PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

VI - 1

Agronomy
Nestor R. Lawas
Associate Professor
Department of Agronomy
College of Agriculture
University of the Philippines at Los Baos
College, Laguna

I. Definition of Terms

Absorption - taking up H2O by assimilation.

Ambient temperature - the existing natural environmental temperature
surrounding a plant or plant part.
Anabolism - synthetic metabolism, the metabolic processes that form more
complex molecules from single ones, as in photosynthesis or protein
synthesis.
Angiosperm - a plant in which the female gamete is protected within an
enclosed ovary.
Apical dominance - the suppression of the development of lateral buds by
high concentration of auxins in the shoot apex.
Arrow - the inflorescence of sugarcane plant.
Asexual - used in reference to reproduction by any method in which sexual
fertilization is absent, or not completed.
Abscissic acid - a plant growth regulator or hormone that affects dormancy;
it acts as a growth inhibitor.
Abscission - the natural separation of leaves, flowers, and fruits or buds from
the stems or other plant parts by the formation of a special layer of thinwalled cells.
Acid soil - a soil with a pH below 7.0.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) - a high-energy phosphate compound. This
is converted to ATP by the addition of phosphate, which is attached to the ADP
molecule by a high-energy bond.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - a high-energy molecule that is the major
source of usable chemical energy for cellular work.
Adsorption - taking up vapor or liquid by surface on which they remain.
Adventitious roots - a root that originates neither as a branch from the
pericycle nor as a seminal root.
Aerial roots - roots that arise from the stem above the ground.
Autotrophic - capable of producing food from non-food materials.
Ageotropic - lacking a geotropic response, as in stolons, rhizomes, and
lateral roots which grow either erect or downward.
Agroecology - the study of the relation of crop adaptation to environmental
conditions.
Agronomy - the science of crop production and soil management or field
management
Alkali soil - a soil usually above pH 8.5, containing alkali salts in quantities
that usually are deleterious to crop production.
Alkaline soil - a soil with a pH above 7.0
Ammonification - formation of ammonia or ammonium compounds in soil.
Annual - a plant that completes its life cycle from seed in one year or less.

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Anther - the part of the stamen that contain the pollen.

Anthocyanin - a water-soluble plant pigment that produces many of the red,
blue, and purple colors in plants.
Apogeotropic - turning upward in response to a stimulus opposed to the
force of gravity.
Aquatic plant - a plant that lives in water.
Asexual reproduction - reproduction without involving the germ or sexual
cells.
Auxins - organic substances that cause stem elongation.
Anthesis - the period during which the flower is open and, in grasses, the
period when the anther are extended from the glumes.
Apomixis - a type of asexual production of seed (as in Kentucky blue grass).
B horizon - the subsoil layer in which certain leached substances are
deposited.
Band application - the placement of fertilizer in a band or bands in the root
zone before or at the time of planting. Insecticides are sometimes applied in
this manner.
Back cross - the cross of a hybrid with one of the parental types.
Biennial - of two years duration, a plant germinating one season and
producing seed the next.
Brace root - an aerial root that functions to brace the plant as in corn.
Bulb - a leaf with fleshy scales, usually subterranean.
Bagasse - a fibrous by-product of sugarcane processing that is used in the
manufacture of some types of paper products.
Boll - the rounded seed pod of cotton or flax.
Botany - the science of plant life.
Bran - the outer layers of karyopsis removed in milling.
Budding - a form of grafting in which a vegetative bud from one plant is
transferred to stem tissue of another plant.
Bunch type - growth habit of grasses that do not spread by rhizomes or
stolons.
Cash crop - a crop produced for direct sale for cash, as contracted with crops
produced as livestock feed.
Catabolism - destructive metabolism; the metabolic processes that break
down complex molecules with the release of energy.
Cation - a positively charged atom or molecule.
Certified seed - seed that meets rigid standard of purity and germination
and is so designated by an authorized agency.
Chloroplast - the cellular organelle in which chlorophyll is located.
CEC - a measure of the potential of a soil to give up or exchange positively
charged ions or molecules.
Complete & Perfect flower - a flower with all parts of the perianth and pistil
and stamen.
Contact herbicide - a nonsystemic weed killer - one that does not have to be
metabolized by a plant to be effective.
Crossing over - the physical exchange of chromosomal material between
non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
Cross-pollination - the condition in which pollen from an anther on one plant
ultimately fertilize a flower on a different plant.
Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells.
C Horizon - the layer of weathered parent rock material below B horizon of
the soil but above the unweathered rock.
Calcareous soil - an alkaline soil containing sufficient calcium and Mg
carbonate to cause visible efflorescence when treated with hydrochloric acid.

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Chlorophyll - the green coloring matter of plants that take part in the process
of photosynthesis.
Chlorosis - the yellowing or blanching of leaves and other chlorophyll bearing
plant parts.
Chromosome carrier of genes.
Climate - the total long-time characteristic weather of any region.
Clone - a group of organism composed of individuals propagated vegetatively
from a single original individual.
Coleoptile - the sheath covering the tip of the leaf of a grass seedling as it
emerge from the soil.
Coleorhizar - a sheath covering the tip of the 1st root from a seed.
Companion crop - a crop grown with another crop, as a small grain with forage
crops.
Contour furrows - plowed at right angles to the slope, at the same level of
grade, to intercest and retain runoff water.
Corm - hard swollen base of the stem.
Cotyledon - the 1st leaves of a plant as found in the embryo.
Cover crop - a crop grown between orchard trees or on field between cropping
season to protect the land from leaching and erosion.
Crop rotation - is the planting of some crops, like vegetables, cereals, and
legumes after harvesting the main crop, like rice, corn, or sugarcane and
repeating the same pattern in the next crop year.
Cross-fertilization or cross-pollination - fertilization secured by pollen from
another plant.
Cutting - a part of a plant used for vegetative propagation.
Cytology - the study of the structure, function, and life history of the cell.
Cytoplasm - the contents of a cell outside the nucleus.
Cultivar - a cultivated variety within a plant species that differs in some respect
from the rest of the species.
Diffusion - the random scattering of molecules due to their own kinetic activity
and to external forces.
Digestion - the breakdown of complex foods to simple foods, which can be
more easily respired.
Double-fertilization - the process of sexual fertilization in the angiosperms in
which one nucleus from the male gametophyte fertilizes the egg nucleus to
form the embryo and a second nucleus from the male gametophyte jointlyfertilizes two polar nuclei to form endosperm.
Deciduous - plants or trees that shed leaves or awns at a particular season or
stage.
Dehiscence - the opening of valves or anthers, or separation of parts of plants.
Denitrification - the reduction of nitrates to nitrites, ammonia and free
nitrogen in the soil.
Diploid - having two sets of chromosomes.
Distal - the terminal end farthest from the base.
Dominant - possessing as character which is manifested in the hybrid to the
apparent exclusion of the contracted character from the other parent.
Dormancy - an internal condition of a seed or bud that prevents its prompt
germinating or sprouting under normal growth conditions.
Determinate inflorescence - flowers that arises from the terminal bud and
check the growth of the axis.
Dicotyledonous plants - plants producing two cotyledons in each fruit.
Double cross - the result of mating two single crosses, each of which had been
produced by crossing two distinct inbred linen.
Drill - a machine for sowing in furrows.

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Drill row - a row of seeds or plants sown with a drill; one seed per hill.
Dry sets - small onion bulbs, approximately 1.5 - 2 cm in diameter used as
planting material.
Ecology - the study of the mutual relations between organism and their
environment.
Ecotype - a variety or strains adapted to a particular environment.
Egg - the female reproductive cell.
Emasculate - remove the male reproductive structures.
Embryo sac - the sac in the embryo containing the egg cell.
Emergence - coming off a place, as a seedling from the soil or a flower from a
bud.
Endocarp - inner layer of pericarp.
Endosperm - the starchy interior of a grain.
Epicotyl - the stem of the embryo or young seedling above the cotyledons.
Erosion - the wearing away of the land surface by water, wind or other forces.
Energy - the potential to do work.
Enzyme - a protein that functions as a biological catalyst and regulate cellular
functions.
Epigeal germination - in dicots, germination in which the cotyledons rise
above the soil surface.
Farming - the art and practice of crop production.
Fermentation - alternate path of respiration followed when oxygen is absent or
limited.
F1 - the first filial generation, the first generation offspring of a given mating.
F2 - the second filial generation, the first generation in which segregation
occurs.
Fallow - cropland left side for the soil to rejuvenate and replenish its fertility.
Fertility (plant) - the ability to reproduce sexually.
Fertility (soil) - the ability to provide the proper nutrients in the proper amount
and in proper balance for the growth of specified plants under the suitable
environment or the ability to support crop production.
Fertilization (plant) - the union of the male nucleus with the female cell.
Fertilization (soil) - the applications to the soil of elements or compounds,
that aid in the nutrition of plants.
Fibrous root - a slender thread-like root, as in grasses.
Field capacity - the percentage of moisture on dry weight basis that is held
against the pull of gravity, after drainage has ceased in a soil that has been
saturated.
Filament - the stalk of the stamen which bears the anther.
Fleshy root - a thickened root containing abundant food reserves; example:
carrot, sweet potato.
Floret - lemma and palea with included flower.
Forage - vegetable matter, fresh or preserved, gathered and fed to animals.
Fruit - the ripened pistil or ovary.
Fungicide - a chemical substance used as a spray, dust, or disinfectant to kill
fungi infesting plants or seeds.
Fungus - a group of plants that causes most plant diseases.
Gene - the unit of heredity, variation, sex determination and related
phenomena.
Genotype - the hereditary make-up of characteristics of a plant or a pure line
or variety.

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Geotropic - turning downward in response to a stimulus caused by the force of

gravity.
Germ Cell - a cell capable of production or of sharing in reproduction.
Grain - a karyopsis, a collective term for the cereals.
Grass - a plant of the family Graminae.
Gamete - a haploid cell or nucleus that may unite with another gamete to
produce a zygote, the process of sexual fertilization.
Gametophyte - the spore that, as a result or mitosis, ultimately produces the
male and female gametes or nuclei.
Genetics - the science or study of inheritance.
Germination - the sequences of events occurring in a viable seed, starting with
the inhibition of water, that leads to the growth and development of an embryo.
Gibberelins - a group of hormones that contribute to increase in cell size, fruit
size, and fruit yield, among other effects.
Glycolysis - a respiratory process in which glucose is converted anaerobically
into lactate or pyruvate with a net gain of two molecules of ATP.
Grafting a method of asexual propagation involving the transfer of aerial
parts of one plant (scion) to the root or trunk material (stock) of another plant.
Green manure - a crop that is plowed under while still green and growing to
improve the soil fertility.
Green sets - young plants of the Alliums grown for transplanting.
Growth - an irreversible increase in cell size or cell number.
Haploid - used in reference to either a nucleus or an entire organism in which
only one member of each set of homologous chromosomes is present.
Hardening - the slight checking of the growth of plants before transplanting to
improve their ability to resume growth quickly in the new location.
Herbicide - a chemical applied to cropland as pre-emergence or postemergence treatment for the control of weeds.
Heterozygous - containing unlike alleles at one or more loci as a reactant and
not as a solvent.
Hill - a place in which one or more seeds, a cutting or a section of a root or a
tuber is planted.
Hilling-up - the moving of soil toward a row of plants.
Hypogeal germination - in dicot, germination in which the cotyledons do not
rise above the soil surface.
Homozygous - containing like germ cells.
Hormone - a chemical growth regulating substance that can be or is produced
by living organisms.
Humus - the well decomposed more or less stable part of the organic matter of
the soil.
Husk - the coarse outer envelope of a fruit as the glumes of an ear or maize.
Hybrid - the offspring of two parents unlike in one or more heritable characters.
Hybridization - the process of crossing organism of unlike heredity.
Hydrophyte - a plant adapted to wet or submerged condition.
Hypocotyl - the stem of the embryo or young seedling below the cotyledon.
Insecticides - a chemical used to kill insects.
Intercrop the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same piece
of land. Normally one matures quickly so that the longer growing crop then has
the use of the whole area.
Intercropping - is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the
same plot in alternating rows or sets of rows.
Inter-tilled crop - a crop planted in rows followed by cultivation between the
rows.

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Ion - an electrically charged element, group of elements or particle.

Inbred line - a plant or group of plants that is homozygous.
Incompatibility - a genetic condition in which certain normal male spores are
incapable of functioning on certain pistils.
Incomplete flower - a flower missing all or some of the following parts: sepals,
petals, stamens or pistils.
Indehiscent fruit - a fruit does not split open naturally at maturity.
Indeterminate growth - the growth exhibited by a stem that terminates in a
vegetative bud and thus elongates indefinitely.
Inferior ovary - an ovary that is imbedded in the receptacle, or an ovary
whose base is below the point of attachment of the perianth.
Inflorescence - any structurally organized group of flowers.
Inoculation - introduction of bacteria on seed or into soil.
Irrigation - any method of applying water to a crop so that it reaches the
rooting zone.
Juvenile stage - a term applied to a period in the early growth of plants,
mainly biennials, when they are not susceptible to the influence of environment
in the stimulation of reproductive development.
Krebs cycle - a cyclic series of chemical reactions through which pyruvate is
oxidized to CO2 and H2O, and ATP is produced.
Legume - a simple, dry, dehiscent fruit that dehisces along two margins. A podbearing plant.
Light reaction - the reaction in photosynthesis in which light energy is
required, the photo activation or excitement of an electron in the chlorophyll
molecule, electro transfers of this electron and associated reactions.
Lodging - a condition most frequently observed in cereals where plants bend at
or near the soil surface and lie more or less flat on the ground.
Leach - to remove materials by solution.
Lime - calcium oxide or quick lime; Calcium carbonate; material applied to
increase soil pH
Longenity - length of life usually of seeds or plants of longer than average life.
Miosis - the divisions of the sexual cells in which the member of chromosomes
is halved.
Mellow soil - a soil that is easily worked or penetrated.
Mesophyte - a plant that thrives under medium conditions of moisture and salt
content of the soil.
Mitosis - cell division involving the formation and longitudinal splitting of the
chromosomes.
Monocotyledon - a plant having one cotyledon in its seed, as in the grasses.
Mulch - a layer of plant residues or other materials placed on the surface of the
soil to conserve soil moisture.
Macro-nutrient - a mineral required in relatively large amount for plant
growth.
Megaspore - the spore that germinates to form the female gametophyte, the
end product of mitosis in the pistil.
Micro nutrient - a mineral required in a relatively small amount for plant
growth.
Multiple cropping - is the growing of more than one food, feed or industrial
crop on the same piece of land in one year.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) - a hydrogen
acceptor molecule.
Nut - a dry, indehiscent, single-seeded fruit with a hard, woody pericarp.
Necrosis - discoloration, dehydration and death of plant parts.

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Neutral soil - a soil neither acid nor alkaline with a pH of about 7.0 or between
6.6 and 7.3.
Nitrification - formation of nitrate from ammonia.
Nitrogen fixation - the transformation of free nitrogen into nitrogen
compounds that can be absorbed as foods by plants.
This is done naturally
through bacterial decomposition, nitrogen nodules on plant roots, or by
lightning.
Nodule - a tubercle formed on legume roots by nitrogen fixing bacteria of the
genus rhyzobium.
Nutrient - a chemical element taken into a plant that is essential to the growth
or reproduction of the plant.
Off-barring - the removal of soil from the sides of a row of plants preparatory
to a hilling up operation.
Off-set - planting the plants in a row, are opposite the midpoint between those
in the two adjacent rows rather than being directly opposite each other.
Osmosis - diffusion of substance through a cell wall or other membrane.
Out cross - a cross to an individual not closely related.
Oxidation - a chemical change involving addition of oxygen or its chemical
equivalent, or involving an increase in + or decrease in - valence.
Palea - inner bract of a floret lying next to the caryopsis in grasses.
Palmate - radicately lobed or divided.
Panicle - an inflorescence with a main axis and subdivided branches, as in oats
and sorghum.
Parasitic - living in or on another living organism.
Parthenogenesis - the development of a new individual from a germ cell
without fertilization.
Perennial - living more than one year but in some cases, producing seed in the
first year and every season thereafter.
Perfect flower - a flower having both pistil and stamen.
pH - the designation for degree of acidity or hydrogen-ion activity.
Phenotype - the organism as exemplified by its expressed characters.
Photoperiod - the hours of daylight effective in causing physiological changes
in plants.
Photoperiodism - the response of plants to different day lengths or light
periods.
Phototropism - the growing or turning toward the light. The influence of light
on the direction of the different plant parts of a plant tends to grow.
Phyllotary - the arrangement of leaves upon the stem.
Pistil - the seed-bearing organ of a flower consisting of the ovary, style and
stigma.
Pistillate - provided with pistils but without stamens.
Plant - any organism belonging to the plant or vegetable kingdom.
Pollen - the male germ cells produced in the anther.
Pollination - the transfer of pollen from the anther of the stamen to the stigma
of the pistil.
Primary root - a main root.
Productivity (of soil) - the capability of a soil to produce a specified plant or
sequence of plants under a specified system of management.
Profile - a vertical cross section of the soil through all its horizons and
extending into the parental material.
Pure line - a strain of organism that is genetically pure because of continued
inbreeding, self fertilization, or other means.
Parthenocarpy - fruit production without sexual fertilization.
Pathology - the science or study of disease, its causes, and its controls.

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Photolysis - splitting of water into H+ and OH- , utilizing solar energy in the light
reactions of photosynthesis.
Photoperiodic response - the flowering response of a plant in relation to the
relative length of light and dark periods, usually in terms of 24-hour day.
Photophosphorylation - the production of ATP using the energy of light excited - electrons produced in the light reactions of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis - the process of converting water and carbon dioxide into
sugar using chlorophyll and light energy, accompanied by the production of
oxygen by green plants.
Pollen tube - a tube-like structure developed by the tube nucleus in the
microspore that helps guide the sperm and endosperm nuclei through the
stigma and style to the embryo sac.
Polyploidy - a condition in which a plant has somatic cells with more than 2N
chromosomes per nucleus.
Post emergence spray - a pesticide or herbicide spray that is after the crop
has emerged from the soil.
Pre-emergence - the timing of a chemical treatment applied before seedlings
have appeared above the soil surface.
Pre-irrigation - irrigation before final seedbed preparation and planting; a
method to insure adequate moisture for the
germination of crop seeds.
Pricking off - the transplanting of seedlings from a seeded plot to a wider
spacing when they are in the cotyledon stage or have a couple of three leaves.
Priming - the removal of the first fruits, roots or tubers that develop on a plant
leaving the remainder to mature.
Ratoon - the crop harvested from regrowth as in sugarcane.
Rhyzobium - genus of bacteria that live symbiotically in the roots of legumes
and fix nitrogen that is used by plants.
Rootstock in asexual propagation, where the scion is attached to develop a
new plant.
Recessive - used in reference to the allelic form of a unit of heredity that, when
present in a heterozygous condition is not expressed.
Relay crop - a crop which is planted in shortly before the first crop is to be
harvested.
Reaction - the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil expressed as pH.
Rehilling - the replacement of soil about individual plants or a row of plants
after some soil has been removed from that location.
Respiration - the process of absorption of oxygen and giving out carbon
dioxide.
Rhizome - a subterranean stem, usually rooting at the nodes and rising at the
apex; a rootstock.
Rill erosion - erosion producing small channels that can be obliterated by
tillage.
Root - the part of the plant.
Saprophytic - living on dead organic matter.
Seed - the ripened ovule enclosing a sedimentary plant and the food necessary
for its germination.
Segregation - separation of hybrid progenic into the different hereditary types
representing the combination of the character of the two parents.
Selection - the choosing of plants having certain characteristics for
propagation.
Selfed - pollinated by pollen from same plant.
Seminal root - a root arising from the base of the hypocotyl.

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Sheet erosion - erosion by removal of a more or less uniform layer of material

from the land surface.
Siblings - offspring of the same parental plants.
Silage - forage preserved in a succulent condition by partial fermentation in a
tight container.
Silt - small soil particles of a diameter of 0.002 to 0.05 mm.
Single cross - the first generation hybrid between 2 inbred lines.
Sod - plowed meadow of pasture.
Sequential planting - this is done by planting short season, drought tolerant
crops after rice, more especially upon failure of the rice crop due to pests.
Soil - the natural medium for the growth of land plants on the surface of the
earth, composed of organic and mineral materials.
Solum - the upper part of the soil profile, the A and B horizons.
Sow - to place seed in a position for growing.
Spore - single-celled reproductive bodies produced by fungi.
Stamen - the pollen-bearing organ of a flower.
Staminate - having stamens but no pistils.
Starter solution - a liquid that contains dissolved fertilizer nutrients and is
applied to plants to facilitate growth.
Stock - a supply of seed of a crop variety.
Stolon - a modified propagating, creeping stem above ground that produces
roots.
Strain - a group of plants derived from variety.
Straw - the dried remnants of fine stemmed plants from which the seed had
been removed.
Stubble - the basal portion of the stems of plants left standing after cutting.
Subsoil - that part of solum below plow depth or below the A horizon.
Sucker - a tiller. A shoot produced from a crown or rhizomes or in tobacco,
from auxillary buds.
Surface soil - the upper 12 inches or 30 cm of the soil, or in arable soils, the
depth commonly stirred by the plow.
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation - the fixation of nitrogen by bacteria infesting the
roots of legumes while benefiting the legume crop.
Saline soil - a soil containing excessive amounts of soluble salts.
Scion - the aerial part of a plant that is transferred to a new rootstock in
grafting.
Sexual fertilization - the union of two haploid gametes to yield a single diploid
zygote.
Soil structure - the tendency of soil particles to clump together or form
aggregates.
Soil texture - the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles in soil.
Spike - an inflorescence, common in the grass family, that has a central axis on
which sessile spikelete are born.
Tiller - stem of a grass plant, which is a complete plant by itself.
Tilth - used in reference to the overall physical condition of a soil, frequently
regarding its suitability as a seedbed.
Triploid - a specific case of polypecidy in which there are 3N chromosomes.
Taproot - a single central root.
Tassel - the staminate inflorescence of maize composed of panicle spikes.
Taxonomy - the science of classification.
Tendril - a leaflet or stem modified for climbing or anchorage, as in the pea.
Tetraploid - having four times the primary chromosome member.
Topsoil - the surface soil, usually the plow depth of the A horizon.

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Transpiration - the loss of moisture through the leaves.

Transplants - small plant grown in a plant bed or flat, or are removed from a
seeded row for resetting in a new location.
Tuber - a short, thickened subterranean branch.
Unisexual - containing either stamens or pistils, but not both.
Variation - the occurrence of differences among individuals of a species or
variety.
Variety - a group of individuals within a species that differ with the rest of the
species.
Vector - in biology, a carrier. A vector is generally an insect that carries pollen
or disease-causing organism from plant to plant.
Virus - ultramicroscopic protein bodies, the presence of certain types of which
cause mosaic and other diseases in plant tissue.
Weed - a plant that in its location is more harmful than beneficial.
Xerophyte - a plant adapted to arid conditions.
Xylem - the woody part of a fibrovascular bundle containing vessels; the waterconducting tissue.
Zygote - product of united gametes.

Types of Herbicides Based on Selectivity

1. Selective will kill certain plants only at low concentration.
2. Non -selective will kill all plants.
Types of Herbicides Based on Types of Action
1. Contact will kill only the plant parts that were sprayed.
2. Systemic (translocated) can travel inside the plant and therefore kill the whole
plant.
Fertilizer Application
1. Broadcast Method - fertilizer is applied uniformly over the entire area before
planting or while the crops are already growing.
a. Basal or pre-planting - fertilizer is broadcasted over the entire area followed
by cultivation to mix the fertilizer with the soil. Shallow plowing or harrowing
is done two or three times to ensure even distribution of the fertilizer applied.
b. Top-dressing - fertilizer is applied overhead on already growing seedlings.
This should be followed by overhead watering to remove fertilizer lodging on
the leaves.
2. Localized fertilizer - is applied on a specific area near the seed or plants either
in bands, in rows, or by hole method.
a. Banding fertilizer - is applied in bands or strips on one or both sides of the
rows of drilled seeds on growing plants.
b. Row application - a moldboard plow is passed between rows of plants to
make the deepest portion of the furrow where fertilizer should be applied,
the plow is again passed about three inches away to cover the fertilizer
and at the same time
hill up the soil to the plants.

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c. Hole method - applicable on bigger crops and sloping areas, this system
makes use of a pointed stake to make several pegholes around the plant
or along the rows of crops.
3. Side dressing fertilizer - is applied between the rows close to the plants,
simultaneous without cultivation this is very effective during the developing stage
of the plant when they feed on nutrients very rapidly.
4. Foliar spray fertilizer - is applied on the upper portion of the plant particularly
the leaves, this method is done by dissolving the fertilizer first in water as
prescribed and then sprayed to the plants.
5. Tank system - knowing how much water is needed to irrigate a given area, the
fertilizer applied is dissolved and mixed in tank, as irrigation water pases through
the tank, it is fed either into pipes or pressurized sprinklers, through the canals
through flooding, or through subterranean system.
Herbicides (Also applicable to Insecticides)
1. To determine the amount of herbicide to be applied to one hectare.
Amount = rate desired (kg ai /ha) x 100
(kg or L)
herbicide concentration (%)
2. To determine amount of herbicide to be applied to a given area.
Amount = rate desired (kg ai/ha) x area (sq m) x 100
(kg or L)
herbicide concentration (%)
Amount = rate desired (kg ai/ha) x area (sq m) x 10
(gm or ml)
herbicide concentration (%)
** to convert lb/US gal to % multiply by 12
** to convert lb/L mp gal to % multiply by 10
** to convert g/L to % divide by 10
3. To determine the Number of Plants/ Hectare
a. Square or Rectangular = Area
distance
b. Triangular =

c. Quincunx =

or

10,000
d1 x d2

Area
x 0.866
d1 x d2
Area
+
d1 x d2

(L - 1) (W - 1)
d1
d2

4. To determine Number of Grams of Seed to sow Per Row from a Given Seedling Rate
Seed Required = seedling rate (kg/ha) x distance between rows (m) x row length
(m)
10
PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE

Soil - a natural body composed of a variable mixture of broken and weathered

minerals and decaying organic matter, and when containing the proper amounts
of air and water, supplies sustenance and gives mechanical support of plants.

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VI - 12

Two Approaches to Study of Soils

1. Pedology - is the study of soil which puts more emphasis on the origin,
characteristics, classification, and description.
2. Edaphology - is soil science which is more concerned with the practical
utilization of soil, and the principles of maintaining its fertility.

Components of Soil
1. Mineral matter - 95-89% by weight
2. Organic matter - 2-5% by weight
3. Living organisms - fungi, algae, bacteria, and other microorganisms
4. Air - various gases as oxygen, CO2, H2, and other
5. Water - with dissolved materials in it

Five Principal Factors Involved in Soil Formation

1. parent material
4. biotic factors
2. climate
5. time
3. relief

Soil profile - vertical section from the surface downward to the bedrock,
individual layers are regarded as horizons. These are further classified as follows:
A horizon - the surface soil
B horizon - the sub-soil
C horizon - the substrata or the parent material
The horizons above the parent material are collectively called the solum. The
unconsolidated materials above the
bedrock are called the regolith.

Soil Parent Materials

Minerals are naturally occurring elements or inorganic compounds in
solid state, with definite chemical composition, unique crystalline structure, and
certain
physical properties.

Types of Rock Forming Minerals

1. Ferromagnesium - when silicate materials combine with ions of iron and
magnesium, these are very dark or black and have higher specific gravity
than the other rock-forming minerals.
Examples are olivine, augite, hornblendes , and biotite.
2. Non-ferromagnesians - are minerals that do not contain iron and
magnesium.
Examples are muscovite, feldspar, and quartz.
3. Sulfide rock-forming minerals - are formed by direct union of an element
with sulfur. Examples are pyrite, chaloocite, galena, and sphalerite.
4. Oxide - minerals formed by direct union of an element with oxygen.
5. Carbonate and sulfate rock-forming minerals - carbonate and sulfur ions
are present. Examples are dolomite, magnesite, anhydrite, and gypsum.

Soil forming rocks

1. Igneous - are called as the ancestors of all rocks, were one hot molten liquid
masses known as magma which subsequently cooled into firm hard rocks.
The process by which magma solidifies is called crystallization. Examples
are granite, rhyolite, obsidian, basalt, gabbro, peridotite, andosite, and diorite.

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VI - 13

2. Sedimentary - are formed when deposits if gravel, sand, and mud which are
products of chemical and mechanical weathering. Through sedimentation and
lithification, layer and layer of sediments of gravel, sand and mud are
transformed into hardened layers. Examples are conglomerate, sandstone,
mudstone or shale, limestone, chalk, dolomite, evaporites, and coal.
3. Metamorphic - are products of the reaction of very high temperature and
pressure on sedimentary and igneous rocks. Metamorphism is the process
whereby rocks undergo physical or chemical changes, or both, to achieve
equilibrium with conditions other than those underwhich they were originally
formed. Examples are slate, schist, amphibiotite, gneiss, marble, quartzite,
and anthracite.

Soil Texture refers to the relative proportion of various size groups of individual
soil grains. It is determined by the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay
fractions present in the soil.

Mechanical Analysis is the separation and percentage evaluation of the

different soil particles in the soil. The method most commonly used in particle
size analysis is fractionation, which refers to any process used in sorting the soil
particles into distinct classes according to size. Sieving and sedimentation are
the most common fractionation methods.

Classification of Soil Separates

1. USDA Classification
Separates
very coarse sand
coarse sand
medium sand
fine sand
silt
clay

Diameter limits in mm
2.0 - 1.0
1.0 - 0.5
0.5 - 0.25
0.25 - 0.10
0.05 - 0.002
below 0.002

2. ISS (International Soil Science Society)

coarse sand
2.0 - 0.2
fine sand
0.2 - 0.02
silt
0.02 - 0.002
clay
below 0.002

Classification of Soils Based on Texture

1.
2.
3.
4.

Loam - where neither sand, silt, or clay is predominant.

Sandy loam - there is slight predominance of sand particles.
Silt loam - slight predominance of silt particles.
Clay loam - clay particles are predominant.

Soil Structure is the arrangement of individual particles and their aggregates

into certain distinct or clear patterns.

Influences of Soil Structure

1. aeration
4. percolation
2. capillarity
5. activity of organisms
3. erosion

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VI - 14

Porosity refers to the percentage of the soil volume which is not occupied by the
solid portions of the soil.
Porosity varies with the following factors
1. soil structure
4. amount of organic matter
2. shape of particles
5. compactness
3. soil texture

Soil consistency refers to the manifestation of physical forces of cohesion and

adhesion acting within the soil at various moisture contents.
Forms of Soil Consistency
1. Sticky - the property of stickiness or adherence to various objects.
2. Plastic - properties of toughness and the capacity to be muddled.
3. Soft - characterized by friability.
4. Harsh - characterized by hardness.

Friability refers to the ease of crumbling of soils.

Plasticity is the property of soil which enables clay to change shape without
cracking when it is subjected to deforming stress.

Puddlability is the susceptibility of soils to puddling. Puddling is defined as the

reduction in the apparent specific volume of a soil by doing mechanical work
upon it.

Soil colloid is the tiniest of all soil particles, so very small that it can be seen
only under an electron microscope. Colloid has the ability to absorb plenty of
water and is responsible for causing many soils to become plastic or sticky
when wet.

Illustration of pH Ranges
very
mode
mode
very
strong
strong
rate
slight
slight
rate
strong
_________________________________________________________________________________
pH
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
range
acidity
neutrality
alkalinity

strong
11

If soil is acid, and one desires to raise the pH, one can displace hydrogen ions
by adding Ca++ (by liming). However, if the soil is alkaline, and one desires to lower
the pH, one can add sulfur, ferrous sulfur, or aluminum silicate or silicate slags (by
acidulating).
Causes of Soil Acidity
1. increase of organic acids released by roots and decaying organic matter
2. increased inorganic acids such as hydrated silicates
3. continuous removal of bases such as Ca, Mg, K, etc. by crops with
accompanying release of H and Al ions
4. continuous application of fertilizers containing acid radicals such as sulfate,
nitrate, etc.
5. leaching of bases due to heavy rainfall
Saline or Alkaline soils - are soils with excessive amount of sodium salts.

Agronomy

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VI - 15

Causes of Formation of Saline Soils

1. excessive evaporation with low rainfall
2. high water table with high salt concentration
3. release of bases from the decomposing rocks
Effects of Salinity on Soils
1. structure breakdown resulting in low permeability, poor aeration, and poor tilt
because of the disintegration of clay aggregates
2. high salt concentration causes plasmolysis
3. high pH affects the availability of Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn, and some
micronutrients, carbohydrates may not be harmful but they induce rise of pH
resulting in decrease in the availability of other nutrients
Ways to Minimize Excessive Saline-Alkali Soils
1. wash salt out by irrigation and drainage if feasible
2. level the land if it is in small scale
3. develop a good structure by addition of large amounts of organic matter
4. use acidulating materials such as sulfur, iron, and aluminum sulfates, as well
as silicate slags to lower the pH.

Soil Colors
1. Black soils - generally caused by the presence of organic matter
2. Red soil - varies from very red to dark reddish brown, light brown, and yellow
brown, this soil contains plenty of iron and with good drainage
3. Gray soil - the color is due to poor organic matter or very low iron content,
gray soil is either low in fertility, poor in drainage or both
4. White soil - poor in organic matter, or very low in iron. In low rainfall areas
may contain excess Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) or Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4)

Air Capacity of Soils - is defined as the quantity of air in the soil which remains
after the soil has been saturated with water to the point of absolute water
capacity.
The mean composition of soil air is as follows:
N2 = 79.2% O2 = 20.6% CO2 = 0.25%

Classification of Soil Water

1. Hygroscopic water - water which has been absorbed from an atmosphere of
water vapor as a result of attractive forces in the surface of the particles.
2. Capillary water - is held by the surface tension forces as a continuous film
around the particles and in the capillary spaces.
3. Gravitational water - is not held by the soil but drains under the influence of
gravity.

Soil Water Classification Based on Energy Relation

1. Oven dry - the equilibrium tension of the moisture at oven dryness is 10,000
atm.
2. Air dry - the amount of water at air dryness is somewhat variable, and is not
available to plants. The moisture dryness is held with a force of 1000 atm.

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VI - 16

3. Hygroscopic coefficient - determined by placing an air-dry soil in a nearly

saturated atmosphere at 25C until it absorbs no more water. This tension is
equal to a force of 31 atm. Water at this tension is not available to plants.
4. Wilting percentage - is held with a force of 15 atm. Wilting point or wilting
coefficient also indicates the percentage moisture content of a soil at which a
plant wilts and will not be able to recover.
5. Field capacity - is the capacity of soil to retain water against the downward
pull of the force of gravity. Determination of soil water is done on soil with
good drainage two or three days after soaking in order to reduce evaporation
losses.

Organic matter - are the remains of plants and animals in varying stages of
decomposition.
Importance of organic matter
1. source of plant nutrients
2. enhances the formation and stabilization of soil structure and porosity
3. source of growth stimulator, such as vitamins, auxins, and antibiotics
4. source of carbon which serves as a source of energy for the growth of soil
microorganisms and plants

Humus - is the end product of decomposition.

Importance of Humus
1. increases water holding capacity of the soil
2. has a very high CEC
3. has a buffering effect on the soil
4. acts in oxidation and reduction processes
5. source of energy
6. acts as cementing agent in the formation of stable soil aggregate

C:N Ratio refers to the proportion of Carbon and Nitrogen in fresh organic
matter, humus, and whole soil. The C:N Ratio has significant importance in
agriculture, because the proportion of Carbon and Nitrogen in organic matter
affects its decomposition.

Biochemical Transformation of N in Soil

1. Ammonification is the transformation of organic nitrogenous compounds into
ammonia.
2. Nitrification is an aerobic process involving the production of Nitrates from
Ammonium salt.
3. Denitrificaton is the process of converting soil Nitrate into gaseous Nitrogen
or Nitrous Oxide.

Elements required in Plant Nutrition

Major

Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium

Carbon
Hydrogen

Minor

Agronomy

- Copper
- Boron

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Oxygen
Sulfur
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Manganese
Molybdenum

VI - 17

- Zinc
Chlorine
Sodium
Cobalt
Vanadium
Silicon
Aluminum.

Mechanism of Nutrient Uptake

1. through leaves from atmosphere
2. soil solution through roots
3. exchangeable ions on the surface of clay and humus particles through the
roots
4. from readily decomposable minerals through the roots

The Role of the Various Mineral Elements in Plants

A. Nitrogen
vigorous vegetative growth

dark green coloring

more succulence

B. Phosphorus
increase in root growth proliferation

increase in the number of tillers in cereals

hastens ripening of fruits
encourages seed formation
gives strength to the straw and helps prevent lodging
known to improve plants resistance to diseases

C. Potassium
carbohydrates metabolism and formation, and translocation of starch

metabolism and synthesis of protein

control and regulation of activities of various essential mineral elements
activation of various enzymes
adjustment and stomatal movement and water relation

Deficiency Symptoms
A. Nitrogen
sickly yellowish green color

slow, dwarfish growth

drying up of leaves which starts at the bottom of the plant, progressing
upward.

B. Phosphorus
purplish leaves, stems, and branches

Agronomy

slow growth and late maturity

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

VI - 18

small slender stalk and low yields of grain, fruit, and seed

C. Potassium
lower leaves scorched or burned on margins and tips.

Fertilizer Classification and Use

Fertilizers are any materials, organic and inorganic or artificial which are
necessary for the vigorous and healthy growth of plants.
Classification as to Origin
1. natural (natural deposits)
2. artificial (manufactured)
As
1.
2.
3.

to Reaction
Neutral - potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, superphosphate
Basic - wood ash, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate
Acidic - ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, Urea

As
1.
2.
3.

to composition
straight
combined
complete

SOME AGRONOMIC AND HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Agronomic Crops
Common Name

Scientific Name

Rice
Corn or maize
Sorghum
Wheat
Barley
Millet
Soybean
Mongo or mungbean
Peanut
Tapilan or Rice bean
Cowpea
Kadyos or Pigeon pea

Oryza sativa
Zea mays
Sorghum bicolor
Triticum aestivum
Hordeum sativum
Setaria italica
Glycine max
Vigna radiata
Arachis hypogaea
Vigna umbellata
Vigna unguiculata
Cajanus cajan

Common Name

Scientific Name

Singkamas or Yambean
Sweet potato
Gabi
Kenaf
Jute

Pachyrrhizus erosus
Ipomoea batatas
Colocasia esculenta
Hibiscus cannabinus
Corchorus oletorius
Corchorus capsularis
Boehmeria nivea
Gossypium hirsutum
Saccharum officinarum
Nicotiana tabacum

Ramie
Cotton
Sugarcane
Tobacco
Agronomy

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Sunflower
Napier
Guinea grass
Para grass
Parigola grass
Kikuyu grass
Alabang X
Centro or Centrosema
Tropical Kudzu
Ipil-ipil
Townsville stylo
Perennial stylo

VI - 19

Helianthus annuus
Pennisetum purpureum
Panicum maximum
Brachiaria mutica
Digitaria decumbens
Pennisetum clandestinum
Decanthium aristatum
Centrosema pubescens
Pueraria javanica
Leucaena leucocephala
Stylosanthes humilis
Stylosanthes guyanensis

Horticultural Crops
Common Name

Scientific Name

Pechay
Mustard
Lettuce
Celery
Kangkong
Cabbage
Chinese cabbage

Brassica napus
Brassica juncea
Lactuca sativa
Apium graveolens
Ipomoea
Brassica oleracea var capitata
Brassica pekinensis

KEY TO MAJOR PHILIPPINE CROPS

Field Crops
1.1 Cereals
rice
corn
sorghum
wheat
1.2 Seed legumes
mungbean
peanut
soybean

Scientific Name

Local Name

Oryza sativa
Zea mays
Sorghum bicolor
Triticum aestivu

palay
mais

Vigna radiata

mungo
balatong
mani
utaw

Arachis hypogaea
Gycine max

Scientific Name
cowpea
pigeon pea
rice bean
lima bean
1.3 Roots/tuber
cassava, manioc
greater yam
lesser yam
sweet potato
irish potato or
white potato
Agronomy

batad
trigo

Vigna unguiculata
Cajanus cajan
Vigna umbellata
Phaseolus lunatus
Manihot esculenta
Dioscorea alata
Dioscorea esculenta
Ipomoea batatas
Solanum tuberosum

Local Name
paayap, kibal
kadyos

tapilan

patani
kamoteng kahoy
ubi

tugui
kamote
patatas

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

taro
tannia
1.4 Fiber
cotton
jute
ramie
1.5 Industrial
sugarcane
tobacco

VI - 20

Colocasia esculenta
Xanthozoma sagittifolium

gabi
gabing San Fernando,
gabing Cebu

Gossypium hirsutum
Corchorus capsularis
Boehmeria nivea

bulak
saluyot, pasao
ramie

Saccharum officinarum
Nicotiana tabacum

tubo
tabako

Horticultural Crops
2.1 Vegetables
2.1.1 Leafy
mustard
pechay
swamp cabbage
asparagus
lettuce
cauliflower
cabbage
celery
2.1.2 Roots/Stem/Bulbs
carrot
radish
yam bean
garlic
onion
2.1.3 Legumes
snap bean
yardlong bean
bush sitao
lima bean
winged bean

Scientific Name

Brassica juncea
mustasa
Brassica chinensis
pechay
Ipomoea aquatico
kangkong
Asparagus oficinalis
asparagus
Lactuca sativa
letsugas
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Brassica oleracea var. capitata
repolyo
Apium graveolens
apyo, seleri, kinchay
Daucus carota
Raphanus sativus
Pachyrrhizus erosus
Allium sativum
Allium sepa

Dolichos lablab
Moringa oleifera
Pisum sativum

2.1.4 Solanaceous
eggplant
ladys finger
tomato
sweet pepper

Solanum melongena
Hibiscus esculantus
Lycopersicon esculantum
Capsicum anuum

2.1.5 Cucurbits/vines
cucumber
watermelon

Cucunis sativus
Citrullus lanatus

Agronomy

karot
labanus
singkamas
bawang
sibuyas

Phaseolus vulgaris
habichuelas
Vigna unguculata
sitao
Vigna unguculata
sitao
Phaseolus lunatus
patani
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus
calamismis
segadilyas
Scientific Name

lablab bean
horse radish
pea (sweet)
(green)

Local Name

Local Name
batao
malunggay
sitsaro, guisantes

talong
okra
kamatis
sili
pipino
pakwan

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

muskmelon
white gourd
bitter gourd
ribbed gourd
wax gourd
squash
chayote

Cucumis melo
Lagenaria ciceraria
Momordica charantia
Luffa acutangula
Benincasa hispida
Cucurbita maxima
Sechium edule

milon
upo
ampalaya
patola
kondol
kalabasa

VI - 21

sayote

2.2 Fruits
2.2.1 Tree Fruits
avocado
bread fruit
chico
citrus
durian
guava
jackfruit
lanzones
mango
mangosteen
papaya
rambutan
santol
soursop
starapple
sweet sop
2.2.2Nut fruits
cashew
pili
water chestnut
2.2.3 Small fruits
grapes
strawberry

2.2.4 Plantation fruits

banana/plantation
pineapple

Persea americana
avocado
Actocarpus communis
rimas
Manilkara zapota
tsiko
Citrus madurensis
kalamansi
C. reticulata
sintunis
C. grandis
suha, lukban
Durio zibethinus
duryan
Psidium guajava
bayabas
Artocarpus heterophyllus
langka, nangka
Lansium domesticum
lanzones
Mangifera indica
mangga
Garcinia mangostana
mangosteen
Carica papaya
papaya
Naphelium lappaceum
rambutan
Sandoricum koetjape
santol
Annona muricata
guayabano
Chrysophyllum caimito
caimito
Annona squamoza
atis
Anacardium occidentale
Canarium ovatum
pili
Eleucaris dulcis

kasoy
apulid

Vitis vinifera
Fragaria vesca

ubas

Scientific Name

Local Name

strawberry

Musa spp.
Ananas comosus

saging
pinya

2.3 Plantation Crops

2.3.1 Oil crops
African oil palm
castor bean
coconut
sesame
sunflower

Elacis guineensis
Ricinus communis
Cocos nucifera
Sesamum indicum
Helianthus anuus

African oil palm

castor
niyog
linga
sunflower

2.3.2 Beverage
cacao

Theobrama cacao

kakaw

Agronomy

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

coffee

Coffea spp.

kape

2.3.3 Spices
black pepper
ginger

Piper nigrum
Zingiber officinale

paminta
luya

2.3.4 Fiber
abaca
maguey
sisal

Musa textilis
Agave cantala
Agave sisalana

abaka
maguey
sisal

2.3.5 Latex
rubber

Hevea brasiliensis

rubber

VI - 22

Technical Definitions of Crop Categories

1. Field crops - herbaceous plants grown in cultivated fields with a more or less
extensive system of culture.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

cereals - yield starchy grains

seed legumes - yield dry beans
roots/ tubers -yield enlarged roots/stems
fibers - yield fibrous stem, fruits
industrial - includes drug, sugar, and oil - yielding crops

2. Horticultural crops - garden crops, grown under systems of intensive culture in

relatively small areas.
2.1 Vegetables - edible succulent plant or plant part, not sweet fruit except
melon, not
dry grain, not ordinarily staple.
2.1.1 leafy - yield succulent leaves
2.1.2 roots/ stems/ bulbs - yield specialized succulent parts other than
leaves
2.1.3 legumes - yield edible fresh pods
2.1.4 solanaceous - yield edible fresh fruits
2.1.5 cucurbits/ vines - Viny crop. Yielding edible fresh fruits.
2.2 Tree fruits - plants/trees yielding edible, fleshy fruits, usually perennials.
2.3 Nuts - trees yielding dry single-seeded fruits.
2.4 Small Fruits - yielding relatively small fleshy fruits.
2.5 Plantation Fruits - fruits plant grown in relatively large areas.
2.6 Plantation Crops - usually perennial crops, yield products requiring
primary processing before use.

Agronomy

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VI - 23

Origin of fruits and nuts grown in the Philippines

COMMON NAME

SCIENTIFIC NAME

ORIGIN

Major Crops
1. Banana
Musa sp.
Southeast Asia
2. Calamansi
Citrus medurensis Lour.
Philippines
3. Mandarin orange
Citrus reticulata
Blanco
China, Southeast
Asia
4. Pumelo
Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck Indo-Malaysia
5. Mango
Mangifera indica L.
India, Indo-China
6. Papaya
Carica papaya L.
Mexico,
Central
America
Minor Crops
7. Atis
8. Avocado
America
9. Balimbing
10. Caimito
America
11. Cashew
12. Chico
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

Duhat
Durian
Grape
Guava
Guayabano
Jak
Mamias
Lanzones
Mabolo
Mangosteen
Marang

24. Pili
25. Rambutan
26. Rimas
27. Santol
28.
29.
30.
31.

Siniguelas
Strawberry
Tamarind
Tiesa

Agronomy

Annona squamosa L.
Persea americana Mill.

Central and South America

Central and South

Averrhoa carambola
Malaysia, Indonesia
Chrysophyllum caimito L.
West Indies, Central
Anacardium occidentale L. Central America
Manilkara zapote (L.)
Central America
Van Royen
Syzygium cumini (L.)
India, Burma, Sri Lanka
Durio Zibethinus Murr.
Borneo
Vitis sp.
Europe
Psidium guajava L.
Central America
Annona muricata L.
West Indies
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.
India
Averrhoa bilimbi L.
Malaysia
Lansium domesticum Corr. Indonesia, Malaysia
Diospyrus blancoi A. DC.
Philippines
Garcinia mangostana L.
Indonesia, Malaysia
Artocarpus odoratossima
Philippines
Blanco
Canarium ovatum Engl.
Philippines
Nephelium lappaceum L.
Indonesia, Malaysia
Artocarpus altilis (Park.)
Southeast Asia
Fosb.
Sandoricum koetjape
Southeast Asia
(Burm. T.) Merr.
Spondias purpurea L.
Central America
Fragaria sp.
Chile, U.S.A.
Tamarindus indica L.
Tropical Africa
Pouteria campechiana
Mexico, Central
(H.B.K.) Baehni
America

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

VI - 24

III. References
1. Laboratory Exercises and Hand-outs for Crop Science 1 and 2. Department of
Agronomy and Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, University of
the Philippines Los Baos, College, Laguna.
2. Lawas, Nestor R. 1999. Notes for Crop Science 1and 2. Department of Agronomy,
College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Baos, College, Laguna.
3. Rimando, Tito J. 1998. Crop Science Lecture Manual. Department of Horticulture,
College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Baos, College, Laguna.

Agronomy