacon of hope or the crass thief of history.
Besides hundreds of short stories, 15 novels, and memoirs and nonfiction, Singer also wrote numerous books for children, many featuring Chelm, the legendary Jewish town of fools.
Malamud, Or Yiddishkeit in America
Born and raised in the United States, Bernard Malamud was at one
point considered part of the triad of defining Jewish-American novelists, along with Bellow and Philip Roth (Singer is less quintessentially American, a transplant who wrote in Yiddish and was translated). Of the three, Malamud stands most obviously in the tradition
of Yiddish literature, particularly in his short stories, which combine
the folksy realism of the East European masters with Singers supernatural folk tales. Although Malamud did not speak Yiddish, critics
consider him to have brought the cadences and irony of that language into American English.
Malamuds characters can be seen as following the tradition of
Gimpel the Fool, humble protagonists often living in obscurity.
Indeed, to suffer quietly seems Malamuds portrait of the human
condition. His epigraph All Men Are Jews (Benedict) points to a
sensibility less American than universal, and his stories are imbued
with a mythic, timeless quality. Jewish suffering, then, is seen as a pointed metaphor for the human condition; we are born to struggle, although the Jews perhaps more. The Book of Job might
be seen as Malamuds ur-text, with many of his characters little Jobs. The protagonist of Angel
Levine, for instance, loses his business, his son, and his daughter, and he and his wife lose their
Bernard Malamud, Copyright
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health as the story begins. Although Angel Levine ends with a vision of hope, it is not necessarily the redemption of the biblical Job. Other stories hark back to eastern European persecution, as in The Jewbird, wherein a bird is persecuted, first by other birds and then by humans.
The persecutors, however, are Jews; the human condition is to suffer and cause suffering.
Against a problematic humanity, for Malamud, our only defense is a wry, resigned humor, exemplified by rhythms of the Yiddish language, albeit in English.
More so than his parabolic short stories, Malamuds most famous novels are characterized by a
stark naturalism. While The Natural, his first novel, is a paradigmatic tale of an extaordinarily
gifted baseball player, his later novels are more Jewish and less prototypically American. In The
Assistant (1957) Frank Alpine an Italian American, betrays a Jewish storekeeper. The narrative is
one of atonement, and Alpine ends the novel by converting to Judaism, in Malamudian terms
joining the stream of humanity who suffer and, ultimately, do the right thing. The Fixer (1966) is
a historical novel of a Russian Jew unjustly imprisoned. Malamuds later novels are less realistic,
employing the magic realism of his short stories on a larger canvas. The Tenants (1971) is a parable of black-Jewish relations, while Gods Grace (1982) portrays a post-apocalyptic world.
Following his death in 1986, Malamuds reputation has gone into decline. This may be partly
due to the relatively small number of his publications. Their universal nature, too, may limit
them as part of an ongoing commentary on Jewishness in the American context. Yet Cheryl
Miller argues that Malamud might simply have been out of touch with the zeitgeist. She cites
Philip Roths 1974 attack on Malamuds portrait of the virtuous, suffering Jew, and argues that
Nothing was more at odds with Malamud than the spirit of the age that made the taboo-breaking
Roth into a celebrity. Whether this taboo-breaking was a hallmark of the 1960s and 70s, or is
an enduring feature of consumerist America, Malamud remains in eclipse, less read and discussed than Singer, Bellow, or Roth.
Bellowing a New America
Saul Bellows first two novels, Dangling Man and The Victim, develop themes of angst and
alienation common in both modernist and Jewish literature. The Adventures of Augie March,
however, a sprawling, picaresque novel combining elements of Henry Fielding and Charles
Dickens, yet transposed to the New World, announced a new voice in American literature. The
Jewish element of the novel, while always present, is normalized. Jewishness, then, becomes not
a mark of otherness, but simply one element of a new American identity, as Augie March scrambles for success, largely through his own effort and intelligence, making of him a quintesential
American.
Perhaps even more so than The Adventures of Augie March, Henderson the Rain King (1959) is a
wild adventure novel, one that takes place in a mythologized version of Africa not based on the
actual continent. Bellows only non-Jewish protagonist, Eugene Henderson, is an American incarnate, a tremendous individualist searching a vast continent while finding his identity. In one
instance, he suggests that an African tribe should leave behind tradition, to create new traditions
as needed, claiming that the Romans defeated the Jews because they wouldnt fight back on
Saturdays and suggests that the tribe Live . . . to make another custom. This assertion of self
fashioning, of freedom, would seem to suggest that Americas Jews leave behind the past.
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Allan Bloom, has been criticized as overly political, yet also praised a complex human portrait of
an intellectual at war with the modern world. Bellows oscillating position as embattled Jewish
intellectual and contradictory humanist places him as central in the quest to define the Jewish position in America.
Philip Roth Faces the Wrath: The Bad Boy of Jewish Literature
Philip Roths Goodbye Columbus (1959) shocked the literary world with its critical portrayal of Jews. If previous
Jewish American literature had a certain concern for portraying Jews positively, Roth, taking a cue from Jewish comedians, was more than happy to illustrate, exaggerate, and
satirize Jewish dysfunction. In Goodbye Columbus this takes
its most extreme form in the story Defender of the Faith,
wherein a Jewish soldier takes advantage of his background
to avoid his duties. Yet the volume is little concerned with
the military, or with World War II, but concentrates on Jews
growing comfortable as they settle into the suburbs, and
scrambling to assimilate into American society. As Sanford
Pinsker argues, Roths characters, like Roth himself, often
seem cut off from the wellsprings of Jewish identity.
Whats Jewish about them is a cultural remnant, some yiddishisms, a rabbi here or there, in the later works a concern
with Israel. Whats Jewish American about them is something strongera recurring concern with reconciling identies, with a lingering outsider status, a sense of victimization,
amid a rising affluence and acceptance.
Roths reputation took a self-inflicted hit with the publication of his most notorious novel (and
biggest seller) Portnoys Complaint (1969). The novel takes the form of a long monologue to a
psychiatrist from its narrator, Alexander Portnoy, filled with gripes about his parents idiocy,
memories of masturbation, and lust for shiksaseverything Jews fear will appear as stereotypes
to the outside world. Even the distinguished critic Irving Howe, who had previously supported
Roth, decried the novel. With hindsight, however, Portnoys Compaint can be reevaluated as not
so much an attack on Jews as a satire on those who make such attacks, as well as a portrait of
universal truths about human beings hidden behind a veil of secrecy (in a way, we are all of us
Portnoys).
Among Roths various books perhaps his most critically successful is the Zuckerman Unbound
tetralogy (later expanded with a fifth, and still later a sixth, volume). The main character, Nathan
Zuckerman, is often taken for a version of Roth (as are many of his protagonists). Indeed, different characters in Roths output seem to be based on variations of the author and the people
around him, a metafictional game that Roth has played with great slyness throughout his career.
In The Ghost Writer, the first of the Zuckerman books, the protagonist falls in love with Amy
Bellette, who turns out to be Ann Frank, escaped from the Nazis and alive after all. Only she
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man publishes a book called Carnovsky that parallels Portnoys Complaint, including the fuss
that surrounded it (allowing Roth to satirize Irving Howe as a moralistic prude).
The Counterlife, published after the Zuckerman Unbound tetralogy, continues Roths metafictional games. When Zuckermans brother becomes a Zionist and moves to Israel, Zuckerman
follows; the novel portrays Israel, supposedly the Jews salvation, as filled with nervous Jews
surrounded and afraid of violent death, exactly as they had been in diaspora, while America appears as the Jews real salvation. Roth thus surprisingly reinforces the theme of a comfortable
American Jewry. The entire novel, however, turns out to be an alternative history to the real
Zuckerman, himself a fictional counterpart to the real Philip Roth. In his later novels, such as
Operation Shylock, an alternative Philip Roth appears, who, however, differs from the actual
writer, and who searches for an impersonator also named Philip Roth (in a strange turn of
events, in actual life a man claiming to be Philip Roth, but who was not, later appeared in Israel). The Plot Against America (2004) goes back in time, to the Roth family in pre-World War
II America, in an alternative history in which Charles Lindbergh becomes president and persecutes Americas Jews, a reminder that Jewish status in the U.S. was not preordained.
A very different novel, American Pastoral (1997), has received critical attention as one of Roths
great achievements. The blond, blue-eyed Seymour Levov seems more quintesentially American
than Jewish, recalling the assimilating Jews of Goodbye Columbus, in a more epic form. The
events of the Vietnam War and student radicalization, however, disrupt Levovs idyllic lifeat
least for the Jews, Roth seems to be saying, if not for everyone, the idyllic, comfortable America
is only a temporary respite from the vicissitudes of history.
Cynthia Ozick and the Struggle for Jewish History
While critics repeatedly cite the triumvirate of the golden age of Jewish American as Bellow,
Roth and either Singer or Malamud, notable is an absence of women. As the feminist critic Susan
Gubar explains, The so-called Jewish American renaissance, . . . includes writersSaul Bellow, Philip Roth, Joseph Heller, Lenny Bruce, Stanley Elkin, Woody Allenwhose narrative
exuberance and sometimes comic, sometimes satiric experimental performances have no femaleauthored counterparts.Coming only slightly later, however, and in fact overlapping with the life
and work of the central male figures, is Cynthia Ozick, who draws on the same font of Yiddish
literature reconstituted in America and themes of Jewish identity in contact with an assimilationist society, as do the males. Ozick sees herself as in the same tradition as Singer and Bellow,
and shows little interest in being recognized by feminist critics such as Gubar.
Ozick is overtly Jewish. Pinsker describes her as the product of a background in which Jewishness meant religious study and observance, community affiliation and work on behalf of Israel.
Early in her career she declared that nothing thought or written in diapora has lasting value
unless it has been centrally Jewish (Art). She later backed away from that claim, and the obvious influence of European modernism on her work belies it, as does her obsession with Henry
James, an American ensconced in British culture. James is a strange role model for Ozick, given
his critique of the alien influence of Jews in New York. This modernist forefather illuminates a
paradox at the heart of Ozicks career, that she is herself a hybrid, hyphenated product (as is
Jewish American writing by its nature).
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Although self-consciously Yiddish inflected, Ozicks prose is extremely literary, her writing a
modernist palimpsest. Indeed, she has been described as the voice of the New York intellectual
brought to bear on the composing of fiction (Shechner). Her early short story The Pagan
Rabbi, in which a rabbi turns to worship of nature and hangs himself in a tree that he believes to
be a goddess, reveals religious questioning and angst in a new world that has jarred the historical
continuity of the Jewish people. Like The Pagan Rabbi, many of Ozicks short stories mix
Jewish themes, modern day America, and a touch of magic realism. Another related key theme is
the nature of art and the vexing question of whether it can or should be divorced from (in her
case Jewish) history and identity. Ozick, according to Susanne Klingenstein, writes within the
moral and intellectual framework of rabbinic Judaism about the subject that compels her, the unsettling nature of the creative imagination. At the same time she insists that she is keeping separate her obligations as a Jew and her desires as a writer.
Another central theme of Ozicks, upon which her work
of memory and change is brought to bear, is the Holocaust. The search for the meaning of art and literature in
light of the Holocausts destructive nihilism is central to
The Messiah of Stockholm (1987), a literary work based
upon a lost text, The Messiah, by the literary master
Bruno Schultz, killed by the Nazis in his prime. Although the manuscript is recovered, it is probably a
fake, and the protagonist burns it. Symptomatic of
Ozick, a literary work is a central symbol of the Holocaust, of a world destroyed, and it can be recovered
only briefly and in inauthentic form.
Ozick deals with the Holocaust most directly in The
Shawl (1989), her most famous work. The two-part novella begins with a short story of a forced march to a
Children from Auschwitz liberated by the
Red Army in January, 1945. The Holocaust
concentration camp in which Rosa, the narrator, prois central to much of Ozicks fiction.
tects her infant daughter, Magda, in a magic shawl.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust
Magda, however, is killed when Stella, Rosas niece,
steals the shawl. The second part of the novella takes place years later, when Rosa and Stella
have survived the death camp and moved to America. Rosa cannot escape the past and is haunted
by fantasies of Magda had she survived; she is also plagued by letters from a sociologist studying
the Holocaust in a reductive, dehumanizing way. The novella, however, ends on a note of hope
and possible romance, an intimation that new life is possible in the new world of America, that
the Holocaust will not remain forever an impenetrable blot.
A paradigmatic work for Ozick, mixing short stories and novellas from a swath of her career, is
The Puttermesser Papers (1997). Some critics see the protagonist, Ruth Puttermesser, as a version of Ozick herself, lost in a world of literature, more at home in books than with people. Yet
Puttermesser lacks two elements apparent in Ozicks life: a literary career and a strong Jewish
identity. She may therefore be more of a warning of what America can do to Jewish women,
stripping them of their identity, of a sense of place and purpose. As Peter Kerry Powers puts it,
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Puttermesser is a character in search of history, or more precisely, an ancestry, a living connection to the past that will give her life meaning beyond her mundane efforts in a civic bureaucracy. All that Puttermesser has left is her literary imagination, which seems to be the source of
the books magic realism. Puttermesser creates, or one day there appears, a female golem, who
procedes to take over Puttermessers life, making her mayor of New York City, a fantastical turn
of events that quickly ends in disappointment. In other chapters, Puttermesser flirts with unlikely
loves who dissipate as surely as her other fantasies. She is the modern feminist, single woman,
adrift, perhaps a warning of what America means to those who have forgotten their Jewish identity.
Grace Paley: Faith in Diversity
Notably different than Cynthia Ozick, an icon of feminist critics
although less studied by Jewish Americanists, is Grace Paley.
With her profusion of New York Jewish voices and Yiddish inflected language, Paley can easily be placed among major Jewish American authors of the latter half of the twentieth century,
and indeed fits squarely in Susan Gubars characterization of
narrative exuberance and sometimes comic, sometimes satiric
experimental performancesas defining elements of Jewish
American literature. Although Paley published only three volumes of short stories and some poetry collections during her
long life, she is something of a literary icon, an American original. An overt radical, a heir of Jewish socialism, Paley claimed
to be too busy with her activismprotesting nuclear arms and
the Vietnam War, among other issuesfor a prodigious literary
Grace Paley, Getty Images,
output. Yet her voice is unique, a mixture of New York dialect,
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Jewish and otherwise, with literary modernist and postmodernist
experimentation. Her characters babble a stream-of-consciousness, broken up by dialogue from
outside characters, forming a rich pastiche, at times engaging in psychological alteration of space
and time. In Faith in a Tree, for instance, Faith Darwin Asbury spends much of the story levitated into a tree, watching the world below, a kind of omniscient narrator looking down at the
park and characters that constitute the world of Paleys fiction, yet jolted by an anti-war demonstration into political awareness.
Faith, a recurring character throughout Paleys stories, may be seen as a stand-in for the author,
though unlike Paley, Faith is a single mother. Indeed, many of the women in Paley live at crosspurposes with men, who are gently satirized as unreliable, seeking short-term pleasure while
leaving women to raise the children. Faith lives through the trials of a single mother in the feminist era, though in a way far more affirming of the human community than that of Ruth Puttermesser. If Ozick disapproves of rootless America, Paley celebrates its multiculture community,
the rich interconnections of Jews, Irish, Italian, black, Puerto Rican. In The Loudest Voice, for
instance, a Jewish child initially fearful of appearing in a Christmas play comes to accept it as a
part of American culture. Jewish culture, Paley seems to say, is not threatened by American
Christianity and can be enriched by existing alongside it. The Long Distance Runner explores
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another cultural juxtaposition when Faith returns to her old neighborhood, now an African
American outpost. Although it takes on the troubles of a segregated community, the story can
also be seen as a celebration of how one vibrant American sub-culture is replaced by another.
With mischievous satire, Paley also takes on criticism of her style as strange and opaque in A
Conversation with my Father, wherein her father, dissastified with people in trees talking
senselessly, voices from who knows where, asks why she cant write a normal story, with a beginning, a middle, and an end. The narrator dutifully does so, though in such a way as to undercut the assumptions of traditional narrative, revealing Paleys idiosyncratic postmodernism as a
valid take on Americas complexity. Resisting the predictable arc of conventional stories Paley
often supplies surprises at the end. Indeed, she satirizes this tendency in the story-within-a-story
of A Conversation with my Father, when a drug addict, as if through a miracle, avoids a bleak
death and lives a kind of sainted life.
Another story key to Paleys ethos is Enormous Changes at the Last Minute, which reveals a
certain skepticism about the revolutionary generation of the 1960s that Paley so enthusiastically
joined with, about the ability of that generation to create enormous changes at the last minute,
to replace old society with the new. Liberal certainty is also questioned in the story Zagrowsky
Tells, when the narrator annoints Faith the Queen of Right. With their multiplicity of voices,
then, Paleys stories, despite a concern with left-wing themes, with old socialists and war protests and racial interactions and female solidarity, resist easy closure and create a vivid portrait of
a complex and contradictory America. As with Bellow, although from a very different political
perspective, Paleys work exemplifies how literature resists easy ideology.
The Place of Jewish American Literature
Jewish American literature may be considered the first ethnic literature (if one doesnt count
Southern writers such as William Faulkner and Flannery OConner as ethnic) to have achieved
great influence in the U.S. Indeed, it might have been the notable American literature for a period. Also, it likely opened the door for, and was quickly followed by, a flowering of interest in
African American literature, in multicultural literature, in post-colonial literature, and in an array
of international literature written in English. Literature has thus changed from a European centered field, with a strong American branch, to an international and polyglot array in which hyphenated and multiple identities proliferate.
Yet the place of Jewish American literature in this new order is strangely marginal. True, an array of new authorsArt Spiegelman, Allegra Goodman, Rebecca Goldstein, Nathan Englander,
and Michael Chabon among otherscontinues to appear. These newcomers refute a thesis advanced by Irving Howe in 1977 that Jewish American literature was past its prime, that as the
travails of Jewish immigration and identity formation in a new land subsided so would this literature. Adam Meyer argues that the new wave of Jewish American authors is symptomatic of a
common trend among immigrants, in which a third generation overcomes the second generations assimilationist shame and returns to a strong identification with an ethnic groups history.
However, the newcomers to Jewish American literature seem more scattershot than the Bellow/Malamud/Roth generation, are not part of some greater literary movement. Perhaps this is
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due to Jews having been in many ways reframed as white, as mainstream Americans, perhaps
also to the questionable place of Israel in the domain of international literary tastemakers.
Andrew Furman describes the perception that Jews in America have simply not suffered enough
to be considered a minority or multicultural group. In any case, what we have today is a collection of individual, often extremely talented, writers dealing with Jewish themes in various ways
and to various degrees, but which can no longer be seen as a movement. Of the writers of the
golden age only Roth, and occassionally Ozick, continue scribbling away; yet their collective
achievement remains a monument to literary and cultural history. America will never be the
same.
References
Baumgarten, Murray. Intersections and modern urban identities: Isaac Bashevis Singer,
American Jewish Writers and the Jewish Street. Judaism, (Summer 2000) 49:3
Benedict, Helen. Bernard Malamud: Morals and Surprises. The Antioch Review (Winter, 1983)
41:1
Furman, Andrew. Contemporary Jewish American Writers and the Multicultural Dilemma: The
Return of the Exiled. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2000.
Eugene Goodheart. The Jewish Writer in America. Sewanee Review (Winter 2008) 116:1
Gubar, Susan. Jewish American Women Writers and the Race Question. The Cambridge
Companion to Jewish American Literature. Michael Kramer & Hana Wirth-Nesher, eds.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Guzlowski, John. Isaac Singer and the Threat of America. Shofar, (Fall 2001) 20:1
Howe, Irving. "Introduction," Jewish American Stories, ed. Irving Howe (New York: Mentor,
1977).
Kerry Powers, Peter. Melus (Fall 1995) 20:3
Kim-Brown, Caroline. Isaac Bashevis Singer: Master Storyteller. Humanities (July/August 2004)
25:4
Klingenstein, Susanne. In Life I Am Not Free: The Writer Cynthia Ozick and Her Jewish
Obligations. Daughters of Valor: Contemporary Jewish American Women Writers, eds.
Jay Halio and Ben Siegel. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1997.
Meyer, Adam. Putting the Jewish Back in Jewish American Fiction: A Look at Jewish
American Fiction from 1977 to 2002 and an Allegorical Reading of Nathan Englander's
The Gilgul of Park Avenue." Shofar (Spring 2004) 22:3
Miller, Cheryl. Why Malamud Faded. Commentary (June 2008) 125:6
Ozick, Cynthia. Art and Ardor. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983.
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Pinsker, Sanford. The Tortoise and the Hare: Or, Philip Roth, Cynthia Ozick, and the Vagaries
of Fiction Writing. The Virginia Quarterly Review (Summer 2005) 81:3
Shechner, Mark. Cynthia Ozick. The Columbia Companion to the Twentieth-Century
American Short Story. Blanche Gelfant, ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001
Wisse, Ruth. Jewish American Renaissance. The Cambridge Companion to Jewish American
Literature. Michael Kramer & Hana Wirth-Nesher, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
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