Raghuvir Tomar

Engineering Electromagnetics
Notes for Chapter 4
(Maxwells Equations, Fields
in dielectric and magnetic
media, Boundary Conditions,
and Plane Waves) Revision

005

Prepared by:

Reviewed by:
Reviewed by:

Authors

Date

Place

Raghuvir Tomar

Jan25,
2012

LNMIIT
Jaipur,
India

EEM Notes for Chapter 4 by R.Tomar

Rev 005
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Revision History
Revision Date

Description

001

22nd February 2007

Initial draft

002

27th February 2007

Corrected a typo in the answer for Assignment

Problem 1

003

27th February 2008

Corrected several typos

004

10th September 2008

Corrected more typos

005

25th January 2012

Corrected more typos

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Table of Contents
1

CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS ................................................................ 1

MAXWELLS EQUATIONS ............................................................................ 2

2.1

MAXWELLS FIRST EQUATION ........................................................................... 2

2.2

MAXWELLS SECOND EQUATION ....................................................................... 3

2.3

MAXWELLS THIRD EQUATION .......................................................................... 4

2.4

MAXWELLS FOURTH EQUATION ....................................................................... 5

2.5

Equation of continuity of current ............................................................................ 5

2.6

Integral forms of Maxwells equations..................................................................... 5

2.7

Types of media .................................................................................................... 6

2.8

How to define wave ........................................................................................... 7

2.9

Fields in dielectric media .................................................................................... 7

2.10

Fields in magnetic media ................................................................................. 9

2.11

Boundary conditions........................................................................................ 9

2.12

Plane waves .................................................................................................... 14

2.13

Wave equations in free-space ....................................................................... 14

2.14

Wave number in free-space ........................................................................... 14

2.15

Uniform plane wave...................................................................................... 15

2.16

Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode of propagation ........................... 15

2.17

Uniform plane wave in free-space ................................................................. 15

2.18

Uniform plane wave in lossless dielectric .................................................... 18

2.19

Uniform plane wave in lossy dielectric ......................................................... 18

2.20

Uniform plane wave in imperfect (but good) conductor .............................. 20

2.21

Unsolved problem 1 ....................................................................................... 23

2.22

Unsolved t problem 2 ..................................................................................... 23

2.23

Generalized solution for plane wave in free space ...................................... 23

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2.24
Suggested homework .................................................................................... 26

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CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS

The two constitutive relationships that govern the electromagnetic behavior of a

given non-conducting material (whether free-space, dielectric medium, or magnetic
medium) are
B=H

(1.1)

D=*E

(1.2)

In these equations, H is the magnetic field strength in A/m, E is electric field

strength in V/m, B is the magnetic flux density in weber/m2, and D is the electric flux
density in coulomb/m2.

is the permeability of the medium and is defined by

=0r

(1.3)

where r is the relative permeability of the medium and

space, is given by
0=4*10-7 Henry/m

0, the permeability of free(1.4))

is the permeability of the medium and is defined by

=0*r

(1.5)

where r is the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the medium and 0, the
permittivity of free-space, is given by
0=(1/(36*))*10-9 Farad/m

(1.6)

An additional relationship that holds good for imperfect conductors (electrical

conductivity not infinite) is
J=E

(1.7)

where is the conductivity of the medium, and E is the incident field that causes a surface
current density, J (in A/m2), on the surface of the conductor.
Eq. (1.7) can easily be derived, at least in the case of a rectangular bar made of material with
finite electrical conductivity, by using Ohms law.

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MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

The four Maxwells equations are reproduced below. Please note that bold letters
represent vectors and a dot on top represents ( / t). All possible variations of the four
Maxwellian equations are shown. The last few variations shown (in case of each of the
equations) are for the case when ejt type of time-dependence is assumed (a very
practically used case).
2.1

MAXWELLS FIRST EQUATION

The first Maxwellian equation is derivable from Faradays law

v(t)= - ( t)

(2.1.1)

In eq. (2.1.1),v(t) is the induced emf and is the magnetic flux whose rate of
change with time is producing v(t). We can rewrite equation (2.1.1) as

E.dl

B.dS

(2.1.2)

where the left hand side (LHS) equates the induced emf to the line integral of the
corresponding electric field (E) and the right hand side (RHS) equates the magnetic flux
to the surface integral of the corresponding magnetic flux density (B). S represents a
two-dimensional surface enclosed by a closed contour C.
Now let us use Stokes theorem

A.dl (curlA).dS

(2.1.3)

where A represents any arbitrary vector. Eq. (2.1.2) then yields

XE=

- ( B/ t)

(M1)

which is the first Maxwellian equation in its differential form. We can re-write this
equation in several other forms, as shown below. As already mentioned, the dot on top of
a mathematical quantity represents the time-derivative of that quantity.

.
XE=

-B

(M1.1)

= - ( H/ t)
= - r ( H/ t)

(M1.2)
(M1.3)

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.
=-

(M1.4)

.
=-

r H
= - r( H/ t)
= - jrH

(M1.6)

= - jB

(M1.8)

(M1.5)

(M1.7)

Note that the last two representations (M1.7 and M1.8) are applicable only when
jt

2.2

type of time-dependence is assumed for both E and H vectors.

MAXWELLS SECOND EQUATION

The second Maxwellian equation is derivable, after a suitable modification, from

the Amperes law which states that the line integral of magnetic field around any closed
path C is equal to the total current I enclosed by that path. Mathematically speaking, we
write Amperes law as

H.dl I

(2.2.1)

Let us now use Stokes theorem (eq. 2.1.3) to convert eq. (2.2.1) into
XH=

(2.2.2)

where J represents the surface current density (in A/m2) associated with I.
Eq. (2.2.2) is good enough when interactions between time-varying electric and
magnetic fields can be assumed to be negligible. As frequency increases, this, however,
becomes less and less of a safe bet. Maxwells genius lied in suggesting (based on
intuitive reasoning which was later verified experimentally) that an additional term be
added to the RHS of eq. (2.2.2) to account for the fact that time-varying E gives rise to
effects in total H. Eq. (2.2.2) was thus modified to
XH=

( D/ t)+J

(M2)

where the first term on the RHS represents the so-called displacement-current density
(in A/m2) that was added-in by Maxwell (for an interesting up-to-date view of
displacement current please visit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_current).

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Eq. (M2) is the second Maxwellian equation in its differential form. We can write
this equation in several other forms too, as shown below.

.
XH=

D+J
= ( E/ t) + J
= r( E/ t) + J

(M2.1)
(M2.2)
(M2.3)

.
=

E + J

(M2.4)

.
rE + J
= r( E/ t) + J
= jrE + J

(M2.5)

= jD + J

(M2.8)

(M2.6)
(M2.7)

Note that the last two representations (M2.7 and M2.8) apply only when ejt type of
time-dependence is assumed for both E and H vectors.

2.3

MAXWELLS THIRD EQUATION

The third Maxwellian equation is derivable from Gausss law which states that the
net electric flux passing through a closed surface S is equal to the total electric charge Q
enclosed by that surface. In other words,

D.dS Q

(2.3.1)

We use divergence theorem

A.dS ( DivA)dV
S

(2.3.2)

to convert (2.3.1) into

( DivD)dV Q dV
V

(2.3.3)

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In eq. (2.3.3), represents the volume charge density in C/m3. This equation easily
yields
.D=

(M3)

which is the third Maxwellian equation in its differential form.

2.4

MAXWELLS FOURTH EQUATION

The fourth Maxwellian equation is derivable by taking divergence on both sides of

(M1). We get
.B=

(M4)

by assuming, without any loss of generality, that the constant involved can be assumed to
be zero.
Eq. (M4) is the fourth Maxwellian equation in its differential form.

2.5 Equation of continuity of current

The equation of continuity (derivable by taking divergence on both sides of M2 and
then using M3) is written as follows:
.J=

-( /

t)

(2.5.1)

which, for ejt type of time variation, becomes

.J = -j

(2.5.2)

The equation of continuity [(2.5.1) or (2.5.2)], essentially speaking, is a

manifestation of the principle of conservation of charge which states the following:
The time-rate of decrease of electric charge within a given volume is equal to the net
outward current flow through the closed surface of the volume.
2.6

Integral forms of Maxwells equations

By using Stokes and Divergence theorems, the four Maxwells equations can also
be integrated and converted into their equivalent integral representations given below.

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E.dl

H .dl
C

B.dS

t S

(M.I.1)

D.dS I

t S

(M.I.2)

D.dS dV

(M.I.3)

B.dS 0

(M.I.4)

In the above equations, vector dl represents an infinitesimally small length on a

closed path C that is bounding a surface S, vector dS represents an infinitesimally small
area on the surface S, and dV represents an infinitesimally small volume within the total
volume V bounded by the surface S.
In words, eqs. (M.I.1)-(M.I.4) can be summarized as follows:
a) The electromotive force (emf) around a closed path is equal to the time derivative
of the magnetic flux through any surface bounded by that path.
b) The magnetomotive force (mmf) around a closed path is equal to the total current
I flowing through any surface bounded by the path. This current, in general, is
made up of two components, a fictitious displacement current and a conduction
current.
c) The total electric flux through the surface enclosing a volume is equal to the total
charge contained within the volume.
d) The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.

2.7

Types of media

The various types of transmission media encountered in practice are briefly discussed
below.
1. Homogeneous and non-homogeneous media

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Homogeneous media (e.g., free-space) are those whose properties (permeability,

permittivity, and conductivity) do not change with (x,y,z). Inhomogeneous media (e.g.,
human body) are those whose properties do change with (x,y,z).
2. Isotropic and anisotropic media
Isotropic media (e.g., free-space) are those whose properties do not change with
direction. Anisotropic media (e.g., human body) are those whose properties do change
with direction.
For anisotropic materials, the constitutive relationships become (instead of eqs. 1.1
and 1.2):

D E
B H

(2.7.1)

(2.7.2)

where [D], [E], [B], and [H] are 3x1 matrices and [] and [] are 3x3 matrices.

3. Linear and non-linear media

Linear media (e.g., free-space) are those whose response to the simultaneous
presence of more than one source can be computed using a linear superposition of the
media responses to individual sources. Non-linear media (e.g., many semiconductors) are
those whose response to more than one source can not be treated as a linear
superposition of the responses to individual sources.
2.8

How to define wave

If a physical phenomenon that occurs at one place at a given time is reproduced at

other places at later times, the time delay being proportional to the space separation from
the first location, then the group of phenomena is said to constitute a wave.
2.9

Fields in dielectric media

In case of a dielectric medium, after an electric field is applied, polarization (i.e.,

re-alignment) of molecules takes place. This augments the total displacement flux
density D inside the material. Mathematically, we quantify this phenomenon by
defining an additional polarization vector Pe such that

D 0 E Pe

(2.9.1)

Additionally, in a linear medium, the electric polarization vector is related to the

applied electric field through the following equation:
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Pe 0 eE

(2.9.2)

where Xe is called the electric susceptibility of the medium and can, in general, be a
complex number. Thus we write

D 0(1 Xe) E

(2.9.3)

or

D E

(2.9.4)

where

' j ' '

(2.9.5)

is the complex permittivity of the medium. We can also write

(1 X )
0

(2.9.6)

Using (M2) along with (1.7) and (2.9.4), we get

XH=
=

(j)E

(2.9.7)

jj('-j')]E

(2.9.8)

The loss tangent tan of the material is defined as the ratio of the imaginary and
real parts of the complex permittivity. In other words,

tan

' '
'

(2.9.9)

and

' (1 j tan )

(2.9.10)

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For air, free-space, and vacuum =0 and hence

'

(2.9.11)

2.10 Fields in magnetic media

In the case of magnetic materials too, an alignment of molecules takes place when
a magnetic field H is applied across the material. The effect is called magnetic
polarization. We define a magnetic polarization vector Pm and a magnetic susceptibility
Xm. The relevant equations follow:

B 0 H Pm

(2.10.1)

Pm 0 mH

(2.10.2)

(for linear material)

B 0(1 Xm) H

(2.10.3)

B H

(2.10.4)

(1 X )
0

(2.10.5)

In the above,

' j ' '

(2.10.6)

is the complex permeability of the medium.

2.11 Boundary conditions

Consider the plane interface between two media (medium 1 and medium 2) as shown
in Figure 1. Let , be the properties of medium 1 and , be the properties of
medium 2. The quantities of interest to us are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

The two tangential components of electric field, Et1 and Et2

The two tangential components of magnetic field, Ht1 and Ht2
The two normal components of electric flux density, Dn1 and Dn2
The two normal components of magnetic flux density, Bn1 and Bn2
The surface charge density (if any present),
The surface current density (if any present, Js.

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Figure 1 Fields, currents, and surface charge at a general interface between two
media

Figure 2 Closed surface S

Figure 3 Closed contour C

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First let us analyze the inter-relationships among the normal components of

the field. Let us consider a cylindrical surface (Figure 2) which is partially in medium 1
and partially in medium 2. Use Maxwells third equation in its integral form

D.dS dV Q

S
to get

(M.I.3)

S ( Dn 2 Dn1) Sidewalls Q
S

where the second term on the LHS represents contribution of the sidewalls of the cylinder
to the total surface integral of D over S.
If we now allow h to go to zero, the second term on the LHS of the above
equation goes to zero (since there are no sidewalls left). Also the RHS collapses into the
term s S. The term Scancels out on both sides and we get

Dn2-Dn1= s

(2.11.1)

which can also be written (in its vector form) as

in.(D2-D1)= s

(2.11.2)

A similar argument starting with Maxwells fourth equation in integral form

B.dS 0

(M.I.4)

leads to

Bn2-Bn1=

(2.11.3)

which can also be written (in its vector form) as

in.(B2-B1)=

(2.11.4)

In words, we can say that

1) The normal component of the electric flux density is discontinuous by an amount
equal to the value of the charge density at the interface.
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2) The normal component of the magnetic flux density is continuous across the
interface (since free magnetic charge does not exist).

Now let us analyze the inter-relationships among the tangential components.

Let us consider a closed contour C (Figure 3) which is partially in medium 1 and partially
in medium 2. Let us use Maxwells first equation in its integral form

E.dl

B.dS

t S

(M.I.1)

to write
(Et1-Et2) + contributions due to two sides which are h long

B.(h. )

Then let us allow h to go to zero. The second term on the LHS of the above
equation goes to zero since these two sides are not there anymore. Also, the term on the
RHS goes to zero as h goes to zero. Thus we are left with

Et2=Et1

(2.11.5)

which can also be written (in its vector form) as

(E2-E1)x in.=

(2.11.6)

where cross denotes the vector product.

We can similarly use Maxwells second equation in its integral form

H .dl
C

D.dS I
t
S

(M.I.2)

to write

Ht2-Ht1= Js

(2.11.7)

which can also be written (in its vector form) as

inX(H2-H1)= Js

(2.11.8)

In words, we can say that

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3) The tangential component of the electric field intensity is continuous across the
interface.
4) The tangential component of the magnetic field intensity is discontinuous by an
amount equal to the value of the surface current density at the interface.
If medium 1 happens to be a perfect electrical conductor ( tending to infinity),
all field components inside the conductor (medium 1) shall go to zero (this will be shown
a bit later in this chapter). However, finite Js and s may still exist at the interface of the
two media. The boundary conditions in such a case become

Dn2= s

(2.11.9)

Bn2=

(2.11.10)

Et2= 0

(2.11.11)

Ht2= Js

(2.11.12)

If both media happen to be perfect dielectrics, no surface charge density or

surface current density shall ordinarily exist at the interface. In other words s=0 and
Js=0.
We can then write

Dn2= Dn1

(2.11.13)

Bn2= n

(2.11.14)

Et2= Et1

(2.11.15)

Ht2= Ht1

(2.11.16)

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2.12 Plane waves

Plane waves are those waves whose surfaces of constant phase are infinite planes
parallel to each other. In free-space, an ideal plane wave will be produced at infinity
distance away from a point source. However, many practically used wave patterns are
quite analogous to plane-waves. The study of plane waves, hence, is worth the effort.
2.13 Wave equations in free-space

In a source-free environment and assuming free-space as the medium involved, take the
curl of eq. (M2) on both sides, and then use eq. (M1) to get (assuming ejt type of timedependence)
X xH=j XE= j-jH

(2.13.1)

That is
( .H)

- 2H=k02H

(2.13.2)

where the wave number, k0, is defined by

k02= 2

(2.13.3)

Using eqs. (M4) and (1.1), we can also conclude that

.H=0

(2.13.4)

which converts eq. (2.12.2) into

( 2+ k02)H=0

(2.13.5)

It can similarly be shown that

( 2+ k02)E=0

(2.13.6)

Eqs. (2.13.5) and (2.13.6) are known as the wave equations for H and E, respectively.
2.14 Wave number in free-space

The wave-number in free-space has already defined by eq. (2.13.3). It can further be
simplified by using the well-known equation for the speed of light, c, in free space:
c2=1/((2.13.7)
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We can write
(2.13.8)

k0= /c =2f/c=2/0

where 0 is the free-space wavelength involved. Note that the definition of k0 is similar to
that of the propagation constant of a loss-less transmission line.
2.15 Uniform plane wave

A plane wave is one for which phase is constant on a plane. A uniform plane wave is
one for which both magnitude and phase are constant on a plane.
Consider a plane wave traveling in +x direction. If E and H fields are independent of y
and z and depend only on x, we call it a uniform plane wave.
2.16 Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode of propagation

In the next section, we will show that, for a uniform plane wave, both E and H fields
have no component along the x-axis. In other words, E and H lie completely in the y-z
plane. Since y-z plane is a plane transverse (perpendicular) to the direction of
propagation (x), a uniform plane wave can be thought of as obeying the so-called
transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode of propagation.
2.17 Uniform plane wave in free-space

For a uniform plane wave traveling in the +x direction in free-space, assuming that the
electric field intensity has no dependence on y and z, the wave equation for E simplifies
to
(d2E/dx2)+ k02E=0

(2.17.1)

which breaks into three different equations

(d2Ex/dx2)+ k02Ex=0

(2.17.2)

(d2Ey/dx2)+ k02Ey=0

(2.17.3)

(d2Ez/dx2)+ k02Ez=0

(2.17.4)

The wave equation for the magnetic field strength, similarly, yields
(d2Hx/dx2)+ k02Hx=0

(2.17.5)

(d2Hy/dx2)+ k02Hy=0

(2.17.6)

(d2Hz/dx2)+ k02Hz=0

(2.17.7)

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Eq. (M3) can be rewritten as (since a source-free case is being analyzed)

.E=0

(M3.MSF)

which, keeping in mind that E does not depend on y and z, gives

(dEx/dx)=0

(2.17.8)

Eq. (2.17.8) gives

(d2Ex/dx2)=0

(2.17.9)

which, when used in eq. (2.17.2), gives

Ex=0

(2.17.10)

It can similarly be shown that

Hx=0

(2.17.11)

Now we are left with eqs. (2.17.3) and (2.17.4) for the remaining unknowns Ey and Ez
and eqs. (2.17.6) and (2.17.7) for the remaining unknowns Hy and Hz. Please be
reminded that exp (jt) is an implicit term in all these equations.
The solutions to eqs. (2.17.3), (2.17.4), (2.17.6), and (2.17.7) can be written in several
forms. Let us pick the following forms (I am exclusively showing the time-dependence
here):
Ey (x,t)= A exp (jt-jk0x)

(2.17.12)

Ez (x,t)= B exp (jt-jk0x)

(2.17.13)

Hy (x,t)= C exp (jt-jk0x)

(2.17.14)

Hz (x,t)= D exp (jt-jk0x)

(2.17.15)

where A,B, C and D are the four arbitrary constants involved. Note that eqs. (2.7.12)(2.17.15) show that all the four non-zero field components (Ey,Ez,Hy and Hz) have
constant phase over surfaces that satisfy the following equation

t - k0x = constant

(2.17.16)

Since t increases constantly (whether we like it or not), the only way that eq. (2.7.16) can
be satisfied is that x should also constantly increase. In other words, the equi-phase
surface (a plane, as already mentioned) shall travel at a speed dx/dt which can be
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computed by taking time-derivative of both sides of eq. (2.17.16). This speed dx/dt is
termed (as in the case of transmission lines) phase velocity vp.
We get

vp

dx 2f 0

c
dt k 0
2

(2.17.17)

where c is the speed of light (3x108 m/sec) in free-space.

1. The fact that equi-phase surfaces in this case are planes is the reason why the
solutions described by eqs. (2.17.12)-(2.17.15) are said to constitute a plane
wave.
2. The word uniform, if added in the beginning of the expression plane wave,
simply codes the fact that all the four non-zero field components have constant
magnitude over the entire y-z plane.
3. Note that, in case of uniform plane waves, the plane over which the
magnitudes of the non-zero field components are constant is a plane transverse
to the direction of propagation +x.
4. The fact that, for uniform plane waves, both the zero field components (Ex
and Hx) are in the direction of propagation (+x) means that both E and H fields
are entirely in y-z plane which is transverse to the direction of propagation +x.
We call this situation a Transverse-Electromagnetic (TEM) mode of
propagation.
5. All uniform plane waves are TEM-mode
necessarily be uniform plane waves.

but all TEM-modes may not

6. As will be shown in the final section of this chapter, non-uniform plane waves
(field components being functions of all the three variables x, y, and z), are not
TEM.
Using eq. (M2), we can get
Ey= -(1/jdHz/dx

(2.17.18)

Ez= (1/jdHy/dx

(2.17.19)

Using eqs. (2.17.12) and (2.17.15) in eq. (2.17.18), we get

-jA=- jk0D

(2.17.20)

that is
Ey/Hz=A/D=k0/ sqrt =sqrt (=377 ohm

(2.17.21)

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We can similarly show that

Ez/Hy= -sqrt( = -377 ohm

(2.17.22)

The quantity 120=377 ohm is known as the intrinsic impedance of free space. Also note
that, for the uniform plane wave, the magnitudes of Ey, Ez, Hy and Hz are constants over
the entire y-z plane.
2.18 Uniform plane wave in lossless dielectric

The plane wave discussion presented above for free-space is valid for any lossless
dielectric material too, with the following modifications:
1.

Intrinsic impedance = 120/sqrt (r)

(2.18.1)

where r is the dielectric constant of the medium.

2.
k2=

Wave number k0 is given by

2

(2.18.2)

3. Phase velocity vp is given by

vp=c/sqrt (r)

(2.18.3)

where c is the speed of light in free space.

2.19 Uniform plane wave in lossy dielectric

In this case, the electrical conductivity is not equal to zero In other words, the
dielectric medium has an ohmic loss. For this case, let us use the following equations

XH=( D/ t)+J

(M2)

D=*E

(1.2))

J=E

(1.7)

to write

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XH=jE

+E

= (+jE

(2.19.1)

It can be shown that the electric field vector E and the magnetic field vector H satisfy the
following wave equations

+ keff2)E=0

(2.19.2)

+ keff2)H=0

(2.19.3)

where the effective wave number, keff, is given by

2

1-(j/
(2.19.4)
= 2eff

keff2=

The effective permittivity (a complex number) is defined by

eff=1-(j/

(2.19.6)

If we re-write q. (2.19.6) as

eff=real-jimaginary

(2.19.7)

real=

(2.19.8)

and

imaginary= /

(2.19.9)

Also note that we can define a loss tangent, tan ( ), of the medium by
tan ( )=imaginary/real=/

(2.19.10)

Eqs. (2.7.12) to (2.7.15) still apply after using keff instead of k0. Also, both Ex and Hx can
still be shown to be zero as was done in case of free space.
The solutions to the wave equation can be written as:
Ey (x,t)= A exp (-jkeffx)

(2.19.11)

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Ez (x,t)= B exp (-jkeffx)

(2.19.12)

Hy (x,t)= C exp (-jkeffx)

(2.19.13)

Hz (x,t)= D exp (-jkeffx)

(2.19.14)

where A,B, C and D are the four arbitrary constants involved and exp (jt) is understood
to be there.
The effective wave number can, in general, be expressed as a complex propagation
constant using
jkeff= +j

(2.19.15)

where is the attenuation constant and is the phase constant.

The TEM wave will thus see a constant amplitude decay with distance x. This is in
contrast with the case of free-space or lossless dielectric where no such amplitude decay
was observed.

2.20 Uniform plane wave in imperfect (but good) conductor

This can be treated as a special case of the preceding section in the sense that
>>> (2.20.1)

That is,

imaginary

>>> real

(2.20.2)

That is, the effective wave number, keff, is given by

2

1-(j/
= 2eff

keff2=

where

eff 1-(j/

j/ approximately

(2.20.5)

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since

Using eq. (2.20.3), we get

keff=[sqrteff )

=j [sqrt(j]

But we also know that

j=exp (j/2)=cos(/2) + jsin((/2)

(2.20.8)

Hence
sqrt (j)= exp (j/4)=cos(/4) + jsin((/4)
=[1/sqrt (2)] {1+j)

(2.20.9)

Thus eq. (2.20.7) gives

keff=[sqrteff )

=j [sqrt(j]
=j[sqrt (2)] (1+j)

(2.20.10)

Eqs. (2.19.21)-(2.19.24) would still apply but the propagation constant will be given by
-jkeff= - --j
= [sqrt (2)] (1+j)

(2.20.11)

yielding
=attenuation constant=[sqrt (2)]

(2.20.12)

and
=phase constant=[sqrt (2)]

(2.20.13)

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Here we define another term called skin depth . Mathematically,

reciprocal of the magnitude of the attenuation constant . That is,
=1/.

is defined as the

(2.20.14)

In view of eq. (2.20.13), we can also write

=1/.

(2.20.15)

Physically, skin depth can be interpreted as the characteristic depth of penetration, i.e.,
the distance the signal travels inside the conductor before its amplitude decays to
1/e=1/2.718 of the original value. The formula for calculating skin depth is
==sqrt [2/()]

(2.20.16)

The electric and magnetic fields inside the conductor can be shown to satisfy the wave
equation. Hence, the field expressions inside the conductor can be written as
Ex (x,t)= 0

(2.20.17)

Ey (x,t)= A exp (-x/ ) exp (-jx/ )

(2.20.18)

Ez (x,t)= B exp (-x/ ) exp (-jx/ )

(2.20.19)

Hx (x,t)= 0

(2.20.20)

Hy (x,t)= C exp (-x/ ) exp (-jx/ )

(2.20.21)

Hz (x,t)= D exp (-x/ ) exp (-jx/ )

(2.20.22)

where A,B, C and D are the four arbitrary constants involved and exp (jt) is understood
to be there.
For a perfect conductor ( tending to infinity), it is easy to see from the above
equations that all the field components inside the conductor are zero.
For more info on skin effect and skin depth, use Internet-based search engines. One
good link is http://www.mos.org/sln/toe/skineffect.html
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2.21 Unsolved problem 1

PROBLEM : Derive an expression for the intrinsic impedance of an imperfect conductor.

ANSWER : The intrinsic impedance will be found to be
sqrt [()] + j sqrt [()]
2.22 Unsolved t problem 2

PROBLEM : Compute the skin depth of aluminum, copper, gold, and silver at 10GHz.
SOLUTION :
Aluminum : Conductivity 3.816x10**7 S/m, Skin Depth=8.14x10**-7 m
Copper : Conductivity 5.813x10**7 S/m, Skin Depth=6.60x10**-7 m
Gold : Conductivity 4.098x10**7 S/m, Skin Depth=7.86x10**-7 m
Silver : Conductivity 6.17x10**7 S/m, Skin Depth=6.40x10**-7 m
2.23 Generalized solution for plane wave in free space

So far we have assumed a uniform plane wave, i.e., a wave for which the electric and
magnetic fields depend on only the x co-ordinate. Now let us consider the case where the
E and H fields are functions of all the three coordinates, namely, x, y, and z.
Wave equations for E and H fields shall still be the same, namely
2

+ k02)H=0

(2.23.1)

and

+ k02)E=0

(2.23.2)

Eq. (2.23.2) breaks into three independent equations:

Ex/

x2)+ (

Ex/

y2)+(

Ex/

z2)+ k02Ex=0

(2.23.3)

Ey/

x2)+ (

Ey/

y2)+(

Ey/

z2)+ k02Ey=0

(2.23.4)

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Ez/

x2)+ (

Ez/

y2)+(

Ez/ z2)+ k02Ez=0

(2.23.5)

The wave equation for the magnetic field strength (eq. 2.23.1), similarly, yields
(

Hx/

x2)+ (

Hx/

y2)+(

Hx/

z2)+ k02Hx=0

(2.23.6)

Hy/

x2)+ (

Hy/

y2)+(

Hy/

z2)+ k02Hy=0

(2.23.7)

Hz/

x2)+ (

Hz/

y2)+(

Hz/

z2)+ k02Hz=0

(2.23.8)

To solve such partial differential equations, we use a technique known as the method of
separation of variables. In this we method, we assume that the unknown function,
Ex,Ey,Ez,Hx,Hy, or Hz, can be represented as a product of three independent functions for
each of the three coordinates x,y, and z. That is, we can write
Ex (x,y,z)=X(x)Y(y)Z(z)

(2.23.9)

and similar equations for other five field components.

Substituting eq. (2.23.9) into eq. (2.23.3), we get
XYZ + XYZ+XYZ+k02 XYZ=0

(2.23.10)

which, after division by XYZ, yields

(X/X) + (Y/Y) + (Z/Z) +k02=0

(2.23.11)

where the double primes denote the second derivative.

In the L.H.S. of eq. (2.23.11), each of the first three terms is independent of each other.
In other words, (X/X) is a function only of x, (Y/Y) is a function only of y, and (Z/Z)
is a function only of z. Thus each of these terms has to be a constant (since the fourth
term, k02, is a constant). We define these three constants kx, ky, and kz by means of the
following three equations:
(X/X)= - kx2

(2.23.12)

(Y/Y)= - ky2

(2.23.13)

(Z/Z)= - kz2

(2.23.14)

where
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k02=kx2 + ky2 + kz2

(2.23.15)

Eqs. (2.23.12)-(2.23.14) can also be written as

(d2X/dx2)+ kx2X=0

(2.23.16)

(d2Y/dy2)+ ky2Y=0

(2.23.17)

(d2Z/dz2)+ kz2Z=0

(2.23.18)

We can thus construct the following solution for Ex:

Ex (x,y,z)= A exp (-jkxx)exp (-jkyy)exp (-jkzz)

(2.23.19)

where A is the arbitrary constant involved and only the wave traveling in the forward
direction is considered.
Similarly, we can write
Ey (x,y,z)= B exp (-jkxx)exp (-jkyy)exp (-jkzz)

(2.23.20)

and
Ez (x,y,z)= C exp (-jkxx)exp (-jkyy)exp (-jkzz)

(2.23.21)

where B and C are the two additional arbitrary constants involved.

By using the following equation

.E=0

(M3)

we can easily show that

k.E0=0

(2.23.22)

where the wavenumber vector k represents the direction of propagation and is given by
k=kxix + kyiy + kziz

(2.23.23)

and the amplitude vector E0 represents the amplitude of the electric field and is given by
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E0=Aix + Biy + Ciz

(2.23.24)

In other words, the electric field amplitude vector E0 must be perpendicular to the vector
k representing the direction of propagation.
We can also write the following vector relationship for the electric field:
E=E0 exp (-jk.r)

(2.23.25)

where the position vector r is defined by

r=xix+yiy+ziz

(2.23.26)

To derive the magnetic field, now we can use the following Maxwells equation

XE=-jB=-jH

(M1)

We get

-jH=

XE=

X(E0exp(-jk.r) )

(2.23.27)

Let us now use the following vector identity:

X(fE)=(

f)xE

+f(

xE)

(2.23.28)

where f is an arbitrary scalar quantity.

After simplifying the resulting expression, we can show that
H=(1/) (in

xE)

(2.23.29)

where in is a unit vector in the direction of propagation and is the intrinsic impedance
of free space, 120 ohms.

2.24 Suggested homework

Carefully go through solved problems 4.1-4.10 (pp. 254-262) in the following book:
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY AND TRANSMISSION LINES by G.S.N.
Raju, Pearson Education, 2005.

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