Chemistry of Salt, Acid, Base and Metal

Metal
A metal (from Greek mtallon, "mine, quarry, metal"[1][2]) is a material
(an element, compound, or alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has
good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable that is, they can be
hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking as well
as fusible (able to be fused or melted) and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire).[3] About
91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals, the others are nonmetals or metalloids.
Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms.
Chemical

Metals are usually inclined to form cations (positively charged ions) through electron loss,
[6]

reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales (iron rustsover years,

while potassium burns in seconds). Examples:

4 Na + O2 2 Na2O (sodium oxide)
2 Ca + O2 2 CaO (calcium oxide)
4 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3 (aluminium oxide)
The transition metals (such as iron, copper, zinc, and nickel) are slower to oxidize because they
form

a passivating

layer of

oxide

that

protects

the

interior.

Others,

like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all. Some metals form a
barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules
and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades (like aluminium,
magnesium, some steels, and titanium). The oxides of metals are generally basic, as opposed to
those of nonmetals, which are acidic. Exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation
states such as CrO3, Mn2O7, and OsO4, which have strictly acidic reactions.
Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion. However, a more
reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when
chipping of the coating is expected. Water and the two metals form an electrochemical cell, and if
the coating is less reactive than the coatee, the coating actually promotes corrosion

Base
In chemistry, bases are substances that, in aqueous solution, are slippery to the touch,
taste bitter, change the colour of indicators (e.g., turn red litmus paper blue), react with acids to
form salts, promote certain chemical reactions (base catalysis), accept protons from any proton
donor, and/or contain completely or partially displaceable OH ions. Examples of bases are the
hydroxides of the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (NaOH, Ca(OH)2, etc.).

These particular substances produce hydroxide ions (OH) in aqueous solutions, and are thus
classified as Arrhenius bases. For a substance to be classified as an Arrhenius base, it must
produce hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution. In order to do so, Arrhenius believed the base
must contain hydroxide in the formula. This makes the Arrhenius model limited, as it cannot
explain the basic properties of aqueous solutions of ammonia (NH3) or its organic derivatives
(amines).[1] There are also bases that do not contain a hydroxide ion but nevertheless react with
water, resulting in an increase in the concentration of the hydroxide ion. [2] An example of this is
the reaction between ammonia and water to produce ammonium and hydroxide. [2] In this reaction
ammonia is the base because it accepts a proton from the water molecule. [2] Ammonia and other
bases similar to it usually have the ability to form a bond with a proton due to the unshared pair
of electrons that they possess.[2] In the more general BrnstedLowry acidbase theory, a base
is a substance that can accept hydrogen ions (H+)otherwise known as protons. In the Lewis
model, a base is an electron pair donor.[3]
In water, by altering the autoionization equilibrium, bases yield solutions in which the hydrogen
ion activity is lower than it is in pure water, i.e., the water has a pH higher than 7.0 at standard
conditions. A soluble base is called an alkali if it contains and releases OH ions quantitatively.
However, it is important to realize that basicity is not the same as alkalinity. Metal oxides,
hydroxides, and especially alkoxides are basic, and counteranions of weak acids are weak
bases.
Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acids. However, some strong acids are able
to act as bases.[4] Bases and acids are seen as opposites because the effect of an acid is to
increase the hydronium (H3O+) concentration in water, whereas bases reduce this concentration.
A reaction between an acid and base is called neutralization. In a neutralization reaction, an
aqueous solution of a base reacts with an aqueous solution of an acid to produce a solution
of water and salt in which the salt separates into its component ions. If the aqueous solution
is saturated with a given salt solute, any additional such salt precipitates out of the solution.
The following reaction represents the general reaction between a base (B) and water to produce
a conjugate acid (BH+) and a conjugate base (OH):[2]
B(aq)+H2O(l)BH+(aq)+OH(aq)

In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of
an acid and a base.[1] Salts are composed of related numbers of cations (positively charged ions)
and anions (negative ions) so that the product is electrically neutral (without a net charge). These
component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride (Cl), or organic, such as acetate (CH
3CO
2); and can bemonatomic, such as fluoride (F), or polyatomic, such as sulfate (SO24).

Copper(II)sulfate as the ineral chalcanthite

Acid
An acid (from the Latin acidus/acre meaning sour[1]) is a chemical substance whose aqueous
solutions are characterized by a sour taste, the ability to turn blue litmus red, and the ability to
react with bases and certain metals (like calcium) to form salts. An aqueous solution of an acid
has a pH of less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as 'acid' (as in 'dissolved in acid'),
while the strict definition refers only to the solute. An acid usually contains a hydrogen atom
bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H + (a positive
hydrogen ion or proton). A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration
of positive hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid
are said to be acidic.
There are three common definitions for acids: the Arrhenius definition, the Brnsted-Lowry
definition, and the Lewis definition.[2] The Arrhenius definition defines acids as substances which
increase the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+), or more accurately, hydronium ions (H3O+),
when dissolved in water. The Brnsted-Lowry definition is an expansion to include solvents other
than water: an acid is a substance which can act as a proton donor. By this definition, any
compound which can be deprotonated can be considered an acid. Examples include alcohols
and amines which contain O-H or N-H fragments. A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept
a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond. Examples of Lewis acids include all metal cations,
and electron-deficient molecules such as boron trifluoride and aluminium trichloride.
Common examples of acids include hydrochloric acid (a solution of hydrogen chloride which is
found in gastric acid in the stomach and activatesdigestive enzymes), acetic acid (vinegar is a
dilute solution of this liquid), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and tartaric acid (a solid used in
baking). As these examples show, acids can be solutions or pure substances, and can be
derived from solids, liquids, or gases. Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids
are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid.

Carbonic Acid

Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 (equivalently OC(OH)2).
It is also a name sometimes given to solutionsof carbon dioxide in water (carbonated water),
because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3. In physiology, carbonic acid is
described as volatile acid or respiratory acid, because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the
lungs.[1]
Carbonic acid, which is a weak acid, forms two kinds of salts, the carbonates and
the bicarbonates. In geology, carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium
bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites.

When carbon dioxide dissolves in water it exists in chemical equilibrium producing carbonic acid:
[4]

CO2 + H2O

H2CO3

The Acid Rain Problem

Carbon dioxide in the air can dissolve in rain water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3.
CO2 + H2O

H2CO3

Carbonic acid is a weak acid. It partially ionises to form hydrogen ions.

H2CO3

H+ + HCO3-

The hydrogen ions from carbonic acid give natural rain water a slightly acid pH value of 5.6.
Over millions of years this very dilute acidic solution has been responsible for the formation of
caves in areas of limestone rocks. Limestone is made of calcium carbonate, which reacts with
acids.
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). + acid

calcium salt + water + carbon dioxide

During the last century the rain water in some parts of the world has become far more acidic.
This acid rain has been caused by the emission of pollutant gases such as sulfur dioxide.
When coal is burned in electricity power stations, sulfur impurities form sulfur dioxide.
S + O2

SO2

The gas is also produced when fuels obtained from crude oil are burned. When sulfur dioxide
is released into the air it reacts with water and oxygen to form sulfuric acid, H 2SO4.
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid. It ionises completely to hydrogen ions.
H2SO4

2H+ + SO42-

This gives rain water a pH below 5.0. Rain water that has this higher level of acidity can
cause damage to buildings and statues, particularly those made of limestone. It can also
reduce the growth of, or even kill, trees and crops. Acid rain may even lower pH of water in
lakes, killing fish.

Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite,
which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Most limestone is
composed of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs.