Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lab Manual
Quartz Crystals
Quartz is a common component of all rock types. We will explore rocks
and minerals in weeks 2 through 5.
Geology Department
Western Washington University
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 2
Introduction and Important Information
Academic Integrity
11
27
31
47
67
79
85
97
107
117
119
121
Acknowledgments
This lab manual is an evolving project that began Fall Quarter, 2000, written and compiled by faculty and
graduate students of the Geology Department at Western Washington University. Primary contributors are Terri
Plake, Geology 101 Instructors, Erik Bilderback, Chris Houck, Dave Tucker, Michelle Malone and all Geology
Teaching Assistants. Others who have provided significantly to this project are George Mustoe, Scott and Marca
Babcock, Dan Bunk, Katie Callahan, Andrew Greene, Pete Stelling, Gerry Greisel, Casey Hannell, and Paul
Thomas. Scott Linneman provided ideas and inspiration. Portions of several labs were modified from the Geology
Lab Manual of the Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Minnesota, and a geology lab manual
from Lewis-Clark State College. The plate tectonics lab was modified from an exercise written by Dale S. Sawyer,
Rice University. Thank you to George Mustoe who has provided advice and technical support over many years. In
addition, we have benefited greatly from comments and suggestions made by the teaching assistants and students
of the Geology 101 labs. We thank you!
By no means is this manual finished. If you have any comments or suggestions, we would appreciate
hearing from you.
Geology Department
Western Washington University
August, 2001
Revised continuously through September, 2013
Figure 1. Gneiss with granite and pegmatite dikes cutting across it, Laxford, England. Image source: http://www.earth.ox.ac.uk.
Introduction
The purpose of Geology 101 Lab is to give you
hands-on practice in the application of geologic principles.
Geology 101 lab gives you the opportunity to develop skills
of observation, and to see the Earth in new ways. In this lab
you will take a closer look at what the Earth is made of, what
processes form our landscapes, what changes are taking
place during your life time, what changes could take place in
the future. You will learn to make reasonable interpretations
from your observations. This lab manual will start with a big
picture of the Earth and then zoom in. As a class, we will:
You should supplement this lab manual with your textbook where you can find glossy colored photographs and
diagrams. We recommend that you bring your textbook to each lab session to use as a handy reference.
Figure 5. A cartoon diagram depicting the rock cycle, an essential concept in geology. Image source:
http://www.geolsoc.org.uk.
Figure 6. A Laguna, CA neighborhood after a landslide. Where do you want to build your house?
Lab Activities
A important note about the time required to complete lab activities:
Lab activities have been divided into In-Class and Homework sections. The In-Class activities use
materials that are only available in class, and your answers to these sections will be graded by your TA before
you leave the lab room. The Homework activities are intended for you to complete after you have finished the
In-Class activities - you are welcome to work on them in lab if you still have time. Homework will include short
answer questions that are based on material from your In-Class activities, textbook, lecture, lab manual, and/or
online resources.
There are several labs that include Google Earth activities. Google Earth is available in all ATUS computer labs
on campus, and is free to download if youd like to work on your own computer (http://www.google.com/earth/
index.html). If you are new to Google Earth, refer to the next page for instructions. Dont be surprised if you need
to come back to the lab to complete a lab exercise. Some labs will take you longer than others. If you pre-read
every lab, you will be more likely to complete the lab during the 2 hour lab period.
Figure 7. An image of the May 18, 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. Image source: Rob Krimmel, www.usgs.gov.
Scale Bar
Ruler Tool
Latitude/Longitude/Elevation
Navigation Tools
Eye (Camera)
Elevation
7
Academic Integrity
http://www.wwu.edu/integrity
Integrity is a core value at Western, and is an essential component of being a Western student, staff or
faculty member. Academic integrity is more than not cheating, and it is certainly not limited to plagiarism, as is
often misunderstood. Integrity is choosing the honorable option because it is for self-betterment, not because you
are afraid of getting caught.
A liberal education requires you to expand your mind and broaden your understanding of the world beyond a
single professional goal. Here at WWU students are encouraged to explore a variety of disciplines. In the words
of Dr. Charles Sylvester (WWU PEHR Dept.), a liberal education will help you connect seemingly disparate
disciplines, and find connections between arts, sciences, humanities, and skills.
What does this mean for this course? Even if you do not intend to be a geologist, you can benefit from learning
how the Earth formed, how it works, and how humans interact with and affect it. Practicing integrity means
challenging yourself, striving for excellence, taking risks, learning from your mistakes, doing your own work,
and giving credit whenever you use the work of others. Completing the course activities on your own is the best
way to expand your knowledge and understanding of the world. If you have questions about academic integrity
regarding yourself or your classmates, please talk to your TA or professor.
Additional information on academic integrity can be found on WWUs Integrity Webpage: www.wwu.edu/
integrity. This webpage provides all the information you need, including the importance of integrity, how to
promote it, as well as types of academic dishonesty and how to avoid them. It also includes WWUs policy and
procedures on academic honesty (appendix D of the WWU Catalog).
ConcepTest
Each week we will begin lab by answering questions on key concepts from this weeks reading and the previous
weeks lab. These questions are not graded, but will be used as attendance. Once you complete the lab, answer
the questions on the back page of the ConcepTest and compare your initial thoughts to what you have learned
since.
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Now that you have completed this weeks lab, consider ConcepTest question #2 for this week. Would you
answer the question differently now? Has your understanding of the topic changes now that youve worked
through these activities? Review what you wrote in the initial thoughts box. In the space below, compare your
pre-conceptions to what you know now after participating in the lab.
Now were going to ask for your input on the lab. What was the best part of this lab? This can be the most fun
part, the most helpful exercise, or just your favorite thing about the lab.
The purpose of todays lab is to investigate the nature of plate boundaries using scientific data that are
compiled on various types of maps. The maps plot the locations of volcanoes, earthquakes, ages of the sea floor,
and topographic features (mountain chains, trenches, island chains, etc.). The plotted data displays patterns and
trends that can be used to determine the locations and types of plate boundaries.
Objectives
1) Learn methods of scientific inquiry, how to do science.
2) Look at maps that show various types of scientific data, locations of volcanoes, earthquakes, topography, and
age of oceanic crust. Look for patterns in the plotted data.
3) Use the observations to make reasonable interpretations about plate boundaries and the interactions between
plates.
4) Present your findings to a group of your peers and then compile your findings to make interpretations about
plate boundaries.
5) Work in groups to answer questions about the Earth and global plate tectonics.
Materials
Pencil (no pens)
Colored Pencils
Testbook Ruler
Calculator
In-Class Activities (due by the end of lab today, requires a TA check)
Activity 1: Plate boundary location
Activity 2: Geologic profession maps
Activity 3: Characterizing boundary types
Homework Activities (due the beginning of next lab)
Activities on pages 17-20
Plate Tectonics
The suggestion that the positions of the continents have shifted through time is a relatively old idea that
dates to the first maps of the New Worlds coastline. Early naturalists quickly noted the jigsaw fit between the
eastern coastline of the Americas and the western coastlines of Eurasia and Africa. The idea or hypothesis that the
continents have moved was eventually called continental drift.
In contrast, plate tectonics is a more recent theory that describes how the continents have moved. The plate
tectonics theory is one of the most important and far-reaching theories in geology. It is based on an investigation
of the sea floor using technology that was not available until the 1960s to 1970s. The basic concept of plate
tectonics is that the Earths rigid lithosphere is broken into about a dozen large and other small plates. The plates
move relative to one another. A critical aspect of plate tectonic theory is the recognition that the continents do
not shift as isolated landmasses, but that most plates are made of both continental and oceanic portions that
move as a single unit. The interaction of these plates with one another is largely limited to their edges, called
plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are the most active areas of the Earths surface. The majority of the Earths
volcanoes, earthquakes, and regions of mountain building occur at or near plate boundaries. Plate boundaries fall
into three major categories that depend on the relative motion of the adjacent plates:
Divergent (move apart)
In-Class Activities
1. Discuss the findings from each locality. Go to the appropriate specialty map during the discussion. Determine
how each specialty data can help distinguish between different types of plate boundaries based on the patterns
observed.
Step 1:
Complete the chart on pg. 14 in pencil with your group members observations.
Step 2:
Come up with a hypothesis about the appropriate plate boundary type for each group of boundaries
based on you observations and discussion. Fill in the boundary type names (divergent, transform or
convergent) in the appropriate blanks on your chart.
Step 3:
Go to the Plate Boundary Map on pg. 15, use the appropriate symbols to show relative motions
along the five plate boundaries listed on the chart (it is not necessary to label all the plate boundaries
on the map).
13
GEOGRAPHY
TA CHECK _____________
Mid-Atlantic ridge
Continentalcontinental
Northern India
Oceanic-oceanic
Japan
Oceanic-Continental
(example:
west coast of S. Am.)
14
LOCATIONS
Data: volcanoes above water
Are volcanoes present in
each of the boundaries?
Where? Describe.
Volcanoes form a northsouth chain east of the plate
boundary + a few scattered
on oceanic plate
VOLCANOLOGY
Data: Earthquake hypocenters
Is there a pattern to
earthquake locations? Depth?
Describe.
EQs go from shallow depth
on west edge of SA plate,
get deeper further inland (to
east)
SEISMOLOGY
GEOCHRONOLOGY
Step 1: Analyze the data from your location from each map
(complete using specialty hint on pg. 12, then teach your group members about your location when you regroup)
Step 2:
Transform
Divergent
pppppp
Convergent
Map
Symbols
TA CHECK _____________
Step 3: Go to the chart locations and draw the appropriate symbol for each boundary on this map
15
16
Homework Activities
The rest of this lab may be completed in lab or outside of lab. You may find that working on these
questions while the TA is in the room can be a big advantage. Keep in mind that some questions will require
computers that are not available in the lab room.
Activity 1: Plate Boundaries
This activity of the lab is organized by plate boundary type. For each type, first draw the plate boundary, then
answer the questions that follow. Be sure to include:
Symbols for earthquakes at different depths (different symbols for deep, medium and shallow if needed)
Label important topographic features (such as volcanoes, mountains, trenches, mid-ocean ridges, etc.)
Label where the older (O) and younger (Y) sea floor is located only if known
Arrows indicating the direction of plate motion
If you used any of your own symbols, add them to the symbol key below
I. Convergent Boundaries
(Draw the cross sections in the rectangles below)
(Continental-Oceanic)
Y
OY
trench
Symbol Key
mountain range/
volcano
**
*
A cross section of one
type of convergent
boundary has been done
for you as an example.
(Oceanic-Oceanic)
Y
O
(Continental-Continental)
3. Why is the youngest oceanic crust found near the divergent plate boundaries?__________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What properties of divergent boundaries cause it to form ridges of higher elevation than the rest of the ocean
floor? _____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Now mentally close up the Atlantic ocean by reversing the plate movement along the transform faults (at
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge). This is what the world looked like about 180 million years ago. What country or continent was adjacent to Boston before the Atlantic opened? ________________________________________
III. Transform Boundaries
(Draw a map view below; use the same symbols as before)
6. Describe earthquake locations and depths at transform boundaries. What do you think causes earthquakes at
these plate boundaries? Why is the pattern different than at convergent boundaries?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
18
_______________ km
c. In the boxes below, sketch the cross sections for the two subduction zones for which you measures the arctrench gap. On the vertical axis, use 0 km for the Earths surface. Plot the trench at 0 km, 0 km (). Remember,
the trench is located where the two plates meet. Label the trench (T), the zone of melting (M), and the location
of the volcano (V).
Masaya volcano, Managua, Nicaragua
100
100
0 km
-50
-50
-100
-100
-100
0 km
0 km
100
200
300
-100
0 km
100
200
300
19
_______________km
b. What outstanding topographic feature do you think resulted from this collision? _____________________
c. Lets put that distance into perspective. Imagine that a change in the plate tectonic environment of Washington State caused it to plow its way eastward as far as India has advanced into Asia since the collision. What state
or region would be Washingtons eastern most neighbor (instead of Idaho)? Use the Google Earth measuring
tool to help you. __________________________________________________________________________
5. Find California on the plate boundary and scientific specialty maps.
a. Los Angeles is on the west side of the San Andreas transform fault system. Movement along the fault is carrying LA northwest (with respect to North America) at an average rate of approximately 3.2 cm/year. Assuming that the motion will continue in the same direction and at the same rate for the next few hundred million
years, how many kilometers will Los Angeles have traveled in 27 million years? Again, show all work for your
calculation.
_______________km
b. Assuming the Pacific Plate continues to move northwest, carrying Los Angeles with it, which state might LA
collide after it travels about 3,500 km? Be as specific as you can.
________________________________________________________________________________________
20
21
Note that the volcanology map only shows volcanoes that rise above sea level! Many more volcanic vents are found on the sea bottom. They
generally correspond in location to the regions of sea floor seismic activity shown on that specialty map. Note changes on the large specialty map
posted in your lab. Also, note the inset box for the San Andreas fault region - the volcanoes do not occur on the San Andreas fault itself, but occur
more inland (toward the center of the conitnent).
22
23
Legend in
Millions of Years
24
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Now that you have completed this weeks lab, consider ConcepTest question #2 for this week. Would you
answer the question differently now? Has your understanding of the topic changes now that youve worked
through these activities? Review what you wrote in the initial thoughts box. In the space below, compare your
pre-conceptions to what you know now after participating in the lab.
Now were going to ask for your input on the lab. What was the best part of this lab? This can be the most fun
part, the most helpful exercise, or just your favorite thing about the lab.
Rock Cycle
General processes
Crystallization of molten rock (magma)
Weathering of pre existing rocks, deposition and lithification of sediments
Pre-existing rocks subjected to increases in pressure and/or temperature, changing
their form in the solid state (meta = change, morph = form)
27
Rock Cycle
Rock vs. Mineral
Rocks are made of aggregates of one or more minerals or biochemical components (such as plants or fossils).
In geology, a mineral has a very specific definition. A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid
with a fixed chemical formula. Minerals have a set of diagnostic physical properties that can be used to identify
the minerals, for example:
Hardness (resistance to scratching)
Cleavage (a minerals tendency to break along preferred planes of weakness)*
Fracture (how a mineral breaks not along preffered planes of weakness)*
Effervescence in hydrochloric acid
Taste
*A mineral can have both
Magnetism
cleavage and fracture, but
Color (a very poor distinguishing property)
some only have fracture.
Examples of minerals are: quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, calcite, and halite.
Granite is an igneous rock typically composed of the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica.
Schist is a metamorphic rock typically composed of the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica.
Shale is a sedimentary rock typically composed of clay minerals.
Coal is another sedimentary rock composed entirely of carbon that was derived from plant material.
Identifying Rocks
I. Texture
Hint: For most of us, the texture means the feel or appearance of the surface of an object; whether it has a rough
or smooth surface. In geology, the texture of a rock refers to the characteristics of the material that makes up
the rock, as opposed to the feel of the outer surface.
Rock texture is the size of the minerals (or fragments), their shape, and how they are stuck together. The
texture helps determine the origin of the rock (Fig. 2). The texture of the rock is perhaps the most important tool
used to determine whether the origin of a rock is igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. The texture reflects the
geologic processes involved in the formation of the rock.
Key rock-identifying observations:
1. Size of the mineral (or fragment) constituents that make up the rock
Can you see the minerals/grains with your naked eye, or do you need a microscope?
Are particles all the same size or a mixture of different sizes?
2. Arrangement of mineral grains is a property that you will eventually use to tell if the rock is igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic in origin.
Are the minerals intergrown together?
Are individual particles cemented together?
Are there holes in the rock from the escape of gas bubbles?
Does the rock have a squashed look?
Do the minerals in the rock appear to have a preferred alignment?
3. Shape of the particles that make up the rock not the shape of the hand sample
Are the particles that make up the rock angular or rounded?
Are they well-formed crystals or rounded fragments?
28
Rock Cycle
Interlocking crystals
Common texture: crystalline
Banded minerals
Common texture: foliated
Lithification of sediment
produced rock
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Clastic
29
II. Composition
Rock composition refers to the minerals or components that make up the rock, which give clues to the
environment of their formation. Because they have a definite chemical formula, minerals tell us the chemical
composition of the rock. For example, the composition of volcanic rocks can indicate whether the rocks formed
in association with a mid-oceanic ridge, a subduction zone, or a hot spot.
30
The purpose of todays lab is to introduce you to igneous rocks. By the end of the lab you should be able
to distinguish between different igneous rock types and interpret their origin.
Objectives
1) Learn that every rock tells a story.
2) Know the difference between a rock and a mineral.
3) Know how to tell whether an igneous rock is felsic, intermediate, mafic, or ultramafic, and what the composition
tells us about the tectonic setting of formation.
4) Igneous rock textures to know, and what they mean when you see them.
5) Recognize and describe the meaning of the following igneous rocks
Plutonic: granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite, dunite
Volcanic: rhyolite, andesite, basalt
6) Conduct an experiment and explore how the density of igneous rocks controls plate tectonics.
Materials
Pencil (no pens)
Textbook
Calculator
Pre-lab work (to be completed before lab begins)
Complete the online Warm-Up Quiz using the information in this lab and your textbook, as well as the web
links provided on the Canvas site.
The ConcepTest will be on material related to plate tectonics from lab 1 and reading material from lab 2 (this
lab).
In-Class Activities (due by the end of lab today, requires a TA check)
Activity 1: Igneous minerals
Activity 2: Igneous rocks
Activity 3: Density and plate tectonics
Homework Activities (due the beginning of next lab)
Activities on pages 42-44
31
Igneous Rocks
Origin of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks originate from molten rock. Igneous is derived from the Greek word for fire (think
of ignite). Molten rock underground is called magma, and molten rock that erupts at the surface is called lava.
Cooling of magma and lava produces igneous rocks.
Magmas can flow easily or sluggishly, and this characteristic is described as their viscosity (resistence to flow).
High viscosity (or viscous) magmas have high resistence to flow and flows slowly. Low viscosity magmas have
low resistence to flow and flow easily. Viscosity is controlled by the magmas chemical composition, fluid vs.
mineral content, and temperature. For example, magma viscosity increases as it cools (the magma thickens). For
more information about viscosity go to pg. 36.
Igneous Rocks Classification
Igneous rocks are typically classified on the basis of their texture (crystal size and arrangement) and
chemical composition (minerals present). The texture of an igneous rock reflects its cooling history. The
composition of igneous rock, to a large degree, reflects its plate tectonic setting during formation.
I. Igneous Textures
The texture of an igneous rock reflects how the magma cooled and crystallized to form minerals. The size of
the crystals depends on the cooling rate. Coarse-grained textures indicate slow cooling (tens of thousands of
years), whereas fine-grained and glassy textures indicate fast cooling (months to hours). Texture is used to
indicate whether the magma cooled at the surface (volcanic) or deep underground (plutonic).
The following are igneous textures:
Coarse-grained: Interlocking crystals (typically 1-10 mm) that can be seen with the naked eye. Great thickness
of overlying rock insulated the magma, so that it cooled slowly to form large crystals. Igneous rocks exhibiting
this texture cooled deep underground.
Fine-grained: Small interlocking crystals (typically <1 mm, which are too small to see with the naked eye).
Most fine-grained igneous rocks cooled at the Earths surface after being erupted from a volcano. Fine-grained
textures can also result from shallow intrusions, or if magma is injected into fractures in cooler rock. These
injections are called dikes or sills.
Porphyritic: An igneous rock texture that is
composed of two different distinct crystal sizes
(see Fig. 1). Specifically, crystals >2mm in size
are called phenocrysts, and they are embedded
in a groundmass made of fine-grained crystals
(often called a matrix). Porphyritic rocks are
interpreted to have undergone two stages of
cooling: the phenocrysts would form while the
magma is slowly cooling deep under ground,
and, when the magma erupts, the groundmass
cools quickly when exposed at the surface.
Crystal (phenocryst)
Groundmass (matrix)
32
0%
100%
Felsic
Intermediate
Mafic
SiO2
FeO+Fe2O3
MgO+CaO
Al2O3
Na2O+K2O
Silica
Iron
Magnesium+calcium
Alumina
Sodium+potassium
Figure 5. Average chemical compositions of mafic, intermediate, and felsic igneous rocks. Note that silica (SiO2) is the dominant oxide
in all three types of igneous rocks.
Composition
Quartz
Felsic
Amphibole/
Pyroxene
Olivine
Mica
Feldspar
Mafic
Composition
Mineral Content
Felsic
Must contain feldspar and quartz, very minor dark minerals (therefore light in color).
Intermediate
Contain mostly feldspar and some dark minerals (usually amphibole), usually no quartz.
Mafic
Contain feldspar and abundant dark minerals, no quartz (therefore dark color).
Ultra Mafic
Contain almost entirely dark minerals such as pyroxene and olivine. No extrusive
equivalents.
Figure 7. Characteristic minerals for each compositional group.
You will need to be able to identify the igneous rock-forming minerals. Luckily, there are only eight common
igneous rock-forming minerals, which have been grouped into 4 broad compositional categories listed in Fig.
7 above. For additional information on igneous rock classification refer to the Igneous Rocks and Associated
Minerals diagram (Fig. 8).
34
Special Textures
(coarse grained)
Intrusive
(fine grained or
porphyritic)
Extrusive
quartz
feldspar
mica
amphibole
Granite
Rhyolite
feldsparpyroxene
amphibole
olivine
Gabbro
Basalt
Dark color
(black)
increasing viscosity
feldspar
amphibole
Mica
pyroxene
Diorite
Andesite
Intermediate color
(gray)
45 wt% SiO2
olivine
olivine
pyroxene
Peridotite Dunite
No common
extrusive
equivalent
SCORIA
PUMICE
Vesicles (bubble holes) may or may not occur in any composition of volcanic (extrusive) rock.
Typically vesicles are smaller in more felsic magma and larger in more mafic magma.
OBSIDIAN
75 wt% SiO2
Minerals
Light color
(white/pink)
35
Gas bubbles form in magma as it rises. The gas bubbles are less dense (buoyant) than the magma, so they cluster
at the top of the magma body. As the gas bubbles cluster, they enduce pressure build-up within the magma body,
which pushes the magma upward. Therefore gases that cant escape prior to an eruption increase the explosive
potential of a volcano.
Composition
Mafic
(1050-1300C)
Intermediate
(900-1100C)
Felsic
(650-1000C)
Silica
Content
~50%
~60%
~70%
Gas
Content
Least
(1-2%)
Intermed.
(3-4%)
Most
(4-6%)
Viscosity
Low
(runny lava)
Intermed.
(thick lava)
High
(very thick
lava)
Common
Rock Types
Extrusive: basalt, scoria
(very abundant)
Intrusive: gabbro
(abundant in oceanic crust,
rare in continental crust)
Extrusive: andesite
(abundant)
Intrusive: diorite
(abundant)
Intrusive: granite
(abundant in continental
crust, rare in oceanic crust)
Extrusive: tuff
(abundant)
rhyolite, obsidian
(less abundant)
Figure 10. Viscosity and behavior of felsic, intermediate, and mafic magmas.
36
Common
Volcanic
Landforms
Flood basalt,
plateaus, ocean
floor cinder
cones, shield
volcanoes,
small calderas
Pyroclastics
Cinders,
bombs
Composite,
volcanoes, large
calderas
Tuff,
ash fall
Volcanic domes,
large calderas
filled with ash
Pyroclastic
flows,
tuff,
pumice,
ash fall
Density
Mass (g)
Volume (cm3)
37
38
Upper Mantle
(plastic ultramafic)
Mid-ocean ridge:
Continental crust:
Extrusive Mafic near
Intrusive Felsic and Intrusive
surface; Intrusive
Intermediate
Mafic at depth
Hotspot volcanism:
(e.g., Hawaii)
Extrusive Mafic near
surface; Intrusive
Mafic at depth
Oceanic crust:
Extrusive Mafic
In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Identifying Common Igneous Minerals
I. Minerals
Learn to recognize the important rock forming minerals. In groups of 3 or 4, use Fig. 6 as a guide to the
diagnostic properties that will help you identify the minerals in the mineral tray. The numbers listed here
correspond to the numbers on the mineral samples.
1. (2 samples) _________________________
2. (2 samples) ___________________________
3.___________________________________
4._____________________________________
TA CHECK ________________
39
Interpretation
2. Arrange the fine-grained/porphyritic and coarse-grained piles in order from light-colored to dark-colored as
shown below. Your ability to judge can be improved by looking at the minerals in the coarse-grained samples as
you did in Activity 1. This ordering approximates the chemical composition of the samples.
Compositions
Felsic
Intermediate
Mafic
Ultramafic
Fine-grained
Light-Colored
Intermediate Color
Dark-Colored (no common equivalent)
Coarse-grained
Light-Colored
Intermediate Color
3. Once youve arranged the rocks, ask your TA to come check your work. Now record the sample # and rock
name in the appropriate space in the chart on the next page. Use Fig. 8 to help you identify the rocks. Be sure to
include rock texture descriptions if the rocks are porphyritic or vesicular.
Color
Light
Medium
Dark
Dark/Green
Composition
Felsic
Intermediate
Mafic
Ultramafic
Texture:
Fine-grained
(extrusive/
volcanic)
Sample #: ________
Sample #: ________
Sample #: ________
Name:___________
Name:___________
Name:___________
RARE
(no sample)
Texture:
Coarse-grained
(intrusive/
plutonic)
Sample #: ________
Sample #: ________
Sample #: ________
Sample #: ________
Name:___________
Name:___________
Name:___________
Name:___________
TA CHECK ____________
40
Sample #
Rock Name
(identify)
Mass
(measure)
Volume
(measure)
Density
(calculate)
4A
4B
4C
TA CHECK ____________
41
Homework Activities
Activity 1: Density
Based on your results from your density measurements, answer the following questions.
1. Which type of igneous rock subducts at convergent boundaries? Please explain why.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. In an oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary, which plate will subduct? Please explain why.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The major compositional layers of the Earth are the core, the mantle, and the crust.
a. Which layer is the most dense? Why?________________________________________________________
b. Which layer is the least dense? Why? ________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Google Earth
The remainder of the homework questions will involve the use of Google Earth. Open up the program,
then go to the Canvas page for your Geology 101 lab section and navigate to Modules 1 Lab 2. There youll find
a series of Google Earth files. The files are named by the question to which they correspond in the homework
questions below.
Need a Google Earth refresher? Go to page 7.
1. Sierra Nevada Batholith.
Batholith is the term for the largest class of igneous intrusion, and the Sierra Nevada batholith forms the core of
the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California and Nevada. There are exposures of granite in places like Yosemite
National Park.
a. Open the Lab2_1a_SierraNevadaBatholith.kmz file. This file will place a red polygon outlining the batholith. Use the transparency slider at the bottom of the Places panel to help get oriented.
To get a sense for the size of this intrusion, measure length in kilometers.
______________km
b. Open the Lab2_1b_HalfDome.kmz file (be sure to turn off the batholith layer from 1a). This will take you
to the Half Dome at Yosemite National Park, which was carved by glacial ice flowing over the granite batholith.
In meters, measure the minimum thickness of the batholith by determining the difference in elevation between
the top of Half Dome and the floor of the valley.
Note: If you cant see the lat/long/elevation, go to the View menu and make sure the Status Bar is checked.
________________m
42
________________________ (composition)
___________________________(rock name)
________________________ (composition)
d. Investigate Lab2_2d_Hawaii.kmz by flying around as you have for the previous locations. Note the various
colors along the ridge crest, particularly the dark material. This dark material is a lava flow, seen from an areial
view.
What is the tectonic setting?_______________________________________________________________
What do you think the texture of these rocks is likely to be (fine- or coarse-grained)? ____________________
What do you think the composition of these rocks might be (felsic, intermediate, mafic, or ultramafic)?
________________________________________________________________________________________
Now open Lab2_2d_MtShasta.kmz. Compare the Hawaiian lava flows you just looked at to those at Mt.
Shasta (size, shape, length). _________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Refer to the pre-lab reading material and review lava behavior. What do you think causes the differences between these flows?_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
e. Lab2_2e_EXTRUSIVE.kmz. Investigate this area by flying around.
Name two igneous rocks that you would expect to see at this location, and indicate whether they are felsic,
intermediate, mafic, or ultramafic.
___________________________(rock name)
________________________ (composition)
___________________________(rock name)
________________________ (composition)
43
Extrusive
OR Rhyolite
Intrusive
Extrusive
Intrusive
Extrusive
Intrusive
Intrusive
(hot spot)
(lithospheric
mantle)
(asthenospheric
mantle)
44
(mid-ocean ridge)
(subduction zone)
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Now that you have completed this weeks lab, consider ConcepTest question #2 for this week. Would you
answer the question differently now? Has your understanding of the topic changes now that youve worked
through these activities? Review what you wrote in the initial thoughts box. In the space below, compare your
pre-conceptions to what you know now after participating in the lab.
Now were going to ask for your input on the lab. What was the best part of this lab? This can be the most fun
part, the most helpful exercise, or just your favorite thing about the lab.
The purpose of todays lab is to introduce you to sedimentary rocks. By the end of the lab you should be
able to distinguish between different sedimentary rock types and interpret their depositional history.
Objectives
1) Know the processes through which sedimentary rocks form.
2) Be able to identify common sedimentary minerals.
3) Be able to identify common sedimentary rocks.
4) Be able to interpret the origin of sedimentary rocks on the basis of their texture and composition.
5) Be able to create a geologic history by interpreting a sequence of sedimentary rocks.
Materials
Pencil (no pens)
Textbook
Calculator (Homework)
Pre-lab work (to be completed before lab begins)
Complete the online Warm-Up Quiz using the information in this lab and your textbook, as well as the web
links provided on the Canvas site.
The ConcepTest will be on material related to igneous rocks from lab 2 and reading material from lab 3 (this
lab).
In-Class Activities (due by the end of lab today, requires a TA check)
Activity 1: Depositional environments
Activity 2: Geologic rock record
Activity 3: Sedimentary rocks
Homework Activities (due the beginning of next lab)
Activities on pages 59-64
47
Sedimentary Rocks
The interaction of pre-existing rocks with the hydrologic cycle at the Earths surface results in the formation
of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks typically form in layers, such as the colorful layers exposed in the Grand
Canyon. Locally, the Chuckanut Mountains consist of sedimentary layers of conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone,
and coal.
Sedimentary rocks form through two major processes:
1. Detrital and clastic sedimentary rocks are derived from the weathering of pre-existing rock, where the sediment
is transported, deposited, buried, and lithified (solidified into stone). Examples of such rocks are: conglomerate,
sandstone, and shale.
2. Biological and chemical sedimentary rocks are a result of the settling and lithification of precipitates (such
as mineral grains) and organisms (such as plankton). Examples of such rocks are: limestone, halite, chert, and
diatomite.
Origin of Sedimentary Rock
There are 4 main steps in the formation of most sedimentary rocks:
I. Weathering of pre-existing rocks
II. Erosion and transportation of sediments or ions in solution
III. Deposition
IV. Burial and lithification
I.Weathering
Weathering of pre-existing rocks produces sediment (Fig. 1). There are two main ways that rocks can weather:
Mechanical (physical) weathering is the process of breaking rock material into smaller particles. If you
hit a rock with a hammer and it breaks into various-sized pieces, you have physically weathered the rock by
decreasing the particle size. This increases the surface area without changing the chemical composition of the
minerals.
Chemical weathering occurs when minerals interact with the environment and are chemically changed. Some
minerals dissolve in water (e.g. halite), or oxidize (e.g. iron rusts) to form ions in solution or new minerals.
Feldspar reacts with water to form clay, which is the constituent of shale, the most abundant sedimentary rock.
The main products of mechanical and chemical weathering are:
Lithic (rock) fragments: broken pieces of parent (pre-existing) rock.
Resistant mineral grains: some minerals are relatively stable at the Earths surface and are resistant to
alteration. Quartz is the most common resistant mineral.
Clay: clay is formed by the chemical weathering (specifically hydrolysis, the chemical breakdown of a
compound due to reaction with water) of feldspar minerals. Besides being a mineral, the term clay also refers
to sediment that is smaller than 1/256 mm.
Ions in solution: chemical weathering of non-resistant minerals releases ions such as Si, Ca, Na, Fe, Mg.
These ions are present in lakes, rivers, groundwater, and the ocean where chemical sedimentary rocks form by
precipitation or evaporation. Ions dissolved in groundwater can precipitate and cement clastic particles together.
Ion precipitation can also form beautiful geodes, agates, and thundereggs by filling rock cavities (holes).
48
Weathering Products
Visible Grains
Clay
Quartz
Rock fragments
Lightly weathered nonresistant minerals
Clastic Rocks
Sediment
256mm
64mm
4mm
2mm
boulders
cobbles
pebbles
granules
1/16mm
sand
1/256mm silt
1/256mm clay
Ions in Solution
Na - sodium
Ca - calcium
Mg - magnesium
Chemical Rocks
Fe - iron
Si - silicon
Biochemical Rocks
Rock
Compound
Rock
Compounds
Rock
breccia, conglomerate
CaCO3
NaCl
SiO2
CaSO4+2H2O
limestone
rock salt
chert
gypsum
CaCO3 fossils
Powdered CaCO3
Powdered SiO2
Crystalline SiO2
Fossilized C
fossiliferous limestone
chalk
diatomite
chert
coal
sandstone
siltstone
mudstone, shale
II. Transportation
Weathering products that are eroded from their source can be transported by moving water, ice, or wind.
Sediment can undergo physical changes that affect the texture of the sediment. The three main sedimentary
textures that tell us about the transport history of sediments are listed below:
Grain size of a sedimentary rock can be interpreted to indicate several things.
1. The energy of the environment at the time of deposition. The higher the energy (e.g. the swifter the water),
the larger the grain size that can be moved.
2. The grain size of sediment generally decreases as it gets farther from the source area due to breakage,
abrasion, or chemical weathering.
Rounding is the removal of sharp edges of rock fragments and resistant mineral grains as they grind against
one another or the ground surface. Angular grains have not experienced as much abrasion as well-rounded
grains (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Rounding progression
of grains.
49
Fast, turbulent waters are high energy environments, and calm waters are low energy environments. Higher
energy environments produce large, angular, poorly-sorted sediments, whereas low energy environments
produce small, rounded, well-sorted sediments.
III. Deposition
Sediment is deposited when transporting agents, such as running water, glacial ice, or wind, lose energy and
can no longer transport the sediment load. Deposition also refers to the accumulation of chemical or organic
sediment, such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), clamshells on the sea floor, or plant material in a swamp.
IV. Burial and Lithification
Sediments are deposited in layers on top of one another, which packs loose sediment grains tightly together
(compaction). Compacted sediment can be hardened even further by the precipitation of cement (ions dissolved
in circulating groundwater) in the pore space between the grains. Common cements are calcite (CaCO3), silica
(SiO2), and iron oxides.
Sedimentary Minerals
Most sedimentary rocks are transported and deposited in water, and those rocks that are not formed in
water often have groundwater moving through them. The dissolved ions in the groundwater can form sedimentary
minerals, either in layers or filling cracks in rocks. Below is a chart listing the key properties of a few important
sedimentary minerals (Fig. 4).
50
Property
Color
Texture
Observation
Composition
Sedimentary
Structures
Fossils
Interpretation
Oxidizing environment on
continents
Suggests carbon that was preserved in a reducing environment (i.e. swamps or deep marine)
Energy or distance from source
Abrasion history
Constancy of energy
Indicates the type of source area
Conditions in the environment must be
just right to form rocks made of calcite,
halite, gypsum, quartz, or iron-oxides
Indicate mechanism of deposition, such as
wind or water currents, wind moving over
shallow water, underwater density currents,
dessication of mud, etc.
Organisms live in distinctive
environments or niches as they have specific
requirements to survive
Figure 5. Properties you can use to interpret the depositional environment of sedimentary rocks.
Figure 6. a. An illustration of cross-bedded layers. Cross-beds are common indicators of a dune environment. b. Ripple
marks are common indicators of tidal flats, and can be used to tell current direction. c. Mud cracks help geologists
determine the up-right direction during deposition.
51
52
Deep Marine
Submarine Fan
Lagoon
Playa Lake
(Evaporite Rocks)
River
(Headwaters)
Desert Dunes
Alluvial Fan Glacier
Swamp
Lake
Beach Dunes
Beach
River
Shallow Marine
Delta
Delta
Tidal Flat
Deep Marine
Abyssal Plain
Seamount/
Guyot
Alluvial fan
Glacial
Dune
Terrestrial
(Continental)
River
Lake
Swamp
Delta
Lagoon
Transitional
(marine coastlines,
where the sea meets Beach
the land)
Tidal flat
Shallow marine
Marine
53
Sedimentary Rock
Conglomerate
Breccia
Sandstone
Mudstone or Shale
Limestone
Chalk
Chert
Coal
Figure 9. This chart is another way to look at some of the information listed in Fig. 8 on the previous page.
54
55
When one type of sedimentary rock is forming in a certain place (like a sandstone on a beach), another
type of sedimentary rock is forming nearby at the exact same time (like limestone in the shallow ocean floor and
shale on the deepest ocean floor). After these sediments are deposited, more sediment is deposited on top of them
(Fig. 11). The weight of the overlying sediments helps to compact the older (lower) sediments, which lithifies
them. Understanding this process helps us recognize that the rock at the base of a stack of rocks represents the
oldest material.
If sea level changes, the environment of deposition for a given location may change as well. For example, if sea
level rises, a sandy beach may become flooded and the sand will be buried by shallow water organic material. So,
when we see a sequence of rocks with beach-like sandstone that is overlain by limestone, we can interpret this to
mean that the water got deeper in that location. Changing water levels can occur through sea level change (resulting from melting or freezing large quantities of glacial ice), or through uplift of the land. The two processes that
cause uplift are:
1. Compression through late tectonics: Imagine laying a pancake on a table and squeezing if from the sides - some
areas would wrinkle up. In geology, we refer to the wrinkling as uplift.
2. Land erosion: erosion is a slightly more complicated issue, but the results are similar. As erosion removes
material from the surface of the lithosphere, the lithosphere does not weigh as much in that location. Because the
lithosphere is floating on the asthenosphere, making the lithosphere lighter actually causes it to rise higher in
the asthenosphere. This moves rocks from the middle of the crust closer to the surface where continued erosion
will eventually expose them.
When we see a stream-cut canyon with sedimentary layers exposed in the canyon walls, we can interpret: 1. the
layers on either side of the canyon were probably connected at one point, representing a broad layer of sediment
that was deposited and lithified, 2. the oldest material is on the bottom and the rocks get progressively younger
toward the top, and 3. the youngest event to occur in this canyon is the one that is going on right now, the erosion
of the stream through the sediments (even if some of the rocks exposed in the canyon walls were deposited by a
stream, that happened millions of years ago in a totally different stream system).
Describing the events that took place and formed a rock sequence is called a geologic history. Youll be asked
to do this in your homework, so if you have any questions about interpreting the geologic history of an area, ask
your TA.
56
In-Class Activities
Mineral Name
1
2
3
4
Grain Size
large grain size small grain size
Rounding
rounded
angular
Sample #
2. What do these differences between the sediments mean with respect to the transport history?______________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What do these differences between the sediments mean with respect to the energy level of the environment
in which they formed?________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
TA CHECK__________
57
Observations
(list at least 3)
Interpretations
(list all that apply)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
TA CHECK__________
58
Inference
What is the main composition if it is chemical/
biological? (Fig. 1)
What is the energy level
if it is clastic/detrital?
Rock Name
Homework Activities
Conglomerate
59
shallow
marine
deep marine
continental
shelf
Above is an image from Google Earth of North Americas east coast. The dark shading off the coast is the drop
off that marks the end of the continental shelf.
On the following page there are three identical, generalized cross sections (vertical slices) along the dark line.
The cross sections show the transitions from mountainbeachtidal flatcontinental shelfdeep ocean abyss.
Each cross section represents a single point in time in Earths history, and your job is to name the different rocks
that form in the various environments of deposition.
1. Fill in the blank.
Start with Time I (top cross section). In each box, write the name of the sedimentary rock type you would expect
to be deposited in each environment (note: there may be more than one correct answer).
Next, in Time II (the middle cross section), notice the difference in sea level from Time I.
Fill in the rock types that were deposited during Time I (copy your answers from the first step in the boxes
labeled 1).
Considering the change in sea level, write the rock type that is currently being deposited (write these in each
of the boxes labeled 2).
Note: if the environment hasnt changed much and the same rock will form as did in Time I, thats OK.
For Time III, copy your answers from Time I and Time II and write them in the appropriate boxes. Once youve
finished filling in all the boxes, answer the questions on the page following the cross sections.
60
Time I
Sea
Level
Time II
Sea
Level
Time III
Sea
Level
1
61
Depositional Environment
Energy Level
(low, intermediate, high)
3
2
1
3. Think about the changes between Time I and Time II. What geologic events could have caused the change
in environment, and therefore the changes in energy level? Refer to Geologic History section in your pre-lab
reading. ___________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Think about the changes between Time II and Time III. What geologic events could have caused the change
in environment, and therefore the changes in energy level? Refer to Geologic History section in your pre-lab
reading. ___________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3: Compaction of Sediments
If the rocks in a sequence were uplifted above sea level, and a stream were to cut through the rocks, we
would see a stack of rocks in the canyon walls that all formed in the same location but at different times and in
different depositional environments. How long does this take? Lets investigate.
1. Deposition: the principle of uniformitarianism says that the processes that are going on today are the same as
those that have acted in the past (The present is the key to the past). Modern depositional rates of limestone in
the Caribbean Sea are 0.5cm/1,000 years (kyr). Given that rate, how long would it take to deposit just one layer
from this rock sequence? Assume each layer is 100 m thick. Show your work (no calculations, no credit).
__________________ years
2. Compaction: sediment gets substantially compacted during lithification. For limestone, a typical amount of
compaction is 20% that of deposition. Given this, and using your previous answer, how long did it really take to
deposit one layer? Show your work (no calculations, no credit).
__________________ years
3. Assuming this rock sequence has 4 limestone layers, as well as a constant* compaction rate during the deposition
of all layers, how long did it take to deposit the whole stack of rocks? Use your previous calculation to answer
this question.
*in reality, these rates change over time depending on many factors; were assuming constant here just to make the calculations simpler.
__________________ years
62
Lee Limestone
Gunner Formation
Sarah Sandstone
Eliza Shale
Here are some distinguishing characteristics of these rock units that might help you identify their environment of
deposition. Make sure the environment you choose explains all of the characteristics (fossils included). Note that
the rock units are listed in alphabetical order, not chronologic order.
Rock Formation
Name
Sarah Sandstone
Characteristics
Formation
Name
Lee Limestone
Gunner Formation
Sarah Sandstone
Eliza Shale
Oldest
2. Write a geologic history. Use your new-found skills of interpreting sedimentary rocks to describe how this
canyon formed. In other words, what events occurred in this location to create each of these rock layers? Include
the following:
Age of the formation and depositional environment (based on layer characteristics)
What happened to change the environment over time
How the rocks have been exposed
Note #1: The last event should be erosion by the modern river. Note the time difference between the time it took
to form these rocks and the time since they were formed. The modern river started flowing around 5 million years
ago.
Note #2: This question is intended to be challenging. If you get stuck, try consulting your TA during his or her
office hours. Please note that writing a geologic history of a sedimentary sequence is the main goal of this lab, so
do a good job here. Attach a sheet if you need more room.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
64
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Now that you have completed this weeks lab, consider ConcepTest question #2 for this week. Would you
answer the question differently now? Has your understanding of the topic changes now that youve worked
through these activities? Review what you wrote in the initial thoughts box. In the space below, compare your
pre-conceptions to what you know now after participating in the lab.
Now were going to ask for your input on the lab. What was the best part of this lab? This can be the most fun
part, the most helpful exercise, or just your favorite thing about the lab.
67
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form when pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks)
are subjected to changes in temperature and pressure, but not high enough temperature to melt the rock (once it
melts, its an igneous rock). Some examples of metamorphic rocks are: gneiss, schist, phyllite, slate, marble and
quartzite (Fig. 1).
Characteristics
Texture: non-foliated
Tectonic Setting
Type of Metamorphism
Increased T, and
often hydrothermal (hot) fluids,
are the most important agents.
Contact
Convergent boundaries or
collision zones.
Foliation types:
slatyphylliticschistosegneissic
(see next section for definition)
Regional
or
Progressive
Subduction
(blueschist)
Figure 2. Metamorphic rock characteristics, tectonic setting, and types of metamorphism. T = temperature, P = pressure.
68
Compression causing
mountain belts and
regional metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
(around magma bodies)
high T - low P
Hydrothermal alteration
(metamorphism) of ocean
floor basalts
69
Lithosphere
Slate
Phyllite
Schist
Gneiss
Figure 4. Progression of foliated textures. Degree of foliation is dependent upon the metamorphic grade (see next page).
Mineral
Metamorphic Grade
Quartz
Any
Garnet
Often dark red, hard (scratches glass), can have conchoidal fracture (break in smooth curves), no cleavage, crystal is 12-sided
Medium-high or higher
Calcite
Any
Mica
Medium-low or higher
Actinolite
Medium-high or higher
Feldspar
High
70
Pressure
Range
Temperature
Range
Common
Foliated
Rock
Low
1-4 kbar
200-325 oC
slate
Medium-low
1.5-6 kbar
325-450 oC
phyllite
Medium-high
2.5-12 kbar
450-525 oC
schist
High
2.5-20 kbar
525-650 oC
gneiss
Igneous
Once a rock melts, it is no longer metamorphic. If only part of the rock melts, the liquid part is magma and
the remaining solid part is still high grade metamorphic rock (this kind of rock is called a migmatite)
Figure 6. Table of approximate conditions for metamorphic grades. Units of pressure are in kilobars (kbar), where 1 bar is roughly equal
to atmospheric pressure, and one kbar is roughly equal to 1,000 times atmospheric pressure.
Temperature (oC)
100
200
300
Sedimentary
conditions
500
600
700
800
Contact metamorphism
mm
cond
Pressure (kilobars)
ition
On
(mig set of m
mat
ite f elting
orm
atio
n)
mm
ade
ous
Igne
25
Hig
20
h gr
med
iu
15
mh
igh
mm grade
low
mm grade
ium
med
Depth (kilometers)
10
low
g
rade
400
7
8
Figure 7. P-T diagram for metamorphic rocks showing the different metamorphic grades.
71
Often grayish-green,
Aligned minerals,
(scaly texture)
Non-Granular
(Massive)
72
Temperature (C)
Depth
(km)
Low grade metamorphism begins to take place at around 200oC. How deep must a rock be in order to reach this
temperature? Using a few data points and some clever math to calculate how heat flows through the Earth, we
can establish lines of equal temperature, called isotherms (iso meaning the same, and therm meaning temperature). Isotherms can be flat or bend around cold or hot areas. In general, isotherms tend to be parallel to one
another. However, isotherms (and the geothermal gradient) are much more complex where there are inconsistencies within the crust (e.g. a rising magma plume). See Fig. 9 below for a hypothetical isotherm diagram.
surface
lithosphere
o
200 C
o
400 C
600 oC
800 oC
1000 oC
1200 oC
1400 oC
200 oC
400 oC
magma
600 oC
o
800
C
o
1000
C
1200 oC
1400 oC
asthenosphere
Figure 9. Hypothetical isotherm diagram. The surface is room temperature (~20 oC), and the isotherms increase in 200oC increments.
Notice how the isotherms curve around the magma chamber. The magma itself ranges in temperature from ~825oC and 1,300oC,
based on the isotherms, and the bottom of the magma chamber is hotter than the top.
In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Identifying Common Metamorphic Minerals
1. Use Fig. 5 to help you identify the metamorphic mineral samples in tray 1, then fill out the table below. Use
the minerals you have identified to answer the questions that follow.
Sample
#
1
Mineral Name
Metamorphic grade
(estimated)
2
3
4
a. Which of these minerals are also common in sedimentary rocks? __________________________________
b. Which of these minerals are also common in igneous rocks? _____________________________________
c. Which of these minerals are unique to metamorphic rocks? ______________________________________
Activity 2: Identifying Common Metamorphic Rocks
1. Use Fig. 8 to identify the samples in tray 2, then fill out the chart on the next page.
Sample
Foliated or
Non-foliated?
Metamorphic
Rock Name
Metamorphic
Grade
Protolith
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
74
TA CHECK _______________________
Key Textures of
Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rocks
Interlocking crystals
Common texture: crystalline
Banded minerals
Common texture: foliated
Lithification of sediment
produced rock
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Description
Sample
Rock Name
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
TA CHECK _______________________
75
Homework Activities
Activity 1: Metamorphic Grade
Use the figure below to answer the following questions. You may also want to refer to Fig. 3 & 6-7.
1. What type of metamorphism occurs at low temperature and high pressure? ____________________________
What letter on the chart corresponds to these conditions? ____________________________________________
2. Rocks near a magma chamber undergo contact metamorphism at varying temperatures and _______ pressure.
What letter on the chart corresponds to contact metamorphism? _______________________________________
3. Give the rock name that best matches the conditions for each location and the protolith.
Location 1: shale protolith ____________________
Location 3: shale protolith ____________________
Location 2: basalt protolith ___________________
Location 4: limestone protolith_________________
4. If the rock at location 1 continued to be buried to a depth of 10 km and temperatures of 325-425oC, what rock
would it become? ___________________________________________________________________________
What changes would occur in the rock as a result? _________________________________________________
5. If the rock at location 4 were heated to temperatures of 750o C, what rock would it become?______________
What changes would occur in the rock as a result? __________________________________________________
6. Think back to the various metamorphic rocks you have examined in lab. Why do the rocks with a shale protolith have more noticeable changes with pressure and temperature than those with a quartz sandstone protolith?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. List at least two protoliths that are poor indicators of metamorphic grade?_____________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
76
Protolith: shale
B
Oceanic
Geothermal Gradient
oceanic crust
200oC
oceanic
o
lithosphere 400 C
A
Protolith:
granite
500 oC
800oC
1000oC
magma
Protolith:
peridotite
asthenosphere
asthenosphere
Protolith: basalt
Protolith: basalt
Eclogite
77
Line A: __________________
Line B: __________________
c. Increasing pressure causes rocks to become more dense as they get metamorphosed. Look at where eclogite
forms. Do you expect eclogite to be very dense? _________________________________________________
What effect do you think this has on plate tectonics (think about why the plates move)? _________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 4: A Comprehensive Review
Now that you have seen all three main types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic), think about
the characteristics of each group.
1. How can you tell a rock from a mineral? _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How can you tell a non-foliated metamorphic rock from a plutonic igneous rock? _____________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How can you tell a breccia or a conglomerate from a porphyritic rock?________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How can you tell a biochemical sedimentary rock from a fine-grained clastic sedimentary rock (e.g. limestone
vs. mudstone)? _____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
78
Name: __________________________
TA: ____________________________
Day: ___________ Time: __________
Geology encompasses more than landscapes. The materials used to build cars, bikes, roads, buildings,
and sidewalks all come from geologic resources, and everything in our daily lives is affected by active geologic
processes. We dont have to go very far to see abundant examples of geologic resources and processes in action.
Objectives
1) Go outside and use your geological and analytical skills.
2) Learn interesting information about rocks that you may see every day on campus.
3) Learn about several active geologic processes on our campus.
4) Observe how rocks are used effectively in art and as building materials.
Materials
Pencil
Clipboard
Wear appropriate clothes and shoes for going outside.
We will go regardless of the weather, so dress for cold and wet if necessary.
Prelab work (to be completed before lab begins)
Review the Google Earth files provided on the Canvas site under Lab #5 (WWU placemark and the South
Bellingham LiDAR overlay).
In-Class Activities (due by the end of lab today)
Stops are subject to change.
Stop 1: Outdoor classroom on Sehome Hill
Stop 2: Sehome Hill landslide behind Art Building
Stop 3: Fisher Fountain
Stop 4: Main library entrance
Dark tiles under skybridge
Outcrop next to skybridge
Stop 5: Memory Walk and Old Main
Stop 6: Avalanche victims memorial
Stop 7: Edens Hall rock sequence
Homework Activities (due the beginning of next lab)
None
79
Starting
point
80
Ridgeway Dorm
Miller Hall
Red Square
WEST
UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT
Sehome Hill
EAST
81
Swamp
Flood
plain
River
82
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Now that you have completed this weeks lab, consider ConcepTest question #2 for this week. Would you
answer the question differently now? Has your understanding of the topic changes now that youve worked
through these activities? Review what you wrote in the initial thoughts box. In the space below, compare your
pre-conceptions to what you know now after participating in the lab.
Now were going to ask for your input on the lab. What was the best part of this lab? This can be the most fun
part, the most helpful exercise, or just your favorite thing about the lab.
The purpose of todays lab is to introduce you to various types of hydrogeological processes.
Objectives:
1) Investigate water-related geologic processes.
2) Construct a scale model of a stream, make predictions, and observe stream processes.
3) Construct a scale model of a shoreline, make predictions, and observe shoreline processes.
4) Make observations about groundwater flow.
Materials:
Pencil
(no pens)
Colored pencils
Ruler
Prelab work (to be completed before lab begins)
Complete the online Warm-Up Quiz using the information in this lab and your textbook.
The ConcepTest will be on material related to WWU campus geology from lab 5 and reading material from
lab 6 (this lab).
In-Class Activities (due by the end of lab today, requires a TA check)
Activity 1: Streams
Activity 2: Coasts
Activity 3: Groundwater
Homework Activities (due the beginning of next lab)
Activities are on pages 93-94
85
Hydrogeologic Processes
This lab investigates hydrogeologic processes (geologic process associated with water). Large populations
live adjacent to rivers and coastal areas, therefore it is important to understand these environments. We will
observe what can happen when humans interfere with natural systems.
Streams
Streams are dynamic systems that strive for equilibrium. Streams have many changing variables, including
discharge, water velocity, sediment load, and base level, which influence stream erosion, transportation, and
deposition of material.
Stream Characteristics
Stream discharge is the volume of water that flows past a given point in a unit of time. Units of measurement
influce cubic feet per second (f3/s, CFS) or cubic meters per second (m3/s, CMS). The distance water travels per
unit time (how fast water flows) is called stream velocity. Velocity, along with stream width and depth, are used
to define stream discharge:
Discharge (Q) = Width (W) x Depth (D) x Velocity (V)
The body of a stream is called a channel, which will deepen overtime as a result of downcutting. Base level
is a streams lowest limit of erosion. For streams that flow to the ocean, sea level is the base level. The downhill
slope of the stream bed (rise over run) is called the gradient. Streams widen their valleys through erosion and
mass wasting of material. As stream channels erode the land they form v-shaped valleys (unlike glaciers, which
form u-shaped valleys).
Channel Patterns
I. Straight
Straight streams are rarely found in nature. When straight streams do occur, they are a associated with a steep
gradient, a linear zone of weakness (e.g. fault), or are confined inside valley walls in a mountainous region
where the stream originates (Fig. 1).
II. Braided
Braided streams form in areas with highly variable discharge and high sediment load, such as valley outlets.
Braided streams deposit sediment in small islands, known as bars, within the stream (Fig. 1).
Headwaters
Straight stream
Braided stream
Meandering stream
Cut bank
Point bar
Ocean
Water
table
Alluvial fan
Bar
86
Delta
Flood plain
Cut off
Oxbow lake
III. Meandering
Meandering streams form in areas with a low gradient. The outer bends of a meander are the zones of highest
velocity and erosion (cut banks), and the inner bends are areas of lowest velocity and deposition (point bars).
With time, the cut banks of a meander will touch, causing the stream to flow in a shorter, straighter path (cut
off). When this happens, the abandoned meander will form an oxbow lake (Fig. 1).
Sediment Transportation and Deposition
Streams transport material in loads. There are three types of sediment loads, one being bed load, where
sediment is transported through rolling, sliding, and saltation (bouncing) of grains. The suspended load remains
lifted by water turbulence . The grain size that can be carried depends on the stream velocity (most suspended load
is clay and silt). The third type is dissolved load. This occurs when ions, the products of chemical weathering, are
carried in solution.
Sediment is not only deposited within the channel. During flooding events, the stream will overflow and deposit
mud, silt, and sand on lowlands adjacent to the stream channel, called floodplains. Larger depositional features
include alluvial fans, which develop when a mountain stream emerges from a confined canyon onto a wide
valley floor, and deltas, which develop when a stream empties into a standing body of water (Fig. 1). Deltas form
through foreset bedding (deposition of non-horizontal beds, which results in cross bedding).
Coastlines
The position of a shoreline moves landward or seaward depending on sea level (rise or fall), tectonic
movement (uplift or subsidence), or both. Before understanding the formation and erosion of coastal features, it
is important to understand the behavior of waves and sediment transport along a shoreline.
Wave refraction: The bending of wave fronts as they approach shallow water near the shore.
Longshore current: A current of water that travels parallel to the coast. This occur when waves break on the
shore at an angle.
Longshore drift: Refers to sediment that is transported parallel to the shore through longshore current.
Coastal Structures
Since the coast is a high-energy
environment, deposition and erosion
continuously form a variety of geological
features (Fig. 2). Accumulated sand that
builds a ridge off a point of land is called a
spit. The spit usually points in the direction
of sediment transport along a shore. In the
instance where a sand spit connects two land
masses (e.g. an island and the main land), it
is referred to as a tombolo. If a sand ridge
builds up to form a bar that closes off a bay
from the open ocean, it becomes a baymouth
bar.
Rocky points of land that protrude seaward, and are often made of resistant rock types, are called headlands.
Remnants of eroded headlands are known as sea stacks. When a horizontal bench forms through wave erosion
and cliff retreat it is called a wave-cut platform. When a cliff forms through wave erosion and mass wasting, it
is called a sea cliff. Sea cliffs occur in regions of high relief.
87
well
unconfined
aquifer
well
sandstone
confined
saturated
zone
(phreatic
zone)
shale
aquifer
granite
88
In-Class Activities
In nature, each geologic process has many variables. To successfully model change in real systems, it is
important to change only one variable at a time so that you can determine the effect from that change. Keep this
in mind when completing this lab.
89
Water side
90
well numbers
1 2
3 4 5
6 7
u.s.t
lake
10 11
stream
lake
stream
water
water
input
input
water
water
exit
exit
91
Time: 60 seconds
Distance: _________________ cm
e. Calculate the rate of groundwater flow. Show your calculations and include units.
Hint: Groundwater flow = distance time
___________________
f. What happened to the dye plume as it moved through the sediment?__________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
g. Observe water flowing through the sediment. What determines the flow direction? Refer to your pre-lab
reading. __________________________________________________________________________________
h. Now add one drop of dye to well #3 and follow it with water. Does the plume behave differently than it did in
well #6? Explain your observations. ____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Reach into the rear of the tank and close the discharge area (turn the green handle 90 degrees either way). Now,
open the stream valve. In this exercise, the dye will represent some toxic pesticides or herbicides.
a. Make sure the stream is flowing properly.
b. Add one drop of dye to well #6 and follow it with a squirt of water.
c. What happens to the plume of contamination? _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
d. How does this impact the water table? ______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
e. Add another drop of dye (pollution) to the well. Where does the contamination end up and approximately
how long does it take for the water to clear up? __________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
f. If this model represented a real contamination scenario, how would the pollution impact a community who
relies on water from this groundwater source? ____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
g. If you were going to build a house on this model, which well would you want as your drinking water well?
Why? __________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
TA CHECK_________________
92
Homework Activities
Activity 1: Streams
1. Describe the relationship between water velocity and deposition and erosion of sediment. Think of where
erosion and deposition occurred in the stream table. _______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Think back to the In-Class activity and how the placement of structures impacted the stream behavior and vice
versa. What factors would be different in the real world? ____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Coasts
1. Go to the lab Canvas page and download the pictures and data from the coastal wave experiment. In the space
below, use colored pencils to draw the changes is the coastline over the course of the day.
a. Draw the coastline in the 8:00 am picture.
b. Using a different color, draw the coastline in the final picture.
c. Label the north arrow, scale bar, and show the direction of the incoming waves.
d. Label coastline features, which may include: headland, lagoon, islands, direction of longshore transport, etc.
Beach side
Water side
2. Comparing the first and last images, where did the most erosion occur (sediment 1 or sediment 2)? What about deposition? __________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Now look at the entire sequence of pictures. Describe the changes to the coast line over the course of the day.
In particular, compare the erosion and deposition patterns between storms and daily events._________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
93
8:00
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00
4:00 5:00
6:00 7:00
a. Does sediment 1 thickness increase, decrease, or remain constant over time? What about sediment 2? Explain. ___________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Label storm events on the graph.
Activity 3: Groundwater
1. What is the difference between porosity and permeability? _________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
ConcepTest
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Question #_____
Initial thoughts:
Additional comments/answers
Now that you have completed this weeks lab, consider ConcepTest question #2 for this week. Would you
answer the question differently now? Has your understanding of the topic changes now that youve worked
through these activities? Review what you wrote in the initial thoughts box. In the space below, compare your
pre-conceptions to what you know now after participating in the lab.
Now were going to ask for your input on the lab. What was the best part of this lab? This can be the most fun
part, the most helpful exercise, or just your favorite thing about the lab.
97
ng
le
of
Re
po
se
I. Mass Wasting
Ground failure and subsequent movement of earth materials downhill is called mass wasting. Mass wasting
includes many different types of ground failure, and range from small instantaneous events (e.g. a rock falling
off a cliff), to large instantaneous events (e.g. an extensive mass of sediment flowing downhill due to slope
failure), to large gradual events (e.g. slow movement of upper soil layers, known as creep). There are several
types of mass wasting that have dramatic impacts and occur in numerous regions, the most common being
debris flows. Debris flows occur when loose or uncompacted sediment flows turbulently downhill.
unconsolidated sediment
Figure 1: The angle of repose is the steepest angle a sediment pile can form.
Before we can learn to avoid debris flows, we must first understand some important concepts. The most
important of these is called the angle of repose, which is steepest angle at which a sloping surface composed
of loose, unconsolidated material will remain stable (Fig. 1). Angle of repose only pertains to loose sediment,
and varies with the size and shape of the sediment, as well as the amount of fluid present. Slopes gentler than
the angle of repose are stable. However, if the angle is increased at all, the sediment fails and slides down slope.
98
There are many factors that control how much the ground moves during an earthquake. The two most important
controls are the amount of energy released from the earthquake (magnitude) and the distance from where the
rock actually ruptured. Another crucial factor is the rock that seismic waves pass through. Earthquake waves
travel differently through different rock types, and looser, less tightly bound rock or sediment slows down the
seismic waves. This will increase the amplitude of the waves, which increase shaking and results in greater
damage (Fig. 2). In general, sedimentary rock is less dense and less compacted than igneous or metamorphic
rock, and unconsolidated sediment is even less dense and structured than sedimentary rock.
One of the biggest problems with unconsolidated sediment is the additional hazards of liquefaction, which
occurs when saturated sediment is shaken (Fig. 3). Water trapped in pore space rises to the surface, and as it
accumulates, the sediment become less stable and flows like a fluid.
Figure 3. Liquefaction causes apartment buildings to sink into the ground during an
earthquake in Japan, 1964.
99
Volcanic Hazards
Volcanoes pose many hazards such as lahars (volcanic mudflows; Fig. 5) and volcanic ash (tephra) fall (bits
of pulverized rock and glass that are expelled during a volcanic eruption; Fig. 4).
Lahars are a mixture of water and loose ash that flow down stream valleys very quickly. Because streams are
an important source of water, agriculture, and transportation in most regions of the world, the banks of most
streams are densely populated. For this reason lahars are responsible for the most volcano-related fatalities
worldwide.
Lahars are a common geologic occurrence, and form when loose
volcanic material on the flanks of the volcano is washed downstream
by a sudden pulse of water. During an explosive volcanic eruption, hot
ash causes snow to melt and generate large quantities of water. Once
in a river valley, the water is incorporated in the lahar and it is able
to pick up more sediment and rock, often until it has the consistency
of wet cement. This flood of thick, muddy water (which can travel at
speeds exceeding 30 mph) contains much more mass than a normal
flood, so it can easily wipe out structures near rivers, like bridges or
dams. Lahars can flow great distances, sometimes up to 40 miles, but
usually travel less than 25 miles.
Figure 5. Mount St. Helens lahar after a small
eruption.
100
In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Angle of Repose
1. Predict the stability of the materials in your experiment by determining which sediment is most stable and
which sediment is least stable.
Stability
Reason
Sediment #1 __________________
________________________________________________
Sediment #2 __________________
________________________________________________
2. Measure the steepest angle you can create with each sediment.
a. On your sheet of wax paper, hold the protractor with the bottom edge flat along the bottom of the wax paper
so you can read the centimeter scale along the top of the protractor.
b. Place the lip of the sample cup on the 3 cm mark of the protractor and gently pour the sediment onto the
protractor. You should be making a pile of sediment that is split in half by the protractor.
c. Continue pouring the sediment until the slope of the pile reaches the focus point on the protractor (the point
from which all the angled lines are radiating).
d. Measure the angle of the pile from horizontal and record it below.
e. Pour the sediment back into the cup.
f. Repeat the above steps for attempts 2 and 3.
5. Consider the differences between the sediments. What sediment characteristics control the angle of repose?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
101
TA CHECK ______________
Activity 2: Earthquake
1. Creating earthquakes in dry sediment.
a. In the cup with dry sediment #3, place the eraser (bulding) on top of the sand with just a little bit of the base
buried so it remains stable.
b. Below the sediment level, tap the side of the cup with a pencil while rotating the paper (so that the cup spins
around while you are tapping). Keep tapping until the eraser falls over.
c. Keep track of how many times you tap the cup and write the result below.
_________________________ Taps
2. Creating earthquakes in saturated sediment.
a. In the cup with saturated sediment #3, bury the cork (underground storage tank) on its side under about 2-3
centimeters of sand.
Tip: You might need to add a little bit of water to the sand and stir it up. If standing water is still present on top
of the sand after youve stirred the sand, pour off the water and stir it up again.
b. Place the eraser (building) as you did before, but to the side of the buried cork.
c. Repeat the tapping process and carefully observe what happens.
_________________________ Taps
2. What happens to the saturated sediment at the surface? ___________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. In the saturated cup, why did the building fall over or sink? Did it take more or fewer taps than in dry sediment?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What happened to the underground storage tank? Why? __________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Do you think this would happen if the building were on a more solid rock (e.g. granite)? Why or why not?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
102
TA CHECK ______________
railroad track
downtown
streets
103
Homework Activities
Activity 1: Mass Wasting
1. What would happen to houses built on slopes made of unconsolidated sediments during periods of heavy or
prolonged rain? _____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Vegetation is often used to stabilize slopes prone to failure, and has had mixed results. How does vegetation
help stabilize the slope? How might it make the slope more unstable? ________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Earthquakes
1. The Bellingham Waterfront.
Go to Canvas and open Lab7_2-2_BellinghamWaterfront.kmz. Two placemarks are noted in this file, one for
the waterfront itself and one for a Bellingham home. Fly around and try to identify the original coastline.
Hint: It might help if you increase the vertical exaggeration. You can do so by going to Tools 1 Options 1 3D View
tab 1 Terrain 1 Elevation Exaggeration (0.1 - 3, 3 being the highest).
a. Which feature helps identify original coastline? ______________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. What street may have been under water in the 1920s? __________________________________________
Hint: If the road names are not shown, select the Roads checkbox in the Layers panel to the left.
c. Which street would have been parallel to the beach in the 1920s? _________________________________
d. Now look at the Bellingham Waterfront home. This home was for sale for quite some time. The original
asking price was $1.2 million. It eventually sold for less than half that price. Although there were likely several
reasons for this, describe some possible geologically-based reasons. ________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3: Volcanoes
1. Go to Canvas and open Lab7_3-1_MtRuapehu.kmz. This placemark is at the seam between two images, one
taken on January 31, 2005 (green) and May 22, 2007 (grayish brown). Notice the differences in the stream valley
between these two times.
a. What happened during the 28 months between these images? ___________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. The deposits from this event are what was left behind when a lahar traveled down Mt. Ruapehu. Given the
distribution of the deposits, which path do lahars take (what topographic features control the path of lahars)?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
c. This lahar was moderate in size, but traveled a considerable distance. There was enough force in the lahar
to destroy the bridge on Highway 49 (placemarked). How far did the lahar travel before destroying the bridge?
Hint: Use the Ruler tool and select Path. Start at the peak and measure the stream path by following the channel
as closely as you can.
_____________________________ Kilometers
d. Lahars are a mix of water, ash, mud, and debris. On a volcano such as Ruapehu, where does the water come
from? __________________________________________________________________________________
104
______________________________________________________
Ferndale:
______________________________________________________
____________
Mt. Vernon:
____________ ______________________________________________________
Hamilton:
____________
______________________________________________________
105
106
Name: __________________________
TA: ____________________________
Day: ___________ Time: __________
Pacific
Northwest
Fore arc
Farallon Plate
108
Volcanic arc
Figure 3. A map showing the different terranes that make up the North Cascades Superterrane. Image
source: Geology of the Noth Cascades, A Mountain Mosaic by Tabor and Haugerud.
109
Tree Fern
Dawn Redwood
Cinnamon Tree
Sassafras
Palm trunk
Sycamore
Swamp Cypress
Palm fronds
Figure 4. Fossils commonly found in the Chuckanut Formation near Bellingham, WA. Think about
what the presence of plants such as palm trees indicates about the climate at the time of deposition.
110
111
Figure 7. Cascade Volcanic Arc and subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath
the North America Plate.
The Cascade Arc has been active for ~40 million years. Older mountains have since eroded, and new mountains
are being formed. The current Cascade range began uplift ~14 million years ago. Mt. Baker, Glacier Peak, Mt.
Rainier, Mt. Adams, and Mt. St. Helens are the youngest volcanic peaks in Washington State (formation started
~700 million years ago). More than a dozen major volcanic peaks in British Columbia, Oregon and California
also exist. Hundreds of deeply eroded, older volcanoes are still present.
Region 9: Cordilleran Ice Sheet and Glacial Lake Missoula
During the last 2 million years, continental glaciers have covered parts of Washington State at least 6
times. The most extensive ice sheet developed during the most recent event called Fraser Glaciation between
~20,000-11,000 years ago. The Cordilleran Ice Sheet map shows the maximum of this advance ~15,000 years
ago (Fig. 8). During this time the glacier covered the Puget Lowlands and most of the northern part of Eastern
Washington. The WWU campus was buried well over a mile deep in ice. These glaciers carried large quantities
of sediment within the ice. The glaciation also eroded and carved much of the landscape in the Puget Sound Area.
In western Montana, on several occasions, a lobe of ice created a temporary dam on the Clark Fork River that
produced temporary lakes up to 1000 feet deep.
Location of ice dam
112
In-Class Activities
Activity 1: Geologic Timeline of Washington
The purpose of this activity is to reconstruct Washingtons geologic history step by step using the
information provided in this lab and your flip book. It is customary to list geologic events with the oldest event at
the bottom and the most recent (youngest) at the top. More events have occurred in Washingtons geologic history
than are discussed in this lab, but you only need to list the events included in this lab
1.8
TA CHECK_________________
113
North Cascades
Olympic Mts.
Pacific
Ocean
Puget Sound
CRUST
MANTLE
2. What rock type erupted in flows in the Columbia River region about 17 million years ago? ______________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Does this rock type make sense based on our tectonic setting? What type of volcanic rock or magma usually
forms in a continental-oceanic subduction zone such as ours? Explain. __________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. According to the lab manual, what is a possible explanation for the eruptions of mafic magma that formed 17
million years ago in the Columbia River region? __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
TA CHECK_________________
114
Rock Identification
Geologic Region of
Washington
Sediment deposited:
Bedrock exposed by erosion:
TA CHECK_________________
115
Homework Activities
Understanding Geologic Maps
The different rocks of the various terranes you have explored in todays lab are spread out around Washington State. To create a geologic map of Washington, geologists explored the entire state and determined the
location, type, and age of all the rocks, as well as other significant geologic features. Instead of having to go out
and find the rocks ourselves, we can use this geologic map to interpret where those different terranes and rocks
are found today.
Activity 1: Basic Map Reading
Colors are used to differentiate rock units on geologic maps, and each map has a slightly different color
scheme. Refer to the map legend to determine the name and age of each rock unit.
Hint: Notice that there are five major groups. Each group uses a different color to distinguish it from the others,
and the units within each group use different shades of that base color.
1. Name the major groups. ____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What do the labels mean (e.g. Tertiary, Mesozoic, etc.)? ___________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Within each group, can you tell which rocks are older and which are younger? Use the geologic time scale to interpret the relative age. _______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: Using the Legend and Locating Rocks
1. a. From the legend, what is the abbreviation for the Columbia River Basalts? ____________________________
b. What does each letter in that abbreviation stand for? ____________________________________________
c. Which quadrant of the map (NW, NE, SW, or SE) is dominated by this rock type? ____________________
2. a. What is the abbreviation for the other rock type that also commonly occurs in this area? ________________
Hint: Its map unit color is beige.
b. Which is older, the beige unit or the Columbia River Basalts? Explain your reasoning. _________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Look at the description of the beige unit in the legend. This unit is associated with the terrane discussed on
page 112. What event do you think deposited this unit? Explain. ___________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
3. In which region (W-SW, N-NE, or S-SE) are the oldest rocks (Precambrian and Paleozoic) found? _____________
4. Find the pre-Cretaceous metamorphic rocks (light purple) and Mesozoic intrusive rocks (pink).
a. There are two solid black lines running through these units. Which tectonic feature do these lines represent?
________________________________________________________________________________________
b. To which terrane do the these unit belong? Use their age as well as their rock type to decide. ____________
________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Two geologic processes have combined to help expose these old rocks at the surface. What are they? ______
________________________________________________________________________________________
116
117
118
often grayish-green,
aligned minerals,
Non-Granular
(Massive)
119
120
Composition
Quartz
Felsic
Amphibole/
Pyroxene
Olivine
Mica
Feldspar
Mafic
Mineral
Quartz
Garnet
Calcite
Mica
Actinolite
Feldspar
Metamorphic Grade
Any
Medium-high or higher
Any
Medium-low or higher
Medium-high or higher
High
121