Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Date XXXXX
Page 1 of 22
FLUOR DANIEL
WIND LOAD CALCULATION AS PER CANADIAN CODE
PURPOSE
This practice provides recommended procedures for calculation of wind forces on
various types of equipment, supporting structures & buildings as per the Canadian
codes. This practice does not address tornadoes.
This practice is intended to be used in conjunction with NBCC and is not an
independent document. This document mostly deals with the types of structures,
commonly encountered in petrochemical facilities. The principles underlaid in the
ASCE Task Committee on Wind Loads for Petrochemical Facilities are included in
this practice.
This practice is a companion to Structural Engineering practice 000 215 1215 Wind
Load Calculation.
SCOPE
This practice includes the following topics:
SCOPE
APPLICATION
DEFINITIONS
GENERAL DISCUSSION
VERTICAL VESSELS
HORIZONTAL VESSELS
ENCLOSED STRUCTURES
OPEN EQUIPMENT STRUCTURES
LOAD COMBINATIONS
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
REFERENCES
APPLICATION
The details, principles and methods contained in this practice will be used for the
calculation of wind loads as per Canadian codes. Whenever client or local
jurisdiction requirements differ or are incomplete, this practice shall be used as much
as feasible and the more conservative shall be adopted. This practice requires the use
of general procedures detailed in NBCC part 4 (1995) Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures and Commentary B-wind loads.
DEFINITIONS
Reference Wind Speed ( V ) : Reference wind speed is a measure of the hourly
mean wind speed taken at sites (usually airports) chosen in most cases to be
representative of a height of 10 m in an open exposure. This is determined by
extreme value analysis of meteorological observations of hourly mean wind speeds.
Flexible Buildings & Other Structures : A structure is considered as slender and
flexible when the ratio of height to least horizontal dimension exceeds 5 or the
fundamental natural frequency is less than 1 HZ.
Structural Engineering
GENERAL DISCUSSION
National Building Code of Canada
NBCC forms the basis of this practice with due reference to ASCE Task Committee
parameters for wind loads on petrochemical facilities and Structural Engineering
practice 000 215 1215 Wind Load Calculation.
Reference Wind Pressure
The Reference Wind Pressure (q) is directly available from NBCC, Appendix C
for many Canadian locations. The values of q are tabulated for three different levels
of probability being exceeded per year. (1 in 10, 1 in 30 & 1 in 100).
q
= CV
The factor C depends on atmospheric pressure and air temperature. For Canadian
conditions C = 50 X 10-6 for V in km/hr.
Wind pressure p is calculated from the formula
p
= q.Ce.Cg.Cp
where p is the specified external pressure acting statically and in a direction normal
to the surface
q
Ce
Cg
Cp
Exposure Factor Ce
The exposure factor Ce reflects changes in wind speed with height and effect of terrain
category classified as A, B & C.
For the windward face Ce corresponds to that for the height Z and therefore
increases with height. For the leeward face Ce is evaluated at half the height H of the
building.
Exposure Category
Exposure A: Open level terrain with only scattered buildings, trees or other
obstructions, open water or shorelines thereof. This is the exposure on which the
reference wind speeds are based.
Ce
(Z /10)0.28
Ce >1.0
0.5 (Z /12.7)0.50
Ce >0.50
Structural Engineering
0.4 (Z /30)0.72
Ce >0.40
W p g p
And the expression for Cg, which is the ratio of peak loading to the mean loading, can
be identified as: -
C g 1 g p ( / )
Where
The form of the fluctuating wind loading effect ( ) varies with the excitation
whether due to gusts, wake pressures or motion induced forces. For a large class of
smaller structures only the added loading due to gusts must be dealt with and
simplified methods are adequate.
For small structures and components having relatively high rigidity, a simplified set
of dynamic gust factors is given in commentary B of NBCC.
Structural Engineering
For structures that are tall, slender, lightweight, flexible or lightly damped, the
Resonant component of the total response may be dominant and hence the value of
Cg is obtained by the detailed procedure.
The value of
/ is expressed as:
/
k
CeH
k
sF
(B
)
C eH
For exposure A
= 0.10
For exposure B
= 0.14
For exposure C
= Background turbulence factor as obtained from Fig. B3 of Commentary B as a function of W/H where
W= Width of windward face of the building
H = Height of the windward face of the building
= V Ce H
F
Structural Engineering
Where
sF
sF B
Pressure Coefficient
Pressure coefficients are usually determined from wind tunnel experiments. They are
non-dimensional ratios of wind induced pressures on a building to the dynamic
pressure of the wind speed at reference height.
Whenever the sign of plus or minus is specified, check both positive and negative
values to obtain controlling loads. Sign convention is as follows:
(Minus sign) means negative pressure acting away from the surface.
Vertical vessels must be designed for along-wind response caused by straight wind
(drag forces). Flexible vessels must also consider across-wind response caused by
vortex shedding (lift forces). The design procedure herein is also appropriate for
determining design wind forces on stacks and chimneys. A vertical vessel (or a stack
or chimney) will behave like a cantilever beam.
Structural Engineering
General Procedure
For rounded structures, the pressure varies with the wind velocity depending on the
Reynolds number (Re) expressed by the equation:
Re
Where d
d qC e 2.7 10 6
=
=
q.Ce.Cg.Cf .A
Where A
D. h
Cg
Cf
Wind on Appurtenance
The general procedure for vertical vessel requires modification to account for vessel
appurtenances such as ladders, piping & platforms.
As per the ASCE Task Committee on Wind loads for Petrochemical Facilities:
(i) To account for wind on ladders and piping, the Cf factor as determined in general
procedure is increased by WIF (Wind Increase Factor)
Cfm
= Cf (WIF)
WIF
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
= q Ce Cg Cf A
Cf
Cg
= 2.0
= 2.5 ( as per NBCC Simple Procedure)
Structural Engineering
In absence of information, the criteria to estimate the number and size of platform as
given in Structural Engineering practice 000.215.1215 Wind Load Calculation may
be adopted.
(iii) For Wind on handrails:
F
= q Ce Cg Cf A
Cf
Cg
= 2.0
= 2.5 ( as per NBCC Simple Procedure)
= Projected area (generally a value of 0.80 sq.ft./ft may be adopted)
A
Across Wind Response Vortex Shedding
When the wind blows across a slender, prismatic, cylindrical body vortices are shed
alternatively from one side and then the other, giving rise to fluctuating force acting
at right angles to the wind direction along the length of the body.
The wind speed (VH) at the top of the structure when the frequency of vortex
shedding equals the natural frequency of structure:
1
VH D
S
Where
VH = Mean wind speed at the top of structure (H) when the frequency of
vortex shedding equals the natural frequency of the structure
(resonance condition)
D
= Strouhal number
D 2 0.5 (m 2 /s)
VH 6D
(For Re 2 10 and S
5
(ii)
For
(iii)
1
)
6
VH 3D
1.5(m 2 / s)
D
D 2 0.75 (m 2 /s)
For ( Re
VH 5D
1
)
5
Structural Engineering
The evaluation of a vessel for across wind response is not clearly addressed in the
NBCC. The following criteria have been picked from various references.
(i)
VH V C e H 1.3
(Also refer Attachment 07 of Structural Engineering practice 000 215 1215
Wind Load Calculation)
This is close to the criteria adopted by Mechanical for Design of Vertical
Vessels. As per the Mechanical Criteria, Across Wind Response is not a
concern if
VH V C e H 1.25
(ii)
VH V C e H 1.2
(iii)
There is also a strong opinion that the design procedure outlined in (i) and
(ii) above is appropriate for determining design wind forces on stacks and
chimneys. For structures like the vertical vessels as typical to the refinery
and petrochemical facility, Across Wind Response is not a concern if
VH V C e H
(iv)
Where V C e H = Hourly mean wind speed at the top of the structure being designed.
It is recommended that the criteria outlined in (iii) above be followed.
It is also recommended that the User checks the criteria adopted by the Mechanical
Engineer and the relevant mechanical software for the design of the vertical vessel. It
may not be appropriate to design the vessel foundation for a force greater than (or
less than) the force for which the vessel and its anchorage are designed by the
mechanical group.
In any case, the criteria adopted for Across Wind Response Evaluation consideration
should be acceptable to the Client.
Vortex Shedding Force
For a cylindrical structure, the dynamic effect of vortex shedding force can be
Structural Engineering
approximated by an equivalent static force per unit length (FL), acting over the top
1/3 of the structure.
C1
FL
C2
qH
D 2
qH D
0.60V H
(Pa)
= Average mass per unit length over top 1/3 of structure (kg/m)
= Density of air
1.2kg / m 3
C1
= 3
=
C2
for
16
for
16
= 0.60
In addition:
(i)
(ii)
C1
=6
C2
= 1.2
For tapered structures with a diameter variation exceeding 10% over the top
third, adopt
C1
=3
C2
= 0.6
If C2
D 2
The wind loads shall be estimated for both the Along Wind Response as well as the
Across Wind Response. There are no clear guidelines in the NBCC to suggest
whether the Along Wind and the Across Wind loads shall be considered separately or
shall be considered as a combined action.
The following have been picked from various references.
(i)
ASME STS-1-2000 Clause 5.2.2(a) point (1) under the heading Wind
Responses Vortex Shedding states
Structural Engineering
The vortex shedding loads need not be combined with along wind loads.
Along wind and Across wind moment and shear shall be taken separately.
Adopt more critical of Along or Across Wind Response loads.
(ii)
Texts available suggest that the Along wind and Across wind loads shall be
taken separately and as a combined action.
As a practice, the Across wind loads have been combined with the Along
wind loads at wind speed VH. (where VH. is the Mean wind speed at the top
of structure (H) when the frequency of vortex shedding equals the natural
frequency of the structure).
The Resultant load is expressed by the SRSS of the Across Wind loads and
the Along Wind loads at VH. . The more critical of the Along Wind load and
the Resultant load is considered as the Design load.
= q Ce Cg Cf A
For wind perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the vessel use coefficient for walls
above ground as per figure B-17 of Commentary B.
Multiply the Cf factor from figure B-17 by 0.70 to account for the cylindrical shape
of vessel. Generally for
l
10 and 40 o
h
Cf = 1.6 x 0.70 = 1.12, may be adopted ( all values are from Table B-17)
Structural Engineering
Longitudinal wind:
l
1 and 50 o
h
Cf = 1.5, may be adopted (all values are from Table B-17)
Appurtenances :
(i)
(ii)
(iii) For wind on Platforms, follow the procedure as outlined under Vertical Vessel
(iv) For Ladders (if required to be considered separate)
As per the ASCE Task Committee on wind loads for Petrochemical Facilities
C f 2.0
A 0.1524 sq. m /m, i.e. 0.50 sq.ft./ft.
ENCLOSED STRUCTURES
The general procedure for enclosed structure requires Cg to be calculated as per the
detailed procedure if the fundamental frequency (first mode) of vibration of the
structure is less than 1 Hz or if the height to width ratio exceeds 5.
While calculating Cg, the value of the critical damping ratio ( ) should be selected
as appropriate for the structural system.
The pressure coefficient can be obtained from Fig. B-14 of NBCC Commentary B.
The net specified pressure due to wind on part or all of a surface of a building shall
be the algebraic difference of the external pressure (p = qCeCgCp)and the specified
internal pressure or suction ( pi = qCeCgCpi)
where
Cp
Cpi
pi
Structural Engineering
open buildings have demonstrated that wind force on an open structure can exceed
wind force on that structure when subsequently enclosed.
Open equipment structures support equipment and piping within an open structural
frame, generally unenclosed by siding or other shielding appurtenances. Open
equipment structures include:
The main wind force resisting system includes, wind forces acting on the structural
frame and the appurtenances such as ladders, handrails etc.
p q Ce Cg Cf
The wind forces on vessels, piping and cable trays located on or attached to the
structure shall be calculated separately and added to the wind forces acting on the
main wind force resisting system.
Adopt the applicable value of Cg as per simple or detailed procedure conforming to
NBCC Commentary B.
Wind Loads with no shielding
Wind loads force coefficient for design of individual components, cladding and
appurtenance (excluding vessels, piping and cable trays) shall be calculated as per
figure B-23 of NBCC Commentary B.
The force coefficient is applicable for structural members of infinite lengths and this
is multiplied by the reduction factor k, for finite length of members. (If member
projects from large plate or walls, the reduction factor k should be calculated for
slenderness based on twice the actual length.)
Wind load is calculated on the Effective solid area exposed to the wind. (Elements
such as cladding, bracing, ladders, stairs and handrails can be considered as part of
the solid area.)
ASCE Task Committee on Wind Loads for Petrochemical Facilities
Recommended guidelines
For the main force resisting system The ASCE Task Committee on Wind Loads for
Petrochemical Facilities suggests value of Cf to be used for piperack and other
similar structures based on no shielding (except as defined for piping and cable tray).
For all structural members Cf = 1.8 or alternately Cf = 2.0 below the first level and Cf
= 1.6 for members above the first level.
Loads on Frame and Shielding
Structural Engineering
windward member and the unshielded part of the leeward member should be
designed for the full pressure (q). The shielded part of the leeward member should be
designed for the reduced pressure (qx) as per figure B-25 of Commentary B.
As
A
Where A
As
The effective solid area of a frame is defined as the solid area of each element in the
plane of the frame projected normal to the nominal wind direction. (As per the ASCE
Task Committee on Wind Loads for Petrochemical Facilities, the presence of
flooring or decking does not cause an increase of solid area beyond the inclusion of
the thickness of the deck.)
ASCE Task Committee on Wind Loads for Petrochemical Facilities
Recommended guidelines
Refer Attachment 01. The structure is idealized as two sets of orthogonal frames. The
maximum wind load on each set of frame is calculated independently.
The force coefficient is defined for wind forces obtained normal to the frames,
irrespective of the actual wind direction. It accounts for entire structure in the
direction of wind. The value obtained for each axes of the structure is the maximum
force coefficient for the component of force acting normal to the frames for all
horizontal wind angles.
The force coefficient CDg was developed from wind tunnel test for use on the gross
area of the structure. These are converted to force coefficient applied to the solid area
as per the equation.
Cf
Where CDg
C Dg
As
A
As
(ii)
CDg is obtained from graph between and N for various values of SF/B. Refer
Attachment 03.
fp - 000 215 1215 - Wind Load Calculation as per Canadian Code
Structural Engineering
The force coefficient CDg were developed for structure with a vertical aspect ratio
(Height/Width, perpendicular to the wind flow direction) = 4.
The coefficient CDg from the graphs will be slightly conservative for relatively
shorter structures and slightly non-conservative for relatively taller structures.
The force coefficient CDg is applicable for frames of typical sharp edged steel shapes
such as wide flanged shapes, channels and angles.
The graphs are available for SF/ B varying from 0.10 to 0.50 and varying from
0.10 to 0.35. (Linear interpolation may be used for values of SF/B not given in the
graphs.)
For the range of values falling outside the graphs, the force coefficient C f can be
obtained directly from the following equations. (Reference Structural Engineering
practice 000 215 1215 Wind Load Calculation)
For N = 2 to 4
For N = 5 to 7
Where = SF / B.
(i)
Expressions above are based on data for 0.10 0.50 from ASCE
Wind Load on Petrochemical Facilities and for SF/ B = 1.0 with N = 2
from ASCE 7-95.
(ii)
They also agree well with test data reported by Whitbread for parallel
trusses normal to wind. His data are for 2 N 5 and
0.5 SF / B 4.0.
(iii)
For smaller solidity ratios, neglect shielding and use Cf = 2.0 for each
member in each frame. For larger solidity ratios, use these expressions
with caution
Area of Frames
For structures with frames of equal solidity, the effective solid area should be taken
as the solid area of windward frame.
Where the solid area of windward frame exceeds the solid area of the other frames,
As
If the solid area of windward frame is less than the solid area of the other frames,
As
Pipe racks or cable tray racks are specialized open equipment structures whose
principal function is to support horizontal runs of piping, cable trays, or both.
Calculate wind forces on the structure as described above -- wind forces on piping
and trays are calculated separately.
If the rack is significantly longer than its width, only wind force in the transverse
direction of the rack need be considered. Wind load in the longitudinal direction may
fp - 000 215 1215 - Wind Load Calculation as per Canadian Code
Structural Engineering
not be critical. For short racks with small pipe anchor loads, effects of longitudinal
wind force shall be evaluated.
Pipes
The ASCE Task Committee on Wind Loads for Petrochemical Facilities recommends
that, for piperack and other similar structures, the tributary area for piping should be
based on the diameter of the largest pipe, plus 10% of the width of the piperack. This
sum is multiplied by the length of pipes (bent spacing) to determine the tributary
area.
The force coefficient Cf = 0.70 should be used as a minimum. The force coefficient
can also be obtained from figure B-22 of NBCC Commentary B.
The value of Cg = 2.0 can be adopted as per the simple procedure.
Cable Trays
The ASCE Task Committee on Wind Loads for Petrochemical Facilities recommends
that the tributary area for Cable trays should be based on the height of the largest
tray, plus 10% of the width of the piperack. This sum is multiplied by the length of
the tray (bent spacing) to determine the tributary area.
For cable trays the Force coefficient Cf = 2.0 should be used. The force coefficient
can also be obtained from figure B-17 of NBCC Commentary B for
L
10
h
The top cable tray layer shall be considered separate and as defined for
Figure 1 above.
(ii)
The remaining portion of the cable tray rack shall be considered as a frame,
with or without the shielding effect. If shielding is considered, the frame
spacing shall be W/2 and W for Figure 2 and 3 respectively.
Shielding of equipment
For wind load on equipment inside structures, follow the recommendation of ASCE
Wind Load on Petrochemical Facilities as detailed in practice 000.215.1215 Wind
Load Calculation
LOAD COMBINATIONS
Use load combinations from NBCC - 1995 and Structural Engineering Specification
fp - 000 215 1215 - Wind Load Calculation as per Canadian Code
Structural Engineering
For wind loads on enclosed structures, use full and partial loading as described in
NBCC - 1995
Open Equipment Structures
For wind loads on open equipment structures, follow the recommendation of ASCE
Wind Load on Petrochemical Facilities as detailed in practice 000.215.1215 Wind
Load Calculation.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Drift Control
PIP STC 01015 addresses allowable drift limits for structures in petrochemical
facilities, and provides for the following limits:
Height / 150
No reduction in wind loads shall be made for the shielding effects of vessels or
structures adjacent to the one being designed. NBCC - 1995 does not permit
consideration of possible shielding of one building or structure by another unless
verified by tests.
REFERENCES
Structural Engineering
ATTACHMENTS
Attachment 01: XXXXX03
Typical Arrangement of Frames for calculation of force coefficient, as per ASCE
Task Committee on Wind Load for Petrochemical Facilities, considering shielding.
Attachment 02: XXXXX03
Arrangement of Cable Trays
Attachment 03: XXXXX03
Force Coefficient Graphs for a set of Frames with shielding effect as per ASCE.
Structural Engineering
Typical Arrangement of Frames for Calculation of Force Coefficient, as Per ASCE Task
Committee on Wind Load for Petrochemical Facilities, Considering Shielding
Nominal Wind
Direction
SF
SF
Number of Frames, N
Structural Engineering
W (Width of Piperack)
Figure 1
Consider separate
ht
W (Width of Piperack)
Figure 2
Consider separate
ht
W (Width of Piperack)
Figure 3
Structural Engineering
Structural Engineering
Structural Engineering
Structural Engineering