INTERFERENCE

Fig.1 Waves on the surface of water showing their interference resulting in

formation of maxima and minima of amplitude

We are familiar with the waves forming on the surface of water

travelling outward in the form of circular wave fronts from the point of
disturbance. Also we may have seen what the surface of water looks like
when it is multiply disturbed. Such a pattern is formed because of the
phenomena of interference of waves.

SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
It states that resultant displacement of a particle in a medium, where two
waves arrive simultaneously, is algebraic sum of the displacements of the
particle due to the respective wave. i.e.
y = y1 + y2 = a1 sin 1 t + a2 sin 2 t

HUYGHENS PRINCIPLE
Every point on a wave front acts as source of
new secondary wavelets.
Superposition of all such wavelets from all
points of a wave front gives rise to fresh wave
front moving in the same direction.

PLANE WAVES AND SPHERICAL WAVES

Wave front
tends to
become plane
as its distance
from the point
source
increases

S1 and S2 represent openings through which the

incident wave is allowed to pass.
According to Huyghens principle waves from S1 and S2
would emanate as if they are the source points in phase
and would spread outward in the form of circular wave
fronts.
Continuous semi circles represent crests of the wave
and dotted ones represent the troughs.
Along the perpendicular bisector of S1 S2 at any point C,
where trough or crests from S1 and S2 meet, S2 C S1 C
= and the resultant disturbance would be
y = y1 + y2 = 2a sin t

This is also known as constructive interference.

At point B, trough from S1 meets a crest from S2 and path difference will be
S2 B S1 B = /2. The resultant amplitude will be

Y = y1 +y2 = a sin t + a sin (t ) = 0 This is known as destructive interference

At any point P where the difference in the path lengths of the two waves is an
integral multiple of , the phase difference would be an integral multiple of 2 and
there will be an amplitude maximum.
S2 P S1 P = n (maxima)

n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ..

Where the difference in the path lengths of the two waves is an odd integral
multiple of /2, the phase difference would be an integral multiple of and there
will be an amplitude minimum.
S2 P S1 P = (n + 1) /2 (minima)

n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ..

INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
We started out with an example of interference of waves on the surface of water
because it is easier to visualize.
More than two hundred years ago it was much speculated about the nature of light.
It was conjectured as particles by Newton while Huygens proposed wave theory of
light.
It was in 1801 Thomas Young first demonstrated experimentally the wave nature of
light by carrying out interference of light waves.
Normally, it is not easy to observe interference of light primarily because
wavelength of light is very small and also the normally used sources of light are not
coherent.
Let us have a look at the double slit experiment of Young, which established for the
first time the wave nature of light.
d

S2
S

II
O

S1
D

Young could succeed to observe interference fringes as he could meet certain

conditions. The conditions for good interference are as follows.
1. The two interfering waves should be monochromatic and should have same
wavelength.
2. The two waves should be coherent, i.e. should have constant phase difference
3. The separation between the slits should be very small
4. The distance between the two sources and the screen should be large.
5. The amplitudes of the interfering waves should be equal.

THE INTERFERENCE PATTERN

Youngs double slit can be schematically represented as shown

The interference pattern is alternate bright and dark fringes on the screen L. For an
arbitrary point P we can see that the difference in the path length of the waves from S1
and S2 will be given by
(S2 P)2 (S1 P)2 = [ D2 + ( xn + d/2)2 ] - [ D2 + ( xn - d/2)2 ] = 2 xn d
Here, OP = xn,
Taking (S2 P + S1 P) = 2D
S2 P S1 P = = xn d/D

For D d

(Alternatively, it is also expressed as

= d sin

For the point P to be a maximum S2 P S1 P = n

Thus, xn = (n D)/ d
Thus, the bright fringes are equally spaced and distance between two
consecutive bright (dark) fringes is given by
Xn+1 xn = D/ d
The shape of the fringes is generally straight and parallel if the slits are
straight and narrow. On the other hand if the slits are point pinhole type, the
fringes would be part of hyperbolae.

INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION OF THE INTERFERENCE FRINGES

If we represent the wave displacement in the case of light waves by electric field vectors
E1 and E2, the magnitude of the electric vectors arriving at point P can be
represented as
E1 = E01 sin t

E2 = E02 sin (t + )

Here, it is to be noted that is the phase difference. We have assumed that the phase of
the waves at the positions of the slits S1 and S2 is zero. As per the principle of
superposition of waves the resultant vector of the two waves can be written as
E = E1 + E2 = [E01 sin t + E02 sin (t + )]
Using the identity: sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A+B)/2 cos (A-B)/2, we get
E = 2 E0 cos (/2) sin (t + /2)
Thus, resultant amplitude is modulated as 2cos (/2). We can check ..
I E2 = 4 E02 cos2 (/2) sin2 (t + /2)
Or, I = Imax cos2 /2

[Noting time-averaged sin2 (t + /2 will be 1/2]

I = Imax cos2 d sin/ = Imax cos2 (d xn/D)

I = Imax (1+ cos xn /D) /2

Intensity at maximum is 4 times that due to individual slit.

We can also note that maxima occur where = 2n for n = 0, 1, 2,
Or, S2P S1P = n .

Likewise, for minima .

COHERENCE
Two waves are said to be coherent if they have the same frequency and have a zero
or constant phase difference.
The waves emanating from the two slits S1 and S2 above are coherent since they are
part of the same incident wave front from the single source S. This type of coherence
of waves generated by slits S1 and S2 is called spatial coherence.
If S1 and S2 are illuminated by different light sources, then the phase difference
will not be constant and would vary in a random way. Thus on an average, for
incoherent sources, time average of phase difference would be zero, i.e. <cos > = 0,
implying thereby no interference
When we consider phase relationship at various points in a wave, or at one point at
different times, the distance over which the phase relationship holds good or the time
duration over which the phase are seen related are known as coherence length and
coherence time respectively. This type of coherence is known as temporal
coherence.

INTERFERENCE BY DIVISION OF WAVE FRONT

In this case, the incident wave front is divided into

two parts in space either by putting partial
obstacles in the path (such as in Youngs double slit
experiment, or by reflection or by refraction. .
These two parts of the same wave front travel
unequal distances and reunite at small angles to
produce interference bands.
1-Youngs double slit arrangement,
2- Fresnels biprism,
3- Lloyds mirror

partial openings
refraction
reflection

FRESNEL BIPRISM
It is like a combination of two right angled
prisms joined at their base and having very
acute angles of 20 at their vertices. The
biprism is actually a single prism with very
acute base angles and a very obtuse vertex.
= 20

MODEL

ACTUAL

FRESNEL BIPRISM ARRANGEMENT

Wavelength of the monochromatic light using Fresnel Prism

S1 and S2 are two virtual images of a slit of light source, S.

Since base angles of the biprism are very small, the two image slits are very
close. The distance between the two images would be
d/2 = a = a ( 1)
d = 2a ( 1) **,

** From the prism formula

applied to each half right angled
prism m = ( 1)

Where is the refractive index of the prisms glass

For a = 2 cm, n = 1.5 and = 20, distance d would be 0.012 cm.
Thus, a monochromatic light coming out of the prism would be coherent and
would form interference fringes which can be viewed through an eye piece. If
we say the fringe width measured in the eye piece is , then
= D/ d

DETERMINATION OF DISTANCE BETWEEN IMAGES

Measuring very precisely would normally be difficult.

Alternatively we determine d as follows.
We use a convex lens of focal length less than one-fourth of
distance between the slit and the eyepiece so as to form an image
of the virtual slits on the cross wire of the eyepiece and measure
it.

It is possible to position the lens between the bi-prism and

the eyepiece on two positions L and L where the image
forms on the eye piece cross wire.
If the size of these images are x and y, then
For magnifications :

d = ( x. y)

and

d / x = u /-v and y/ d = v /-u

D+a=u+v

where D denotes the distance between the prism and the

eyepiece

Using a white light source

White light source comprises of wavelengths about 0.4 - 0.7 m.
For central bright fringe (also called the zero order fringe) all the wavelengths
arrive in phase and hence it remains bright white
Successively away from the centre:
First reddish in colour as the destructive interference for violet takes place.

Next, violet colour as the destructive interference for red takes place.
Next, violet fringe will appear followed by red fringe as the conditions for
constructive interference get satisfied.

Few coloured fringes initially appear and then smearing into a general white
illumination takes place.
White light fringes are used in locating the position of the zero order fringe,
which is difficult with Sodium light

Determination of thickness of a thin transparent sheet Using

Fresnel Biprism
A thin transparent sheet in the path of one of the beams introduces
an additional phase difference corresponding to equivalent optical
path length of the thin sheet in air.
Due to this the fringe pattern shifts towards the side of the sheet.
Let , t are the refractive index and thickness of the sheet

Time taken by light to cover (S1P t) in air and t in sheet with

velocity ct (= c/ ) is equal to [(S1P t)/ c + t / c].
Thus, total distance covered in this time = (S1P + ( 1)t)
Thus ( 1)t is the additional path* length from S1 to P
Total path difference between waves from S1 and S2 to P becomes = xd/D ( 1)t
Hence for nth maxima xn = D/ d {n + ( 1)t}.
Thus all fringes shift by a distance D/ d ( 1)t on introduction of a transparent film.
Using white light the central white fringe will also shift after the introduction of
transparent film by x0 = D/ d ( 1)t
[All fringes shift by this amount]
Thus from the shift in fringe position, one can find out the thickness of the sheet
knowing the value of refractive index or vice versa
*It follows from this that optical path length due to a plate of t and is t

Lloyds mirror for interference

Central Fringe at P is dark due to reflection

at a denser medium

CHANGE OF PHASE DUE TO REFLECTION

a) Reflection from denser medium

Change of phase of reflected wave by

b) Reflection from rarer medium

No change of phase

Interference by division of amplitude

So far the interference we have discussed involved division of wave
front to obtain two coherent waves.
Another way to obtain two coherent waves is to divide the amplitude
of the wave.
This is done by splitting the incident wave at the surface of another
medium with different refractive index.
In this case, the incident wave can be made to interfere with either its
reflected part or with transmitted part.
The path difference between the interfering waves should not be
large when using ordinary light as the length of wave trains is limited
(say about a fraction of a meter for ordinary light)

Interference Condition for Thin

Films for reflected case
Oblique incidence of a plane wave on a
thin film
Effective path difference between the
two reflected waves is
= (BC + CD) - BE
= 2 t cos r
This is known as cosine law.
As a wave reflected from a denser medium suffers a phase change of , (or
path difference of /2), the condition for intensity maxima becomes
2 t cos r + /2 = p where p = 0, 1, 2, .

Or, 2n t cos r = (2p 1) /2

Likewise, for intensity minima it can be derived as L.H.S. = p

Interference Condition for

Thin Films - Transmitted case
In the case of transmitted light, the
condition for interference can be
derived to be similar except that the
conditions for maxima and minima are
reverse.
= (CD + DE) - CP
= 2 t cos r
As a wave reflected from a rarer medium does not suffer a phase change,
condition for intensity maxima becomes
2 t cos r = p where p = 0, 1, 2, .

Or, 2n t cos r = (2p 1) /2

Likewise, for intensity minima it can be derived as L.H.S. = p

Interference Condition for Thin

Wedge - Reflected case
Effective path difference between the
two reflected waves is
= (AM + MB + BC) (AN /2)
= sin i /sin/r = (AN/AC)/ (AM/AC)
AN = AM
= 2 t cos (r + )
t is the thickness of the wedge at the point of view.
Loci of constant t are a straight lines and hence fringes are parallel straight lines.
EDGE FRINGE IS DARK
APPLICATION IN THICKNESS MEASUREMENT OF VERY THIN FILMS

DETERMINATION OF SEPARATION BETWEEN FRINGES IN A THIN WEDGE FILM

For nth dark fringe:

2 t1 cos (r +) = n

For (n + m)th dark fringe:

2 t2 cos (r +) = (n + m)

t2
t1
x1

x2

Also,
t1 = x1 tan and t2 = x2 tan

Thus,
x2 x1 = m / [2 cos (r +) tan]
For normal incidence r = 90o and for very thin wedge having very small:
x2 x1 = m/ 2
Hence distance between two successive fringes: / 2

ANTI-REFLECTION (A.R.) FILMS

A.R. films are transparent films coated on surfaces in order to reduce reflection. The
coating is made of a particular material with particular thickness so that total P.D.
between the reflected light waves from top and bottom of the coating is /2.

Phase change on reflection from 1 to 2

= or equivalently a P.D. = /2
Phase change on reflection from 4 to 5
= or equivalently a P.D. = /2
Path difference between 1 and 3 = 2 ntt
Total path difference between 2 and 3
= 2 ntt
In order to have destructive interference between 2 and 3 for a wavelength ,
Total path difference between 2 and 3 (2ntt) must be equal to /2. i.e. t = /4nf
Thus, if t = /4nf there will be no reflection for the wavelength
If incident light is white light and for peak wavelength (6000Ao) an A.R. film of a metal
oxide of R.I. 1.3 having thickness t = 6000/(4x1.3) = 1100Ao is put on glass, then this
wavelength wouldnt be reflected. Thus total light reflected from glass will be reduced
and it will look blueish in reflected light.
APPLICATIONS
Spectacles glasses, camera lens, solar cells
Refractive Index of A.R. film (nf) must be between that of base surface (ng) and air.

HIGH-REFLECTION FILMS
H.R. films are transparent films coated on surfaces in order to increase reflection. The
coating is made of a particular material with particular thickness so that total P.D.
between the reflected light waves from top and bottom of the coating is .
Phase change on reflection from 1 to 2
= or equivalently a P.D. = /2
Phase change on reflection from 4 to 5
= 0 or equivalently a P.D. = 0
Path difference between 1 and 3 = 2 ntt
Total path difference between 2 and 3 =
2 ntt + /2
In order to have constructive interference between 2 and 3 for a wavelength ,
Total path difference between 2 and 3 (2ntt) must be equal to . i.e. t = /4nf
Thus, if t = /4nf there will be a maximum reflection for the wavelength
APPLICATIONS
High reflection mirrors, parabolic reflectors in High intensity
search lights, lasers, etc.
Refractive Index of A.R. film (nf) must be more than that of base surface (ng) and air.

NEWTONS RINGS

When a plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane

glass sheet, an air film of gradually increasing thickness outward is formed
between the lens and the sheet. The thickness of film at the point of contact
is zero.

If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on the lens, and the

film is viewed in reflected light, alternate bright and dark concentric
rings are seen around the point of contact. These rings were first
discovered by Newton, and hence are called Newtons rings.
Newton's rings are formed due to interference between the light waves
reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed
between the lens and glass sheet.

The phenomenon of the formation of the Newton's rings can be explained on

the basis of interference from an air film of varying thickness which is formed
between the lens and the glass sheet. When a light ray is incident on the upper
surface of the lens, it is reflected as well as refracted. When the refracted ray
strikes the glass sheet, it undergoes a phase change of 180o on reflection and the
reflected wave emerges again through the lens. Interference occurs between the
two reflected waves which interfere constructively if path difference between
them is (m+1/2) and destructively if path difference between them is m
producing alternate bright and dark rings.
The reflection from the bottom surface
of the air film undergoes a phase change
of which is equivalent to introduction
an additional path difference of /2.
Thus for a maxima
2t + /2 = m
where = refractive index. For air = 1

RADIUS OF THE RINGS

If the radius of curvature of the convex lens is R, the radius of ring is 'r and
wavelength of incident light is ', the two rays a and b interfere with each
other producing alternate bright and dark rings. At the point of contact the
thickness of air film is zero and the path difference is also zero and as a 180o
path difference occurs, so they cancel each other and a dark ring is obtained at
the centre.
Let us suppose that the thickness of air film is 't at the point of observation.
From geometrical considerations, it can be shown that
DB.BE = AB.BC
Or,

r2 = (2R-t).t

Or, r2 = 2Rt
(Neglecting t2 in
comparison to 2Rt, the lens being very thin)
Path difference between the interfering waves
at the point where thickness of air film is t, is
2t + /2, refractive index for air being 1 and
angle of incidence being normal.

Path difference for constructive interference is:

2t + /2 = m

Or, 2t = (N )

Putting the value of 't' in equation

r2 = 2R . 1/2 (N-1/2)
r2 = R (N-1/2)
D2 = 4(N-1/2)R
D2 = 4NR

For bright ring

For dark ring

This is the expression for the diameter of Newtons rings where N

is the ring number, R is the radius of curvature of lens, is the
wavelength of light. This relation can be used to determine wavelength
of a monochromatic source.
Further, if the space between the lens and the glass sheet, which is
treated as air film, is replaced by a liquid of refractive index , the
relation between the diameter of the rings and wavelength as follows
can be used to determine .
D2 = 4NR/

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
Invented by Albert Abraham Michelson for measurement of relative velocity
of light. In this configuration as shown, an interference pattern is produced by
splitting a beam of light into two paths, bouncing them back and recombining
them.
There are two paths from the (light)
source to the detector. One reflects off
the semi transparent mirror, goes to
the top mirror and then reflects back,
goes through the semi-transparent
mirror, to the detector. The other first
goes through the semi-transparent
mirror, to the mirror on the right,
reflects back to the semi-transparent
mirror, then reflects from the semitransparent mirror into the detector.
This last reflection introduces a phase
change of in this beam.

In order to observe interference, monochromatic light should be used and

the path lengths of the two mirrors should be nearly equal. If these two paths
differ by a whole number (including 0) of wavelengths, there is constructive
interference and a strong signal at the detector. If they differ by a whole
number and half wavelengths (e.g., 0.5, 1.5, 2.5 ...) there is destructive
interference and a weak signal.
Path difference and hence interference
pattern depends on:
i) Separation between M1 and M2
ii) Angle subtended on the eye/
telescope
iii) Tilt between the two images of the
mirrors

If M1 and M2 are parallel and the

separation between them is t, the images
of the extended source in the two mirrors
appear as a thin air film of thickness 2t.
Further, if the angle subtended by any
point on this imaginary thin film on
eye/telescope is , then total path
difference between the interfering waves
would be 2tcos + /2. This would be the
P.D. for all points at angle w.r.t. the axis
of the eye/ telescope and interference
pattern would be circular fringes. These are
therefore also known as fringes of equal
inclination. The conditions for maxima and
minima would be as follows.
2t cos + /2 = n
2t cos = n

(For bright circle)

(For dark circle)

FRINGES SEEN WITH TILT BETWEEN THE MIRRORS

The fringes seen with an
inclination between the two
mirrors look almost straight
with slight curvature as
shown depending up on the
positions of the mirror
images.

The configuration (b) where the two images are intersecting each other can be
used to determine thickness x of a transparent plate of refractive index .
When this plate is introduced in the path of one of the mirrors, the fringes shift
corresponding to the additional path difference introduced i.e.
2( 1)x. In order to determine the quantum of shift of a reference fringe, one
has to use white light, which has an interference pattern with central maximum
as white bright flanked by few colored fringes. If d is the distance the mirror
must move in order to restore the position of white fringe, and corresponding to
d the number of fringes of monochromatic light is m, then
m = 2( 1)x.

This equation can be used for determination of x, etc.

Applications of Michelson Interferometer

1. Precision distance measurement
The interferometer is adjusted to obtain the fringes of the monochromatic light.
The position of the movable mirror is adjusted till bright fringes appear and the
crosswire of the telescope is adjusted on a particular bright fringe.
When the movable mirror is moved slowly, each fringe gets displaced parallel
to itself in the field of view and the number of fringes which cross the centre of
the field of view gives the measure of the distance the mirror has moved in
terms of wavelength. When the mirror moves through a distance /2, one fringe
shifts and there is a corresponding change of in the path difference.
If m fringes shift across the cross-wire, when the mirror is moved through a
known distance d, then the path difference is 2d.
2d = m or = 2d/m
Knowing and m, the distance d can be determined.

This is the method used to redefine meter scale in terms of wavelength of

highly stable cadmium red light having wavelength cd = 6438.4696 Ao .
Standard meter has been redefined by BIPM as 1553164.13 cd

CIRCULAR FRINGES SEEN AT DIFFERENT SEPARATION OF IMAGES

(a) m = 1000 (b) m = 500 From (b) to (c) 2 d = 499.5 (d) d = 0

Note: Just a movement of 0.15 m which is /4 causes the pattern to
change from (b) to (c). Central dark circle changes to bright.

2. Resolution of spectral lines.

S gives out a light consisting of two wavelengths 1 and 2 (1> 2) which differ
slightly.
Each wavelength gives rise to its own system of fringes.
Due to superposition, the fringes become distinct and indistinct in the field of view
depending upon they exactly overlap each other or they complement each other.
At the position of maximum a bright fringe of one system falls over a bright fringe of
the other system and at the position of minimum a bright fringe of one system falls
over the dark fringe of the other system.
The position of the movable mirror is recorded when the centre of maximum is on the
cross-wires.
On moving the mirror the visibility decreases, become almost zero and again
improves till the centre of next maximum is brought on the cross-wires. The position
of the mirror is recorded again.

If d be the distance through which the mirror is moved for two successive
positions of the maximum distinctness (or indistinctness), the corresponding
path difference is 2d. Suppose m is the number of fringes of wavelength 1,
lying in this path, then (m+1) would be the number of fringes of wavelength 2
covering the same path.
Thus
2d = m 1
also 2d = (m+1) 2

which gives m= 2d / 1 and m+1 = 2d/ 2

Therefore (2d/ 1) - (2d/ 2) =1
or 2d {(1/ 1) (1/ 2)} =1
or 1 - 2 = 1 2 /2d
or = 1 2 /2d = 2/2d = 2d/m2

where = (1+ 2 )/2

Thus wavelength resolution of two very close spectral lines can be determined
by counting the number of fringes between positions of maximum successive
distinctness and the distance through which the mirror is moved.