Bi 1 : Cu Trc Ca Mt Chng Trnh C++

C l mt trong nhng cch tt nht bt u hc mt ngn ng lp trnh l bng mt

chng trnh. Vy y l chng trnh u tin ca chng ta :

// my first program in C++ Hello World!

#include <iostream.h>

int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}

Chng trnh trn y l chng trnh u tin m hu ht nhng ngi hc ngh lp

trnh vit u tin v kt qu ca n l vit cu "Hello, World" ln mn hnh. y l mt
trong nhng chng trnh n gin nht c th vit bng C++ nhng n bao gm
nhng phn c bn m mi chng trnh C++ c. Hy cng xem xt tng dng mt :

// my first program in C++

y l dng ch thch. Tt c cc dng bt u bng hai du s (//) c coi l cht thch

m chng khng c bt k mt nh hng no n hot ng ca chng trnh. Chng c
th c cc lp trnh vin dng gii thch hay bnh phm bn trong m ngun ca
chng trnh. Trong trng hp ny, dng ch thch l mt gii thch ngn gn nhng g
m chng trnh chng ta lm.

#include <iostream.h>
Cc cu bt u bng du (#) c dng cho preprocessor (ai dch h ti t ny vi).
Chng khng phi l nhng dng m thc hin nhng c dng bo hiu cho trnh
dch. y cu lnh #include <iostream.h> bo cho trnh dch bit cn phi
"include" th vin iostream. y l mt th vin vo ra c bn trong C++ v n phi
c "include" v n s c dng trong chng trnh. y l cch c in s dng
th vin iostream

int main ()
Dng ny tng ng vi phn bt u khai bo hm main. Hm main l im m tt c
cc chng trnh C++ bt u thc hin. N khng ph thuc vo v tr ca hm ny (
u, cui hay gia ca m ngun) m ni dung ca n lun c thc hin u tin khi
chng trnh bt u. Thm vo , do nguyn nhn ni trn, mi chng trnh C++ u
phi tn ti mt hm main.

Theo sau main l mt cp ngoc n bi v n l mt hm. Trong C++, tt c cc hm

m sau l mt cp ngoc n () th c ngha l n c th c hoc khng c tham s
(khng bt buc). Ni dung ca hm main tip ngay sau phn khai bo chnh thc c
bao trong cc ngoc nhn ( { } ) nh trong v d ca chng ta
cout << "Hello World";
Dng lnh ny lm vic quan trng nht ca chng trnh. cout l mt dng (stream)
output chun trong C++ c nh ngha trong th vin iostream v nhng g m dng
lnh ny lm l gi chui k t "Hello World" ra mn hnh.

Ch rng dng ny kt thc bng du chm phy ( ; ). K t ny c dng kt thc

mt lnh v bt buc phi c sau mi lnh trong chng trnh C++ ca bn (mt trong
nhng li ph bin nht ca nhng lp trnh vin C++ l qun mt du chm phy).

return 0;
Lnh return kt thc hm main v tr v m i sau n, trong trng hp ny l 0. y l
mt kt thc bnh thng ca mt chng trnh khng c mt li no trong qu trnh thc
hin. Nh bn s thy trong cc v d tip theo, y l mt cch ph bin nht kt thc
mt chng trnh C++.

Chng trnh c cu trc thnh nhng dng khc nhau n tr nn d c hn nhng

hon ton khng phi bt buc phi lm vy. V d, thay v vit

int main ()
{
cout << " Hello World ";
return 0;
}

ta c th vit

int main () { cout << " Hello World "; return 0; }

cng cho mt kt qu chnh xc nh nhau.

Trong C++, cc dng lnh c phn cch bng du chm phy ( ;). Vic chia chng
trnh thnh cc dng ch nhm cho n d c hn m thi.

Cc ch thch.
Cc ch thch c cc lp trnh vin s dng ghi ch hay m t trong cc phn ca
chng trnh. Trong C++ c hai cch ch thch

// Ch thch theo dng

/* Ch thch theo khi */

Ch thch theo dng bt u t cp du x (//) cho n cui dng. Ch thch theo khi
bt u bng /* v kt thc bng */ v c th bao gm nhiu dng. Chng ta s thm
cc ch thch cho chng trnh :

/* my second program in C++ Hello World! I'm a C++ program

with more comments */
#include <iostream.h>

int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World! ";
// says Hello World!
cout << "I'm a C++ program";
// says I'm a C++ program
return 0;
}
Nu bn vit cc ch thch trong chng trnh m khng s dng cc du //, /* hay */,
trnh dch s coi chng nh l cc lnh C++ v s hin th cc li.

Bi 1 : Cu Trc Ca Mt Chng Trnh C++

C l mt trong nhng cch tt nht bt u hc mt ngn ng lp trnh l bng mt

chng trnh. Vy y l chng trnh u tin ca chng ta :

// my first program in C++ Hello World!

#include <iostream.h>

int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}

Chng trnh trn y l chng trnh u tin m hu ht nhng ngi hc ngh lp

trnh vit u tin v kt qu ca n l vit cu "Hello, World" ln mn hnh. y l mt
trong nhng chng trnh n gin nht c th vit bng C++ nhng n bao gm
nhng phn c bn m mi chng trnh C++ c. Hy cng xem xt tng dng mt :

// my first program in C++

y l dng ch thch. Tt c cc dng bt u bng hai du s (//) c coi l cht thch

m chng khng c bt k mt nh hng no n hot ng ca chng trnh. Chng c
th c cc lp trnh vin dng gii thch hay bnh phm bn trong m ngun ca
chng trnh. Trong trng hp ny, dng ch thch l mt gii thch ngn gn nhng g
m chng trnh chng ta lm.

#include <iostream.h>
Cc cu bt u bng du (#) c dng cho preprocessor (ai dch h ti t ny vi).
Chng khng phi l nhng dng m thc hin nhng c dng bo hiu cho trnh
dch. y cu lnh #include <iostream.h> bo cho trnh dch bit cn phi
"include" th vin iostream. y l mt th vin vo ra c bn trong C++ v n phi
c "include" v n s c dng trong chng trnh. y l cch c in s dng
th vin iostream

int main ()
Dng ny tng ng vi phn bt u khai bo hm main. Hm main l im m tt c
cc chng trnh C++ bt u thc hin. N khng ph thuc vo v tr ca hm ny (
u, cui hay gia ca m ngun) m ni dung ca n lun c thc hin u tin khi
chng trnh bt u. Thm vo , do nguyn nhn ni trn, mi chng trnh C++ u
phi tn ti mt hm main.

Theo sau main l mt cp ngoc n bi v n l mt hm. Trong C++, tt c cc hm

m sau l mt cp ngoc n () th c ngha l n c th c hoc khng c tham s
(khng bt buc). Ni dung ca hm main tip ngay sau phn khai bo chnh thc c
bao trong cc ngoc nhn ( { } ) nh trong v d ca chng ta

cout << "Hello World";

Dng lnh ny lm vic quan trng nht ca chng trnh. cout l mt dng (stream)
output chun trong C++ c nh ngha trong th vin iostream v nhng g m dng
lnh ny lm l gi chui k t "Hello World" ra mn hnh.

Ch rng dng ny kt thc bng du chm phy ( ; ). K t ny c dng kt thc

mt lnh v bt buc phi c sau mi lnh trong chng trnh C++ ca bn (mt trong
nhng li ph bin nht ca nhng lp trnh vin C++ l qun mt du chm phy).

return 0;
Lnh return kt thc hm main v tr v m i sau n, trong trng hp ny l 0. y l
mt kt thc bnh thng ca mt chng trnh khng c mt li no trong qu trnh thc
hin. Nh bn s thy trong cc v d tip theo, y l mt cch ph bin nht kt thc
mt chng trnh C++.

Chng trnh c cu trc thnh nhng dng khc nhau n tr nn d c hn nhng

hon ton khng phi bt buc phi lm vy. V d, thay v vit

int main ()
{
cout << " Hello World ";
return 0;
}

ta c th vit

int main () { cout << " Hello World "; return 0; }

cng cho mt kt qu chnh xc nh nhau.

Trong C++, cc dng lnh c phn cch bng du chm phy ( ;). Vic chia chng
trnh thnh cc dng ch nhm cho n d c hn m thi.
Cc ch thch.
Cc ch thch c cc lp trnh vin s dng ghi ch hay m t trong cc phn ca
chng trnh. Trong C++ c hai cch ch thch

// Ch thch theo dng

/* Ch thch theo khi */

Ch thch theo dng bt u t cp du x (//) cho n cui dng. Ch thch theo khi
bt u bng /* v kt thc bng */ v c th bao gm nhiu dng. Chng ta s thm
cc ch thch cho chng trnh :

/* my second program in C++ Hello World! I'm a C++ program

with more comments */

#include <iostream.h>

int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World! ";
// says Hello World!
cout << "I'm a C++ program";
// says I'm a C++ program
return 0;
}
Nu bn vit cc ch thch trong chng trnh m khng s dng cc du //, /* hay */,
trnh dch s coi chng nh l cc lnh C++ v s hin th cc li.

Bi 3 : Cc Ton T

Qua bi trc chng ta bit n s tn ti ca cc bin v cc hng. Trong C++,

thao tc vi chng ta s dng cc ton t, l cc t kho v cc du khng c trong
bng ch ci nhng li c trn hu ht cc bn phm trn th gii. Hiu bit v chng l
rt quan trng v y l mt trong nhng thnh phn c bn ca ngn ng C++.

Ton t gn (=).

Ton t gn dng gn mt gi tr no cho mt bin

a = 5;

gn gi tr nguyn 5 cho bin a. V tri bt buc phi l mt bin cn v phi c

th l bt k hng, bin hay kt qu ca mt biu thc.

Cn phi nhn mnh rng ton t gn lun c thc hin t tri sang phi
v khng bao gi o ngc
 a = b;

gn gi tr ca bin a bng gi tr ang cha trong bin b. Ch rng

chng ta ch gn gi tr ca b cho a v s thay i ca b sau s khng
nh hng n gi tr ca a.

Mt thuc tnh ca ton t gn trong C++ gp phn gip n vt ln cc

ngn ng lp trnh khc l vic cho php v phi c th cha cc php gn
khc. V d:

a = 2 + (b = 5);

tng ng vi

b = 5;
a = 2 + b;

V vy biu thc sau cng hp l trong C++

a = b = c = 5;

gn gi tr 5 cho c ba bin a, b v c

Cc ton t s hc ( +, -, *, /, % )

Nm ton t s hc c h tr bi ngn ng l:

+ cng
- tr
* Nhn
/ Chia
% ly phn d (trong php chia)

Th t thc hin cc ton t ny cng ging nh chng c thc hin trong ton
hc. iu duy nht c v hi l i vi bn l php ly phn d, k hiu bng du
phn trm (%). y chnh l php ton ly phn d trong php chia hai s nguyn
vi nhau. V d, nu a = 11 % 3;, bin a s mang gi tr 2 v 11 = 3*3 +2.

Cc ton t gn phc hp (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=, |=)

Mt c tnh ca ngn ng C++ lm cho n ni ting l mt ngn ng sc tch

chnh l cc ton t gn phc hp cho php chnh sa gi tr ca mt bin vi mt
trong nhng ton t c bn sau:
 value += increase; tng ng vi value = value +
increase;
a -= 5; tng ng vi a = a - 5;
a /= b; tng ng vi a = a / b;
price *= units + 1; tng ng vi price = price *
(units + 1);

v tng t cho tt c cc ton t khc.

Tng v gim.

Mt v d khc ca vic tit kim khi vit m lnh l ton t tng (++) v gim
(--). Chng tng hoc gim gi tr cha trong mt bin i 1. Chng tng ng
vi +=1 hoc -=1. V vy, cc dng sau l tng ng:

a++;
a+=1;
a=a+1;

Mt tnh cht ca ton t ny l n c th l tin t hoc hu t, c ngha l c th

vit trc tn bin (++a) hoc sau (a++) v mc d trong hai biu thc rt n
gin n c cng ngha nhng trong cc thao tc khc khi m kt qu ca vic
tng hay gim c s dng trong mt biu thc th chng c th c mt khc
bit quan trng v ngha: Trong trng hp ton t c s dng nh l mt
tin t (++a) gi tr c tng trc khi biu thc c tnh v gi tr tng
c s dng trong biu thc; trong trng hp ngc li (a++) gi tr trong bin
a c tng sau khi tnh ton. Hy ch s khc bit :

V d 1 V d 2
B=3; B=3;
A=++B; A=B++;
// A is 4, B is 4 // A is 3, B is 4

Cc ton t quan h ( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )

c th so snh hai biu thc vi nhau chng ta c th s dng cc ton t quan

h. Theo chun ANSI-C++ th gi tr ca thao tc quan h ch c th l gi tr
logic - chng ch c th c gi tr true hoc false, tu theo biu thc kt qu l
ng hay sai.
 Sau y l cc ton t quan h bn c th s dng trong C++

== Bng
!= Khc
> Ln hn
< Nh hn
> = Ln hn hoc bng
< = Nh hn hoc bng

V d:

(7 == 5) s tr gi tr false
(6 >= 6) s tr gi tr true
tt nhin thay v s dng cc s, chng ta c th s dng bt c biu thc
no. Cho a=2, b=3 v c=6
(a*b >= c) s tr gi tr true.
(b+4 < a*c) s tr gi tr false

Cn ch rng = (mt du bng) lf hon ton khc vi == (hai du bng). Du

u tin l mt ton t gn ( gn gi tr ca biu thc bn phi cho bin bn tri)
v du cn li (==) l mt ton t quan h nhm so snh xem hai biu thc c
bng nhau hay khng.

Trong nhiu trnh dch c trc chun ANSI-C++ cng nh trong ngn ng C, cc
ton t quan h khng tr v gi tr logic true hoc false m tr v gi tr int vi 0
tng ng vi false cn gi tr khc 0 (thng l 1) th tng ng vi true.

Cc ton t logic ( !, &&, || ).

Ton t ! tng ng vi ton t logic NOT, n ch c mt i s pha bn

phi v vic duy nht m n lm l i ngc gi tr ca i s t true sang false
hoc ngc li. V d:

!(5 == 5) tr v false v biu thc bn phi (5 == 5) c gi trtrue.

!(6 <= 4) tr v true v (6 <= 4)c gi tr false.
!true tr v false.
!false tr v true.
 Ton t logic && v || c s dng khi tnh ton hai biu thc ly ra mt kt
qu duy nht. Chng tng ng vi cc ton t logic AND v OR. Kt qu ca
chng ph thuc vo mi quan h ca hai i s:

i s th nht i s th hai Kt qu Kt qu
a b a && b a || b

true True true true

true False false true
false True false true
false False false false

V d:

( (5 == 5) && (3 > 6) ) tr v false ( true && false ).

( (5 == 5) || (3 > 6)) tr v true ( true || false ).

Ton t iu kin ( ? ).

Ton t iu kin tnh ton mt biu thc v tr v mt gi tr khc tu thuc vo

biu thc l ng hay sai. Cu trc ca n nh sau:

condition ? result1 : result2

Nu condition l true th gi tr tr v s l result1, nu khng gi tr tr v l

result2.

7==5 ? 4 : 3 tr v 3 v 7 khng bng 5.

7==5+2 ? 4 : 3 tr v 4 v 7 bng 5+2.
5>3 ? a : b tr v a, v 5 ln hn 3.
a>b ? a : b tr v gi tr ln hn, a hoc b.

Cc ton t thao tc bit ( &, |, ^, ~, <<, >> ).

Cc ton t thao tc bit thay i cc bit biu din mt bin, c ngha l thay i
biu din nh phn ca chng

ton t asm M t
& AND Logical AND
| OR Logical OR
^ XOR Logical exclusive OR
 ~ NOT o ngc bit
<< SHL Dch bit sang tri
>> SHR Dch bit sang phi

Cc ton t chuyn i kiu

Cc ton t chuyn i kiu cho php bn chuyn i d liu t kiu ny sang

kiu khc. C vi cch lm vic ny trong C++, cch c bn nht c tha k
t ngn ng C l t trc biu thc cn chuyn i tn kiu d liu c bc
trong cp ngoc n (), v d:

int i;
float f = 3.14;
i = (int) f;

on m trn chuyn s thp phn 3.14 sang mt s nguyn (3). y, ton t

chuyn i kiu l (int). Mt cch khc lm iu ny trong C++ l s dng cc
constructors ( mt s sch thut ng ny c dch l cu t nhng ti thy n
c v khng xui tai lm) thay v dng cc ton t : t trc biu thc cn
chuyn i kiu tn kiu mi v bao bc biu thc gia mt cp ngoc n.

i = int ( f );

C hai cch chuyn i kiu u hp l trong C++. Thm vo ANSI-C++ cn

c nhng ton t chuyn i kiu mi c trng cho lp trnh hng i tng.

sizeof()

Ton t ny c mt tham s, c th l mt kiu d liu hay l mt bin v tr

v kch c bng byte ca kiu hay i tng .

a = sizeof (char);

a s mang gi tr 1 v kiu char lun c kch c 1 byte trn mi h thng. Gi tr

tr v ca sizeof l mt hng s v vy n lun lun c tnh trc khi chng
trnh thc hin.

Cc ton t khc
 Trong C++ cn c mt s cc ton t khc, nh cc ton t lin quan n con tr
hay lp trnh hng i tng. Chng s c ni n c th trong cc phn
tng ng.

Th t u tin ca cc ton t
Khi vit cc biu thc phc tp vi nhiu ton hng cc bn c th t hi ton hng no
c tnh trc, ton hng no c tnh sau. V d nh trong biu thc sau:

a = 5 + 7 % 2

c th c hai cch hiu sau:

a = 5 + (7 % 2) vi kt qu l 6, hoc
a = (5 + 7) % 2 vi kt qu l 0

Cu tr li ng l biu thc u tin. V nguyn nhn ni trn, ngn ng C++ thit

lp mt th t u tin gia cc ton t, khng ch ring cc ton t s hc m tt c cc
ton t c th xut hin trong C++. Th t u tin ca chng c lit k trong bng sau
theo th t t cao xung thp.

Th t Ton t M t Associativity
1 :: scope Tri
2 () [ ] -> . sizeof Tri
++ -- tng/gim
~ o ngc bit
! NOT
3 Phi
& * Ton t con tr
(type) Chuyn i kiu
+ - Dng hoc m
4 * / % Ton t s hc Tri
5 + - Ton t s hc Tri
6 << >> Dch bit Tri
7 < <= > >= Ton t quan h Tri
8 == != Ton t quan h Tri
9 & ^ | Ton t thao tc bit Tri
10 && || Ton t logic Tri
11 ?: Ton t iu kin Phi
12 = += -= *= /= %= Ton t gn Phi
 >>= <<= &= ^= |=
13 , Du phy Tri

Associativity nh ngha trong trng hp c mt vi ton t c cng th t u tin th ci

no s c tnh trc, ton t pha xa nht bn phi hay l xa nht bn tri.

Nu bn mun vit mt biu thc phc tp m li khng chc lm v th t u tin ca

cc ton t th nn s dng cc ngoc n. Cc bn nn thc hin iu ny v n s gip
chng trnh d c hn.

Bi 4 : Cc Cu Trc iu Khin

Mt chng trnh thng khng ch bao gm cc lnh tun t ni tip nhau. Trong qu
trnh chy n c th r nhnh hay lp li mt on m no . lm iu ny chng ta
s dng cc cu trc iu khin.

Cng vi vic gii thiu cc cu trc iu khin chng ta cng s phi bit ti mt khi
nim mi: khi lnh, l mt nhm cc lnh c ngn cch bi du chm phy (;)
nhng c gp trong mt khi gii hn bi mt cp ngoc nhn: { v }.

Hu ht cc cu trc iu khin m chng ta s xem xt trong chng ny cho php s

dng mt lnh n hay mt khi lnh lm tham s, tu thuc vo chng ta c t n
trong cp ngoc nhn hay khng.

Cu trc iu kin: if v else

Cu trc ny c dng khi mt lnh hay mt khi lnh ch c thc hin khi mt iu
kin no tho mn. Dng ca n nh sau:

if (condition) statement

trong condition l biu thc s c tnh ton. Nu iu kin l true, statement

c thc hin. Nu khng statement b b qua (khng thc hin) v chng trnh tip
tc thc hin lnh tip sau cu trc iu kin.

V d, on m sau y s vit x is 100 ch khi bin x cha gi tr 100:

if (x == 100)
cout << "x is 100";

Nu chng ta mun c hn mt lnh c thc hin trong trng hp condition l true

chng ta c th ch nh mt khi lnh bng cch s dng mt cp ngoc nhn { }:

if (x == 100)
{
cout << "x is ";
 cout << x;
}

Chng ta cng c th ch nh iu g s xy ra nu iu kin khng c tho mn bng

cch su dng t kho else. N c s dng cng vi if nh sau:

if (condition) statement1 else statement2

V d:

if (x == 100)
cout << "x is 100";
else
cout << "x is not 100";

Cu trc if + else c th c mc ni kim tra nhiu gi tr. V d sau y s kim tra

xem gi tr cha trong bin x l dng, m hay bng khng.

if (x > 0)
cout << "x is positive";
else if (x < 0)
cout << "x is negative";
else
cout << "x is 0";

Cc cu trc lp
Mc ch ca cc vng lp l lp li mt thao tc vi mt s ln nht nh hoc trong khi
mt iu kin no cn tho mn.

Vng lp while .

Dng ca n nh sau:

while (expression) statement

v chc nng ca n n gin ch l lp li statement khi iu kin expression

cn tho mn.

V d, chng ta s vit mt chng trnh m ngc s dng vo lp while:

// custom countdown using while Enter the starting number > 8

#include <iostream.h> 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, FIRE!
int main ()
{
int n;
cout << "Enter the starting
number > ";
cin >> n;
 while (n>0) {
cout << n << ", ";
--n;
}
cout << "FIRE!";
return 0;
}

Khi chng trnh chy ngi s dng c yu cu nhp vo mt s m

ngc. Sau , khi vng lp while bt u nu s m ngi dng nhp vo tho
mn iu kin iu kin n>0 khi lnh s c thc hin mt s ln khng xc
nh chng no iu kin (n>0) cn c tho mn.

Chng ta cn phi nh rng vng lp phi kt thc mt im no , v

vy bn trong vng lp chng ta phi cung cp mt phng thc no
buc condition tr thnh sai nu khng th n s lp li mi mi. Trong
v d trn vng lp phi c lnh --n; lm cho condition tr thnh sai
sau mt s ln lp.

Vng lp do-while

Dng thc:

do statement while (condition);

Chc nng ca n l hon ton ging vng lp while ch tr c mt iu l iu

kin iu khin vng lp c tnh ton sau khi statement c thc hin, v
vy statement s c thc hin t nht mt ln ngay c khi condition khng
bao gi c tho mn. V d, chng trnh di y s vit ra bt k s no m
bn nhp vo cho n khi bn nhp s 0.

// number echoer Enter number (0 to end): 12345

#include <iostream.h> You entered: 12345
int main () Enter number (0 to end): 160277
{ You entered: 160277
unsigned long n; Enter number (0 to end): 0
do { You entered: 0
cout << "Enter number (0 to
end): ";
cin >> n;
cout << "You entered: " << n
<< "\n";
} while (n != 0);
return 0;
}

Vng lp do-while thng c dng khi iu kin kt thc vng lp nm

trong vng lp, nh trong v d trn, s m ngi dng nhp vo l iu kin
 kim tra kt thc vng lp. Nu bn khng nhp s 0 trong v d trn th vng
lp s khng bao gi chm dt.

Vng lp for .

Dng thc:

for (initialization; condition; increase) statement;

v chc nng chnh ca n l lp li statement chng no condition cn mang

gi tr ng, nh trong vng lp while. Nhng thm vo , for cung cp ch
dnh cho lnh khi to v lnh tng. V vy vng lp ny c thit k c bit
lp li mt hnh ng vi mt s ln xc nh.

Cch thc hot ng ca n nh sau:

1, initialization c thc hin. Ni chung n t mt gi kh ban u

cho bin iu khin. Lnh ny c thc hin ch mt ln.
2, condition c kim tra, nu n l ng vng lp tip tc cn nu
khng vng lp kt thc v statement c b qua.
3, statement c thc hin. N c th l mt lnh n hoc l mt khi
lnh c bao trong mt cp ngoc nhn.
4, Cui cng, increase c thc hin tng bin iu khin v vng
lp quay tr li bc 2.

Sau y l mt v d m ngc s dng vng for.

// countdown using a for loop 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,

#include <iostream.h> FIRE!
int main ()
{
for (int n=10; n>0; n--) {
cout << n << ", ";
}
cout << "FIRE!";
return 0;
}

Phn khi to v lnh tng khng bt buc phi c. Chng c th c b qua

nhng vn phi c du chm phy ngn cch gia cc phn. V vy, chng ta c
th vit for (;n<10;) hoc for (;n<10;n++).

Bng cch s dng du phy, chng ta c th dng nhiu lnh trong bt k

trng no trong vng for, nh l trong phn khi to. V d chng ta c
th khi to mt lc nhiu bin trong vng lp:

for ( n=0, i=100 ; n!=i ; n++, i-- )

{
 // ci g y cng c...
}

Vng lp ny s thc hin 50 ln nu nh n v i khng b thay i trong

thn vng lp:

Cc lnh r nhnh v lnh nhy

Lnh break.

S dng break chng ta c th thot khi vng lp ngay c khi iu kin n kt

thc cha c tho mn. Lnh ny c th c dng kt thc mt vng lp
khng xc nh hay buc n phi kt thc gia chng thay v kt thc mt cch
bnh thng. V d, chng ta s dng vic m ngc trc khi n kt thc:

// break loop example 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, countdown

#include <iostream.h> aborted!
int main ()
{
int n;
for (n=10; n>0; n--) {
cout << n << ", ";
if (n==3)
{
cout << "countdown
aborted!";
break;
}
}
return 0;
}

Lnh continue.

Lnh continue lm cho chng trnh b qua phn cn li ca vng lp v nhy

sang ln lp tip theo. V d chng ta s b qua s 5 trong phn m ngc:

// break loop example 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1,

#include <iostream.h> FIRE!
int main ()
{
for (int n=10; n>0; n--) {
if (n==5) continue;
cout << n << ", ";
}
 cout << "FIRE!";
return 0;
}

Lnh goto.

Lnh ny cho php nhy v iu kin ti bt k im no trong chng trnh. Ni

chung bn nn trnh dng n trong chng trnh C++. Tuy nhin chng ta vn c
mt v d dng lnh goto m ngc:

// goto loop example 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,

#include <iostream.h> FIRE!
int main ()
{
int n=10;
loop: ;
cout << n << ", ";
n--;
if (n>0) goto loop;
cout << "FIRE!";
return 0;
}

Hm exit.

Mc ch ca exit l kt thc chng trnh v tr v mt m xc nh. Dng thc

ca n nh sau

void exit (int exit code);

exit code c dng bi mt s h iu hnh hoc c th c dng bi cc

chng trnh gi. Theo quy c, m tr v 0 c ngha l chng trnh kt thc
bnh thng cn cc gi tr khc 0 c ngha l c li.

Cu trc la chn: switch.

C php ca lnh switch hi c bit mt cht. Mc ch ca n l kim tra mt vi gi
tr hng cho mt biu thc, tng t vi nhng g chng ta lm u bi ny khi lin kt
mt vi lnh if v else if vi nhau. Dng thc ca n nh sau:

switch (expression) {
case constant1:
block of instructions 1
break;
case constant2:
block of instructions 2
break;
.
.
 .
default:
default block of instructions
}

N hot ng theo cch sau: switch tnh biu thc v kim tra xem n c bng
constant1 hay khng, nu ng th n thc hin block of instructions 1 cho n
khi tm thy t kho break, sau nhy n phn cui ca cu trc la chn switch.
Cn nu khng, switch s kim tra xem biu thc c bng constant2 hay khng. Nu
ng n s thc hin block of instructions 2 cho n khi tm thy t kho break.
Cui cng, nu gi tr biu thc khng bng bt k hng no c ch nh trn (bn c
th ch nh bao nhiu cu lnh case tu thch), chng trnh s thc hin cc lnh trong
phn default: nu n tn ti v phn ny khng bt buc phi c.

Hai on m sau l tng ng:

v d switch if-else tng ng

switch (x) { if (x == 1) {
case 1: cout << "x is 1";
cout << "x is 1"; }
break; else if (x == 2) {
case 2: cout << "x is 2";
cout << "x is 2"; }
break; else {
default: cout << "value of x unknown";
cout << "value of x }
unknown";
}

Ti ni trn rng cu trc ca lnh switch hi c bit. Ch s tn ti ca lnh

break cui mi khi lnh. iu ny l cn thit v nu khng th sau khi thc hin
block of instructions 1 chng trnh s khng nhy n cui ca lnh switch m s
thc hin cc khi lnh tip theo cho n khi n tm thy lnh break u tin. iu ny
khin cho vic t cp ngoc nhn { } trong mi trng hp l khng cn thit v c th
c dng khi bn mun thc hin mt khi lnh cho nhiu trng hp khc nhau, v d:

switch (x) {
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
cout << "x is 1, 2 or 3";
break;
default:
cout << "x is not 1, 2 nor 3";
}

Ch rng lnh switch ch c th c dng so snh mt biu thc vi cc hng. V

vy chng ta khng th t cc bin (case (n*2):) hay cc khong (case (1..3):) v
chng khng phi l cc hng hp l.
style="BORDER-RIGHT: medium none; PADDING-RIGHT: 0cm; BORDER-TOP:
medium none; PADDING-LEFT: 0cm; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0cm; BORDER-LEFT:
medium none; PADDING-TOP: 0cm; BORDER-BOTTOM: windowtext 3pt solid">

Nu bn cn kim tra cc khong hay nhiu gi tr khng phi l hng s hy kt hp cc

lnh if v else if

Bi 5 : Hm (I)

Hm l mt khi lnh c thc hin khi n c gi t mt im khc ca chng

trnh. Dng thc ca n nh sau:

type name ( argument1, argument2, ...) statement

trong :
type l kiu d liu c tr v ca hm
name l tn gi ca hm.
arguments l cc tham s (c nhiu bao nhiu cng c tu theo nhu cu). Mt tham s
bao gm tn kiu d liu sau l tn ca tham s ging nh khi khai bo bin (v d
int x) v ng vai tr bn trong hm nh bt k bin no khc. Chng dng truyn
tham s cho hm khi n c gi. Cc tham s khc nhau c ngn cch bi cc du
phy.
statement l thn ca hm. N c th l mt lnh n hay mt khi lnh.

Di y l v d u tin v hm:

// function example The result is 8

#include <iostream.h>

int addition (int a, int b)

{
int r;
r=a+b;
return (r);
}

int main ()
{
int z;
z = addition (5,3);
cout << "The result is " << z;
return 0;
}

c th hiu c on m ny, trc ht hy nh li nhng iu ni bi u tin:

mt chng trnh C++ lun bt u thc hin t hm main. V vy chng ta bt u t
y.
Chng ta c th thy hm main bt u bng vic khai bo bin z kiu int. Ngay sau
l mt li gi ti hm addition. Nu chng ta s thy s tng t gia cu trc ca
li gi hm vi khai bo ca hm:

Cc tham s c vai tr tht r rng. Bn trong hm main chng ta gi hm addition v

truyn hai gi tr: 5 v 3 tng ng vi hai tham s int a v int b c khai bo cho
hm addition.

Vo thi im hm c gi t main, quyn iu khin c chuyn sang cho hm

addition. Gi tr ca c hai tham s (5 v 3) c copy sang hai bin cc b int a v
int b bn trong hm.

Dng lnh sau:

return (r);

kt thc hm addition, v tr li quyn iu khin cho hm no gi n (main) v tip

tc chng trnh ci im m n b ngt bi li gi n addition. Nhng thm vo ,
gi tr c dng vi lnh return (r) chnh l gi tr c tr v ca hm.\

Gi tr tr v bi mt hm chnh l gi tr ca hm khi n c tnh ton. V vy bin z s

c c gi tr c tr v bi addition (5, 3), l 8.

Phm vi hot ng ca cc bin [nhc li]

Bn cn nh rng phm vi hot ng ca cc bin khai bo trong mt hm hay bt k mt

khi lnh no khc ch l hm hay khi lnh v khng th s dng bn ngoi chng.
V d, trong chng trnh v d trn, bn khng th s dng trc tip cc bin a, b hay r
trong hm main v chng l cc bin cc b ca hm addition. Thm vo bn cng
khng th s dng bin z trc tip bn trong hm addition v n lm bin cc b ca
hm main.

Tuy nhin bn c th khai bo cc bin ton cc c th s dng chng bt k u, bn

trong hay bn ngoi bt k hm no. lm vic ny bn cn khai bo chng bn ngoi
mi hm hay cc khi lnh, c ngha l ngay trong thn chng trnh.

y l mt v d khc v hm:

// function example The first result is 5

#include <iostream.h> The second result is 5
The third result is 2
int subtraction (int a, int b) The fourth result is 6
{
int r;
r=a-b;
return (r);
}

int main ()
{
int x=5, y=3, z;
z = subtraction (7,2);
cout << "The first result is " <<
z << '\n';
cout << "The second result is "
<< subtraction (7,2) << '\n';
cout << "The third result is " <<
subtraction (x,y) << '\n';
z= 4 + subtraction (x,y);
cout << "The fourth result is "
<< z << '\n';
return 0;
}

Trong trng hp ny chng ta to ra hm subtraction. Chc nng ca hm ny l ly

hiu ca hai tham s ri tr v kt qu.

Tuy nhin, nu phn tch hm main cc bn s thy chng trnh vi ln gi n hm

subtraction. Ti s dng vi cch gi khc nhau cc bn thy cc cch khc nhau
m mt hm c th c gi.

c hiu cn k v d ny bn cn nh rng mt li gi n mt hm c th hon ton

c thay th bi gi tr ca n. V d trong lnh gi hm u tin :

z = subtraction (7,2);
cout << "The first result is " << z;

Nu chng ta thay li gi hm bng gi tr ca n ( l 5), chng ta s c:

z = 5;
cout << "The first result is " << z;

Tng t nh vy
 cout << "The second result is " << subtraction (7,2);

cng cho kt qu ging nh hai dng lnh trn nhng trong trng hp ny chng ta gi
hm subtraction trc tip nh l mt tham s ca cout. Chng ta cng c th vit:

cout << "The second result is " << 5;

v 5 l kt qu ca subtraction (7,2).

Cn vi lnh

cout << "The third result is " << subtraction (x,y);

iu mi m duy nht y l cc tham s ca subtraction l cc bin thay v cc

hng. iu ny l hon ton hp l. Trong trng hp ny gi tr c truyn cho hm
subtraction l gi tr ca x and y.

Trng hp th t cng hon ton tng t. Thay v vit

z = 4 + subtraction (x,y);

chng ta c th vit:

z = subtraction (x,y) + 4;

cng hon ton cho kt qu tng ng. Ch rng du chm phy c t cui
biu thc ch khng cn thit phi t ngay sau li gi hm.

Cc hm khng kiu. Cch s dng void.

Nu bn cn nh c php ca mt li khai bo hm:

type name ( argument1, argument2 ...) statement

bn s thy r rng rng n bt u vi mt tn kiu, l kiu d liu s c hm tr

v bi lnh return. Nhng nu chng ta khng mun tr v gi tr no th sao ?

Hy tng tng rng chng ta mun to ra mt hm ch hin th mt thng bo ln

mn hnh. N khng cn tr v mt gi tr no c, hn na cng khng cn nhn tham s
no ht. V vy ngi ta ngh ra kiu d liu void trong ngn ng C. Hy xem xt
chng trnh sau:

// void function example I'm a function!

#include <iostream.h>

void dummyfunction (void)

{
 cout << "I'm a function!";
}

int main ()
{
dummyfunction ();
return 0;
}

T kho void trong phn danh sch tham s c ngha l hm ny khng nhn mt tham
s no. Tuy nhin trong C++ khng cn thit phi s dng void lm iu ny. Bn ch
n gin s dng cp ngoc n ( ) l xong.

Bi v hm ca chng ta khng c mt tham s no, v vy li gi hm dummyfunction

s l :

dummyfunction ();

style="BORDER-RIGHT: medium none; PADDING-RIGHT: 0in; BORDER-TOP:

medium none; PADDING-LEFT: 0in; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0in; BORDER-LEFT:
medium none; PADDING-TOP: 0in; BORDER-BOTTOM: windowtext 3pt solid">

Hai du ngoc n l cn thit cho trnh dch hiu l mt li gi hm ch khng

phi l mt tn bin hay bt k du hiu no khc.

Bi 6 : Hm (II)

Truyn tham s theo tham s gi tr hay tham s bin.

Cho n nay, trong tt c cc hm chng ta bit, tt c cc tham s truyn cho hm u
c truyn theo gi tr. iu ny c ngha l khi chng ta gi hm vi cc tham s,
nhng g chng ta truyn cho hm l cc gi tr ch khng phi bn thn cc bin. V d,
gi s chng ta gi hm addition nh sau:

int x=5, y=3, z;

z = addition ( x , y );

Trong trng hp ny khi chng ta gi hm addition th cc gi tr 5 and 3 c truyn

cho hm, khng phi l bn thn cc bin.

n y cc bn c th hi ti: Nh vy th sao, c nh hng g u ? iu ng ni

y l khi cc bn thay i gi tr ca cc bin a hay b bn trong hm th cc bin x v y
vn khng thay i v chng u c c truyn cho hm ch c gi tr ca chng c
truyn m thi.

Hy xt trng hp bn cn thao tc vi mt bin ngoi bn trong mt hm. V vy bn

s phi truyn tham s di dng tham s bin nh trong hm duplicate trong v d
di y:

// passing parameters by reference x=2, y=6, z=14

#include <iostream.h>

void duplicate (int& a, int& b,

int& c)
{
a*=2;
b*=2;
c*=2;
}

int main ()
{
int x=1, y=3, z=7;
duplicate (x, y, z);
cout << "x=" << x << ", y=" << y
<< ", z=" << z;
return 0;
}

iu u tin lm bn ch l trong khai bo ca duplicate theo sau tn kiu ca mi

tham s u l du v (&), bo hiu rng cc tham s ny c truyn theo tham s
bin ch khng phi tham s gi tr.

Khi truyn tham s di dng tham s bin chng ta ang truyn bn thn bin v bt
k s thay i no m chng ta thc hin vi tham s bn trong hm s nh hng trc
tip n bin .

Trong v d trn, chng ta lin kt a, b v c vi cc tham s khi gi hm (x, y v z) v

mi s thay i vi a bn trong hm s nh hng n gi tr ca x v hon ton tng t
vi b v y, c v z.

Kiu khai bo tham s theo dng tham s bin s dng du v (&) ch c trong C++.
Trong ngn ng C chng ta phi s dng con tr lm vic tng t nh th.

Truyn tham s di dng tham s bin cho php mt hm tr v nhiu hn mt gi tr.

V d, y l mt hm tr v s lin trc v lin sau ca tham s u tin.
// more than one returning value Previous=99, Next=101
#include <iostream.h>

void prevnext (int x, int& prev,

int& next)
{
prev = x-1;
next = x+1;
}

int main ()
{
int x=100, y, z;
prevnext (x, y, z);
cout << "Previous=" << y << ",
Next=" << z;
return 0;
}

Gi tr mc nh ca tham s.
Khi nh ngha mt hm chng ta c th ch nh nhng gi tr mc nh s c truyn
cho cc i s trong trng hp chng b b qua khi hm c gi. lm vic ny n
gin ch cn gn mt gi tr cho i s khi khai bo hm. Nu gi tr ca tham s vn
c ch nh khi gi hm th gi tr mc nh s b b qua. V d:

// default values in functions 6

#include <iostream.h> 5

int divide (int a, int b=2)

{
int r;
r=a/b;
return (r);
}

int main ()
{
cout << divide (12);
cout << endl;
cout << divide (20,4);
return 0;
}

Nhng chng ta thy trong thn chng trnh, c hai li gi hm divide. Trong lnh u
tin:

divide (12)
chng ta ch dng mt tham s nhng hm divide cho php n hai. Bi vy hm
divide s t cho tham s th hai gi tr bng 2 v l gi tr mc nh ca n (ch
phn khai bo hm c kt thc bi int b=2). V vy kt qu s l 6 (12/2).

Trong lnh th hai:

divide (20,4)

c hai tham s, bi vy gi tr mc nh s c b qua. Kt qu ca hm s l 5 (20/4).

Qu ti cc hm.
Hai hm c th c cng tn nu khai bo tham s ca chng khc nhau, iu ny c ngha
l bn c th t cng mt tn cho nhiu hm nu chng c s tham s khc nhau hay
kiu d liu ca cc tham s khc nhau (hay thm ch l kiu d liu tr v khc nhau).
V d:

// overloaded function 2
#include <iostream.h> 2.5

int divide (int a, int b)

{
return (a/b);
}

float divide (float a, float b)

{
return (a/b);
}

int main ()
{
int x=5,y=2;
float n=5.0,m=2.0;
cout << divide (x,y);
cout << "\n";
cout << divide (n,m);
return 0;
}

Trong v d ny chng ta nh ngha hai hm c cng tn nhng mt hm dng hai tham

s kiu int v hm cn li dng kiu float. Trnh bin dch s bit cn phi gi hm no
bng cch phn tch kiu tham s khi hm c gi.

n gin ti vit c hai hm u c m lnh nh nhau nhng iu ny khng bt buc.

Bn c th xy dng hai hm c cng tn nhng hot ng hon ton khc nhau.

Cc hm inline.
Ch th inline c th c t trc khao bo ca mt hm ch r rng li gi hm s
c thay th bng m lnh ca hm khi chng trnh c dch. Vic ny tng ng
vi vic khai bo mt macro, li ch ca n ch th hin vi cc hm rt ngn, tc
chy chng trnh s c ci thin v n khng phi gi mt th tc con.

Cu trc ca n nh sau:

inline type name ( arguments ... ) { instructions ... }

li gi hm cng nh bt k mt hm no khc. Khng cn thit phi t t kho inline
trong lnh gi, ch cn trong li khai bo hm l .

qui.
Cc hm c th gi chnh n. iu ny c th c ch vi mt s tc v nh l mt s
phng php sp xp hay tnh giai tha ca mt s. V d, tnh giai tha ca mt s
(n), cng thc ton hc ca n nh sau:

n! = n * (n-1) * (n-2) * (n-3) ... * 1

v mt hm qui tnh ton s nh sau:

// factorial calculator Type a number: 9

#include <iostream.h> !9 = 362880

long factorial (long a)

{
if (a > 1)
return (a * factorial (a-1));
else
return (1);
}

int main ()
{
long l;
cout << "Type a number: ";
cin >> l;
cout << "!" << l << " = " <<
factorial (l);
return 0;
}

Ch trong hm factorial chng ta c th lnh gi chnh n nhng ch khi tham s ln

hn 1, nu khng th hm s thc hin mt vng lp v hn v sau khi n 0 n s tip tc
nhn c nhng s m.

Hm ny c mt hn ch l kiu d liu m n dng (long) khng cho php tnh giai

tha qu 12!.
Khai bo mu cho hm.
Cho n gi chng ta hon ton phi nh ngha hm trc lnh gi u tin n n, m
thng l trong main, v vy hm main lun phi nm cui chng trnh. Nu bn th lp
li mt vi v d v hm trc y nhng th t hm main trc bt k mt hm c
gi t n, bn gn nh chc chn s nhn c thng bo li. Nguyn nhn l mt hm
phi c khai bo trc khi n c gi nh nhnggx g chng ta lm trng tt c cc
v d.

Nhng c mt cch khc trnh phi vit tt c m chng trnh trc khi chng c th
c dng trong main hay bt k mt hm no khc. chnh l khai bo mu cho hm.
Cch ny bao gm vic khai bo hm mt cch ngn gn nhng cho trnh dch c
th bit cc tham s v kiu d liu tr v ca hm.

Dng ca n nh sau:

type name ( argument_type1, argument_type2, ...);

y chnh l phn u ca nh ngha hm, ngoi tr:

N khng c bt k lnh no cho hm. iu ny c ngha l n khng bao gm

thn hm vi tt c cc lnh thng c bc trong cp ngoc nhn { }.
N kt thc bng du chm phy (;).
Trong phn lit k cc tham s ch cn vit kiu ca chng l . Vic vit tn ca
cc tham s trong phn khai bo mu l khng bt buc.

V d:

// prototyping Type a number (0 to exit): 9

#include <iostream.h> Number is odd.
Type a number (0 to exit): 6
void odd (int a); Number is even.
void even (int a); Type a number (0 to exit): 1030
Number is even.
int main () Type a number (0 to exit): 0
{ Number is even.
int i;
do {
cout << "Type a number: (0 to
exit)";
cin >> i;
odd (i);
} while (i!=0);
return 0;
}

void odd (int a)

{
if ((a%2)!=0) cout << "Number is
odd.\n";
else even (a);
}

void even (int a)

{
if ((a%2)==0) cout << "Number is
even.\n";
else odd (a);
}

V d ny r rng khng phi l mt v d v s hiu qu. Ti chc chn rng cc bn c

th nhn c kt qu nh trn ch vi mt na s dng lnh. Tuy nhin n gip cho
chng ta thy c vic khai bo mu cc hm l nh th no. Hn na, trong v d ny
vic khai bo mu t nht mt hm l bt buc.

u tin chng ta thy khai bo mu ca hai hm odd v even:

void odd (int a);

void even (int a);

cho php hai hm ny c th c s dng trc khi chng c nh ngha hon chnh.
Tuy nhin l do c bit gii thch ti sao chng trnh ny li cn t nht mt hm phi
c khi bo mu l trong odd c mt li gi n even v trong even c mt li gi n
odd. V vy nu khng c hm no c khai bo trc th li chc chn s xy ra.

style="BORDER-RIGHT: medium none; PADDING-RIGHT: 0in; BORDER-TOP:

medium none; PADDING-LEFT: 0in; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0in; BORDER-LEFT:
medium none; PADDING-TOP: 0in; BORDER-BOTTOM: windowtext 3pt solid">

Rt nhiu lp trnh vin kinh nghim khuyn rng tt c cc hm nn c khai bo mu.

cng l li khuyn ca ti, nht l trong trng hp c nhiu hm hoc chng rt di,
khi vic khai bo tt c cc hm cng mt ch cho php chng ta bit phi gi cc
hm nh th no, v vy tit kim c thi gian.

Bi 7 : Mng

Mng l mt dy cc phn t c cng kiu c t lin tip trong b nh v c th truy

xut n tng phn t bng cch thm mt ch s vo sau tn ca mng.

iu ny c ngha l, v d, chng ta c th lu 5 gi tr kiu int m khng cn phi khai

bo 5 bin khc nhau.V d, mt mng cha 5 gi tr nguyn kiu int c tn l billy c
th c biu din nh sau:
trong mi mt trng biu din mt phn t ca mng, trong trng hp ny l cc
gi tr nguyn kiu int. Chng c nh s t 0 n 4 v phn t u tin ca mng
lun l 0 bt k di ca n l bao nhiu.

Nh bt k bin no khc, mt mng phi c khai bo trc khi c th s dng. Mt

khai bo in hnh cho mt mng trong C++ nh sau:

type name [elements];

trong type l mt kiu d liu hp l (int, float...), name l mt tn bin hp l v

trng elements ch nh mng s cha bao nhiu phn t

V vy, khai bo billy nh trnh by trn chng ta ch cn mt dng n gin nh

sau:

int billy [5];

Ch : Trng elements bn trong cp ngoc [] phi l mt gi tr hng khi khai bo mt

mng, v mng l mt khi nh tnh c kch c xc nh v trnh bin dch phi c kh
nng xc nh xem cn bao nhiu b nh cp pht cho mng trc khi cc lnh c th
c thc hin.

Khi to mt mng.
Khi khai bo mt mng vi tm hot ng a phng (trong mt hm), theo mc nh n
s khng c khi to, v vy ni dung ca n l khng xc nh cho n khi chng ra
lu cc gi tr ln .

Nu chng ta khai bo mt mng ton cc (bn ngoi tt c cc hm) n s c khi to

v tt c cc phn t c t bng 0. V vy nu chng ta khai bo mng ton cc:

int billy [5];

mi phn t ca billy s c khi to l 0:

Nhng thm vo , khi chng ta khai bo mt mng, chng ta c th gn cc gi tr khi
to cho tng phn t ca n. V d:

int billy [5] = { 16, 2, 77, 40, 12071 };

lnh trn s khai bo mt mng nh sau:

S phn t trong mng m chng ta khi to vi cp ngoc nhn { } phi bng s phn
t ca mng c khai bo vi cp ngoc vung [ ]. Bi v iu ny c th c coi
l mt s lp li khng cn thit nn C++ cho php trng gia cp ngoc vung, kch
thc ca mng c xc nh bng s gi tr gia cp ngoc nhn.

Truy xut n cc phn t ca mng.

bt k im no ca chng trnh trong tm hot ng ca mng, chng ta c th truy
xut tng phn t ca mng c hay chnh sa nh l i vi mt bin bnh thng.
Cu trc ca n nh sau:

name[index]

Nh trong v d trc ta c mng billy gm 5 phn t c kiu int, chng ta c th truy

xut n tng phn t ca mng nh sau:

V d, lu gi tr 75 vo phn t th ba ca billy ta vit nh sau:

billy[2] = 75;
v, v d, gn gi tr ca phn t th 3 ca billy cho bin a, chng ta vit:

a = billy[2];

V vy, xt v mi phng din, biu thc billy[2] ging nh bt k mt bin kiu int.

Ch rng phn t th ba ca billy l billy[2], v mng bt u t ch s 0. V vy,

phn t cui cng s l billy[4]. V vy nu chng ta vit billy[5], chng ta s truy
xut n phn t th 6 ca mng v vt qu gii hn ca mng.

Trong C++, vic vt qu gii hn ch s ca mng l hon ton hp l, tuy nhin n c

th gy ra nhng vn thc s kh pht hin bi v chng khng to ra nhng li trong
qu trnh dch nhng chng c th to ra nhng kt qu khng mong mun trong qu
trnh thc hin. Nguyn nhn ca vic ny s c ni n k hn khi chng ta bt u s
dng con tr.

Cn phi nhn mnh rng chng ta s dng cp ngoc vung cho hai tc v: u tin l
t kch thc cho mng khi khai bo chng v th hai, ch nh ch s cho mt phn
t c th ca mng khi xem xt n n.

int billy[5]; // khai bo mt mng mi.

billy[2] = 75; // truy xut n mt phn t ca
mng.

Mt vi thao tc hp l khc vi mng:

billy[0] = a;
billy[a] = 75;
b = billy [a+2];
billy[billy[a]] = billy[2] + 5;

// v d v mng 12206
#include <iostream.h>

int billy [] = {16, 2, 77, 40,

12071};
int n, result=0;

int main ()
{
for ( n=0 ; n<5 ; n++ )
{
result += billy[n];
}
cout << result;
return 0;
}

Mng nhiu chiu.

Mng nhiu chiu c th c coi nh mng ca mng, v d, mt mng hai chiu c th
c tng tc nh l mt bng hai chiu gm cc phn t c kiu d liu c th v
ging nhau.

jimmy biu din mt mng hai chiu kch thc 3x5 c kiu int. Cch khai bo mng
ny nh sau:

int jimmy [3][5];

v, v d, cch truy xut n phn t th hai theo chiu dc v th t theo chiu ngang
trong mt biu thc nh sau:

jimmy[1][3]

(hy nh rng ch s ca mng lun bt u t 0).

Mng nhiu chiu khng b gii hn bi hai ch s (hai chiu), Chng c th cha bao
nhiu ch s ty thch mc d t kh cn phi dng n mng ln hn 3 chiu. Hy th
xem xt lng b nh m mt mng c nhiu ch s cn n. V d:

char century [100][365][24][60][60];

gn mt gi tr char cho mi giy trong mt th k, phi cn n hn 3 t gi tr chars!

Chng ta s phi cn khong 3GB RAM khai bo n.

Mng nhiu chiu thc ra l mt khi nim tru tng v chng ta c th c kt qu

tng t vi mng mt chiu bng mt thao tc n gin gia cc ch s ca n:

int jimmy [3][5]; tng ng vi

int jimmy [15]; (3 * 5 = 15)

Di y l hai v d vi cng mt kt qu nh nhau, mt s dng mng hai chiu v

mt s dng mng mt chiu:

// multidimensional array // pseudo-multidimensional array

#include <iostream.h> #include <iostream.h>

#define WIDTH 5 #define WIDTH 5

#define HEIGHT 3 #define HEIGHT 3

int jimmy [HEIGHT][WIDTH]; int jimmy [HEIGHT * WIDTH];

int n,m; int n,m;

int main () int main ()

{ {
for (n=0;n<HEIGHT;n++) for (n=0;n<HEIGHT;n++)
for (m=0;m<WIDTH;m++) for (m=0;m<WIDTH;m++)
{ {
jimmy[n][m]=(n+1)*(m+1); jimmy[n * WIDTH +
} m]=(n+1)*(m+1);
return 0; }
} return 0;
}

khng mt chng trnh no vit g ra mn hnh nhng c hai u gn gi tr vo khi

nh c tn jimmy theo cch sau:

Chng ta nh ngha hng (#define) n gin ha nhng chnh sa sau ny ca

chng trnh, v d, trong trng hp chng ta quyt nh tng kch thc ca mng vi
chiu cao l 4 thay v l 3, chng ta ch cn thay i dng:

#define HEIGHT 3

thnh

#define HEIGHT 4

v khng phi c thm s thay i no na i vi chng trnh.

Dng mng lm tham s.

Vo mt lc no c th chng ta cn phi truyn mt mng ti mt hm nh l mt
tham s. Trong C++, vic truyn theo tham s gi tr mt khi nh l khng hp l, ngay
c khi n c t chc thnh mt mng. Tuy nhin chng ta li c php truyn a ch
ca n, vic ny cng to ra kt qu thc t ging thao tc trn nhng li nhanh hn
nhiu v hiu qu hn.
 c th nhn mng l tham s th iu duy nht chng ta phi lm khi khai bo hm l
ch nh trong phn tham s kiu d liu c bn ca mng, tn mng v cp ngoc vung
trng. V d, hm sau:

void procedure (int arg[])

nhn vo mt tham s c kiu "mng ca char" v c tn arg. truyn tham s cho

hm ny mt mng c khai bo:

int myarray [40];

ch cn gi hm nh sau:

procedure (myarray);

Di y l mt v d c th

// arrays as parameters 5 10 15
#include <iostream.h> 2 4 6 8 10

void printarray (int arg[], int

length) {
for (int n=0; n<length; n++)
cout << arg[n] << " ";
cout << "\n";
}

int main ()
{
int firstarray[] = {5, 10, 15};
int secondarray[] = {2, 4, 6, 8,
10};
printarray (firstarray,3);
printarray (secondarray,5);
return 0;
}

Nh bn c th thy, tham s u tin (int arg[]) chp nhn mi mng c kiu c bn

l int, bt k di ca n l bao nhiu, v vy cn thit phi c tham s th hai bo
cho hm ny bit di ca mng m chng ta truyn cho n.

Trong phn khai bo hm chng ta cng c th dng tham s l cc mng nhiu chiu.
Cu trc ca mng 3 chiu nh sau:

base_type[][depth][depth]

v d, mt hm vi tham s l mng nhiu chiu c th nh sau:

void procedure (int myarray[][3][4])

ch rng cp ngoc vung u tin trng nhng cc cp ngoc sau th khng. Bn
lun lun phi lm vy v trnh bin dch C++ phi c kh nng xc nh ln ca cc
chiu thm vo ca mng.

style="BORDER-RIGHT: medium none; PADDING-RIGHT: 0in; BORDER-TOP:

medium none; PADDING-LEFT: 0in; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0in; BORDER-LEFT:
medium none; PADDING-TOP: 0in; BORDER-BOTTOM: windowtext 3pt solid">

Mng, c mt chiu v nhiu chiu, khi truyn cho hm nh l mt tham s thng l

nguyn nhn gy li cho nhng lp trnh vin thiu kinh nghim. Cc bn nn c bi
3.3. Con tr c th hiu r hn mng hot ng nh th no.

Bi 8 : Xu K T

Trong tt c cc chng trnh chng ta thy cho n gi, chng ta ch s dng cc bin
kiu s, ch dng biu din cc s. Nhng bn cnh cc bin kiu s cn c cc xu k
t, chng cho php chng ta biu din cc chui k t nh l cc t, cu, on vn bn...
Cho n gi chng ta mi ch dng chng di dng hng ch cha quan tm n cc
bin c th cha chng.

Trong C++ khng c kiu d liu c bn lu cc xu k t. c th tha mn nhu

cu ny, ngi ta s dng mng c kiu char. Hy nh rng kiu d liu ny (char) ch
c th lu tr mt k t n, bi vy n c dng to ra xu ca cc k t n.

V d, mng sau (hay l xu k t):

char jenny [20];

c th lu mt xu k t vi di cc i l 20 k t. Bn c th tng tng n nh
sau:

Kch thc cc i ny khng cn phi lun lun dng n. V d, jenny c th lu xu

"Hello" hay "Merry christmas". V cc mng k t c th lu cc xu k t ngn hn
di ca n, trong C++ c mt quy c kt thc mt ni dung ca mt xu k t
bng mt k t null, c th c vit l '\0'.

Chng ta c th biu din jenny (mt mng c 20 phn t kiu char) khi lu tr xu k
t "Hello" v "Merry Christmas" theo cch sau:
Ch rng sau ni dung ca xu, mt k t null ('\0') c dng bo hiu kt thc
xu. Nhng mu xm biu din nhng gi tr khng xc nh.

Khi to cc xu k t.
V nhng xu k t l nhng mng bnh thng nn chng cng nh cc mng khc. V
d, nu chng ta mun khi to mt xu k t vi nhng gi tr xc nh chng ta c th
lm iu tng t nh vi cc mng khc:

char mystring[] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

Tuy nhin, chng ta c th khi to gi tr cho mt xu k t bng cch khc: s dng cc

hng xu k t.

Trong cc biu thc chng ta s dng trong cc v d trong cc chng trc cc hng
xu k t xut hin vi ln. Chng c biu din trong cp ngoc kp ("), v d:

"the result is: "

l mt hng xu k t chng ta s dng mt s ch.

Khng ging nh du nhy n (') cho php biu din hng k t, cp ngoc kp (") l
hng biu din mt chui k t lin tip, v cui chui mt k t null ('\0') lun c
t ng thm vo.

V vy chng ta c th khi to xu mystring theo mt trong hai cch sau y:

char mystring [] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

char mystring [] = "Hello";

Trong c hai trng hp mng (hay xu k t) mystring c khai bo vi kch thc 6

k t: 5 k t biu din Hello cng vi mt k t null.

Trc khi tip tc, ti cn phi nhc nh bn rng vic gn nhiu hng nh vic s dng
du ngoc kp (") ch hp l khi khi to mng, tc l lc khai bo mng. Cc biu thc
trong chng trnh nh:

mystring = "Hello";
mystring[] = "Hello";

l khng hp l, c cu lnh di y cng vy:

 mystring = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

Vy hy nh: Chng ta ch c th "gn" nhiu hng cho mt mng vo lc khi to n.

Nguyn nhn l mt thao tc gn (=) khng th nhn v tri l c mt mng m ch c th
nhn mt trong nhng phn t ca n. Vo thi im khi to mng l mt trng hp
c bit, v n khng thc s l mt lnh gn mc d n s dng du bng (=).

Gn gi tr cho xu k t
V v tri ca mt lnh gn ch c th l mt phn t ca mng ch khng th l c mng,
chng ta c th gn mt xu k t cho mt mng kiu char s dng mt phng php
nh sau:

mystring[0] = 'H';
mystring[1] = 'e';
mystring[2] = 'l';
mystring[3] = 'l';
mystring[4] = 'o';
mystring[5] = '\0';

Nhng r rng y khng phi l mt phng php thc t. gn gi tr cho mt xu k

t, chng ta c th s dng lot hm kiu strcpy (string copy), hm ny c nh
ngha trong string.h v c th c gi nh sau:

strcpy (string1, string2);

Lnh ny copy ni dung ca string2 sang string1. string2 c th l mt mng, con

tr hay mt hng xu k t, bi vy lnh sau y l mt cch ng gn xu hng
"Hello" cho mystring:

strcpy (mystring, "Hello");

V d:

// setting value to string J. Soulie

#include <iostream.h>
#include <string.h>

int main ()
{
char szMyName [20];
strcpy (szMyName,"J. Soulie");
cout << szMyName;
return 0;
}

rng chng ta phi include file <string.h> c th s dng hm strcpy.

Mc d chng ta lun c th vit mt hm n gin nh hm setstring di y
thc hin mt thao tc ging nh strcpy:

// setting value to string J. Soulie

#include <iostream.h>

void setstring (char szOut [], char

szIn [])
{
int n=0;
do {
szOut[n] = szIn[n];
n++;
} while (szIn[n] != 0);
}

int main ()
{
char szMyName [20];
setstring (szMyName,"J. Soulie");
cout << szMyName;
return 0;
}

Mt phng thc thng dng khc gn gi tr cho mt mng l s dng trc tip
dng nhp d liu (cin). Trong trng hp ny gi tr ca xu k t c gn bi ngi
dng trong qu trnh chng trnh thc hin.

Khi cin c s dng vi cc xu k t n thng c dng vi phng thc getline

ca n, phng thc ny c th c gi nh sau:

cin.getline ( char buffer[], int length, char delimiter = '

\n');

trong buffer (b m) l a ch ni s lu tr d liu vo (nh l mt mng chng

hn), length l di cc i ca b m (kch thc ca mng) v delimiter l k t
c dng kt thc vic nhp, mc nh - nu chng ta khng dng tham s ny - s l
k t xung dng ('\n').

V d sau y lp li tt c nhng g bn g trn bn phm. N rt n gin nhng l mt

v d cho thy bn c th s dng cin.getline vi cc xu k t nh th no:

// cin with strings What's your name? Juan

#include <iostream.h> Hello Juan.
Which is your favourite team? Inter
int main () Milan
{ I like Inter Milan too.
char mybuffer [100];
cout << "What's your name? ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
cout << "Hello " << mybuffer <<
".\n";
cout << "Which is your favourite
team? ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
cout << "I like " << mybuffer <<
" too.\n";
return 0;
}

Ch trong c hai li gi cin.getline chng ta s dng cng mt bin xu (mybuffer).

Nhng g chng trnh lm trong li gi th hai n gin l thay th ni dung ca
buffer trong li gi c bng ni dung mi.

Nu bn cn nh phn ni v giao tip vi, bn s nh rng chng ta s dng ton t

>> nhn d liu trc tip t u vo chun. Phng thc ny c th c dng vi cc
xu k t thay cho cin.getline. V d, trong chn trnh ca chng ta, khi chng ta
mun nhn d liu t ngi dng chng ta c th vit:

cin >> mybuffer;

lnh ny s lm vic nh n c nhng hn ch sau m cin.getline khng c:

N ch c th nhn nhng t n (khng nhn c c cu) v phng thc ny

s dng k t trng(bao gm c du cch, du tab v du xung dng) lm du
hiu kt thc..
N khng cho php ch nh kch thc cho b m. Chng trnh ca bn c th
chy khng n nh nu d liu vo ln hn kch c ca mng cha n.

V nhng nguyn nhn trn, khi mun nhp vo cc xu k t bn nn s dng

cin.getline thay v cin >>.

Chuyn i xu k t sang cc kiu khc.

V mt xu k t c th biu din nhiu kiu d liu khc nh dng s nn vic chuyn
i ni dung nh vy sang dng s l rt hu ch. V d, mt xu c th mang gi tr
"1977"nhng l mt chui gm 5 k t (k c k t null) v khng d g chuyn thnh
mt s nguyn. V vy th vin cstdlib (stdlib.h) cung cp 3 macro/hm hu ch
sau:

atoi: chuyn xu thnh kiu int.

atol: chuyn xu thnh kiu long.
atof: chuyn xu thnh kiu float.

Tt c cc hm ny nhn mt tham s v tr v gi tr s (int, long hoc float). Cc

hm ny khi kt hp vi phng thc getline ca cin l mt cch ng tin cy hn
phng thc cin>> c in khi yu cu ngi s dng nhp vo mt s:
// cin and ato* functions Enter price: 2.75
#include <iostream.h> Enter quantity: 21
#include <stdlib.h> Total price: 57.75

int main ()
{
char mybuffer [100];
float price;
int quantity;
cout << "Enter price: ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
price = atof (mybuffer);
cout << "Enter quantity: ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
quantity = atoi (mybuffer);
cout << "Total price: " <<
price*quantity;
return 0;
}

Cc hm thao tc trn chui

Th vin cstring (string.h) khng ch c hm strcpy m cn c nhiu hm khc
thao tc trn chui. Di y l gii thiu lt qua ca cc hm thng dng nht:

strcat: char* strcat (char* dest, const char* src);

Gn thm chui src vo pha cui ca dest. Tr v dest.
strcmp: int strcmp (const char* string1, const char* string2);
So snh hai xu string1 v string2. Tr v 0 nu hai xu l bng nhau.
strcpy: char* strcpy (char* dest, const char* src);
Copy ni dung ca src cho dest. Tr v dest.
strlen: size_t strlen (const char* string);
Tr v di ca string.
Ch : char* hon ton tng ng vi char[]

Bi 9 : Con Tr

Chng ta bit cc bin chnh l cc nh m chng ta c th truy xut di cc tn.

Cc bin ny c lu tr ti nhng ch c th trong b nh. i vi chng trnh ca
chng ta, b nh my tnh ch l mt dy gm cc nh 1 byte, mi c mt a ch xc
nh.

Mt s m hnh tt i vi b nh my tnh chnh l mt ph trong mt thnh ph. Trn

mt ph tt c cc ngi nh u c nh s tun t vi mt ci tn duy nht nn nu
chng ta ni n s 27 ph Trn Hng o th chng ta c th tm c ni m khng
lm ln v ch c mt ngi nh vi s nh vy.
Cng vi cch t chc tng t nh vic nh s cc ngi nh, h iu hnh t chc b
nh thnh nhng s n nht, tun t, nn nu chng ta ni n v tr 1776 trong b nh
chng ta bit chnh xc nh v ch c mt v tr vi a ch nh vy.

Ton t ly a ch (&).
Vo thi im m chng ta khai bo mt bin th n phi c lu tr trong mt v tr c
th trong b nh. Ni chung chng ta khng quyt nh ni no bin c t - tht
may mn rng iu c lm t ng bi trnh bin dch v h iu hnh, nhng
mt khi h iu hnh gn mt a ch cho bin th chng ta c th mun bit bin
c lu tr u.

iu ny c th c thc hin bng cch t trc tn bin mt du v (&), c ngha l

"a ch ca". V d:

ted = &andy;

s gn cho bin ted a ch ca bin andy, v khi t trc tn bin andy du v (&)
chng ta khng cn ni n ni dung ca bin m ch ni n a ch ca n trong b
nh.

Gi s rng bin andy c t nh c a ch 1776 v chng ta vit nh sau:

andy = 25;
fred = andy;
ted = &andy;

kt qu s ging nh trong s di y:

Chng ta gn cho fred ni dung ca bin andy nh chng ta lm rt ln nhiu khc

trong nhng phn trc nhng vi bin ted chng ta gn a ch m h iu hnh lu
gi tr ca bin andy, chng ta va gi s n l 1776.

Nhng bin lu tr a ch ca mt bin khc (nh ted trong v d trc) c gi l

con tr. Trong C++ con tr c rt nhiu u im v chng c s dng rt thng
xuyn, Tip theo chng ta s thy cc bin kiu ny c khai bo nh th no.
Ton t tham chiu (*)
Bng cch s dng con tr chng ta c th truy xut trc tip n gi tr c lu tr
trong bin c tr bi n bng cch trc tn bin con tr mt du sao (*) - y c
th c dch l "gi tr c tr bi". V vy, nu chng ta vit:

beth = *ted;

(chng ta c th c n l: "beth bng gi tr c tr bi ted" beth s mang gi tr 25, v

ted bng 1776 v gi tr tr bi 1776 l 25.

Bn phi phn bit c rng ted c gi tr 1776, nhng *ted (vi mt du sao ng
trc) tr ti gi tr c lu tr trong a ch 1776, l 25. Hy ch s khc bit gia
vic c hay khng c du sao tham chiu.

beth = ted; // beth bng ted ( 1776 )

beth = *ted; // beth bng gi tr c tr bi( 25 )
Ton t ly a ch (&)
N c dng nh l mt tin t ca bin v c th c dch l "a ch ca", v vy
&variable1 c th c c l "a ch ca variable1".

Ton t tham chiu (*)

N ch ra rng ci cn c tnh ton l ni dung c tr bi biu thc c coi nh l
mt a ch. N c th c dch l "gi tr c tr bi"..
*mypointer c c l "gi tr c tr bi mypointer".

Vo lc ny, vi nhng v d vit trn

andy = 25;
ted = &andy;

bn c th d dng nhn ra tt c cc biu thc sau l ng:

andy == 25
&andy == 1776
 ted == 1776
*ted == 25

Khai bo bin kiu con tr

V con tr c kh nng tham chiu trc tip n gi tr m chng tr ti nn cn thit phi
ch r kiu d liu no m mt bin con tr tr ti khai bo n. V vy, khai bo ca mt
bin con tr s c mu sau:

type * pointer_name;

trong type l kiu d liu c tr ti, khng phi l kiu ca bn thn con tr. V d:

int * number;
char * character;
float * greatnumber;

l ba khai bo ca con tr. Mi bin u tr ti mt kiu d liu khc nhau nhng c

ba u l con tr v chng u chim mt lng b nh nh nhau (kch thc ca mt
bin con tr ty thuc vo h iu hnh). nhng d liu m chng tr ti khng chim
lng b nh nh nhau, mt kiu int, mt kiu char v ci cn li kiu float.

Ti phi nhn mnh li rng du sao (*) m chng ta t khi khai bo mt con tr ch c
ngha rng: l mt con tr v hon ton khng lin quan n ton t tham chiu m
chng ta xem xt trc . n gin ch l hai tc v khc nhau c biu din bi
cng mt du.

// my first pointer value1==10 / value2==20

#include <iostream.h>

int main ()
{
int value1 = 5, value2 = 15;
int * mypointer;

mypointer = &value1;
*mypointer = 10;
mypointer = &value2;
*mypointer = 20;
cout << "value1==" << value1 <<
"/ value2==" << value2;
return 0;
}

Ch rng gi tr ca value1 v value2 c thay i mt cch gin tip. u tin

chng ta gn cho mypointer a ch ca value1 dng ton t ly a ch (&) v sau
chng ta gn 10 cho gi tr c tr bi mypointer, l gi tr c tr bi value1 v
vy chng ta sa bin value1 mt cch gin tip
 bn c th thy rng mt con tr c th mang mt vi gi tr trong cng mt chng
trnh chng ta s lp li qu trnh vi value2 v vi cng mt con tr.

y l mt v d phc tp hn mt cht:

// more pointers value1==10 / value2==20

#include <iostream.h>

int main ()
{
int value1 = 5, value2 = 15;
int *p1, *p2;

p1 = &value1; // p1 = a ch
ca value1
p2 = &value2; // p2 = a ch
ca value2
*p1 = 10; // gi tr tr
bi p1 = 10
*p2 = *p1; // gi tr tr
bi p2 = gi tr tr bi p1
p1 = p2; // p1 = p2
(php gn con tr)
*p1 = 20; // gi tr tr
bi p1 = 20

cout << "value1==" << value1 <<

"/ value2==" << value2;
return 0;
}

Mt dng c th gy s ch ca bn l:

int *p1, *p2;

dng ny khai bo hai con tr bng cch t du sao (*) trc mi con tr. Nguyn nhn
l kiu d liu khai bo cho c dng l int v v theo th t t phi sang tri, du sao
c tnh trc tn kiu. Chng ta ni n iu ny trong bi 1.3: Cc ton t.

Con tr v mng.
Trong thc t, tn ca mt mng tng ng vi a ch phn t u tin ca n, ging
nh mt con tr tng ng vi a ch ca phn t u tin m n tr ti, v vy thc
t chng hon ton nh nhau. V d, cho hai khai bo sau:

int numbers [20];

int * p;

lnh sau s hp l:
 p = numbers;

y p v numbers l tng ng v chng c cng thuc tnh, s khc bit duy nht
l chng ta c th gn mt gi tr khc cho con tr p trong khi numbers lun tr n phn
t u tin trong s 20 phn t kiu int m n c nh ngha vi. V vy, khng ging
nh p - l mt bin con tr bnh thng, numbers l mt con tr hng. Lnh gn sau
y l khng hp l:

numbers = p;

bi v numbers l mt mng (con tr hng) v khng c gi tr no c th c gn cho

cc hng.

V con tr cng c mi tnh cht ca mt bin nn tt c cc biu thc c con tr trong v

d di y l hon ton hp l:

// more pointers 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,

#include <iostream.h>

int main ()
{
int numbers[5];
int * p;
p = numbers; *p = 10;
p++; *p = 20;
p = &numbers[2]; *p = 30;
p = numbers + 3; *p = 40;
p = numbers; *(p+4) = 50;
for (int n=0; n<5; n++)
cout << numbers[n] << ", ";
return 0;
}

Trong bi "mng" chng ta dng du ngoc vung ch ra phn t ca mng m

chng ta mun tr n. Cp ngoc vung ny c coi nh l ton t offset v ngha
ca chng khng i khi c dng vi bin con tr. V d, hai biu thc sau y:

a[5] = 0; // a [offset of 5] = 0
*(a+5) = 0; // pointed by (a+5) = 0

l hon ton tng ng v hp l bt k a l mng hay l mt con tr.

Khi to con tr
Khi khai bo con tr c th chng ta s mun ch nh r rng chng s tr ti bin no,

int number;
int *tommy = &number;
l tng ng vi:

int number;
int *tommy;
tommy = &number;

Trong mt php gn con tr chng ta phi lun lun gn a ch m n tr ti ch khng

phi l gi tr m n tr ti. Bn cn phi nh rng khi khai bo mt bin con tr, du sao
(*) c dng ch ra n l mt con tr, v hon ton khc vi ton t tham chiu.
l hai ton t khc nhau mc d chng c vit vi cng mt du. V vy, cc cu lnh
sau l khng hp l:

int number;
int *tommy;
*tommy = &number;

Nh i vi mng, trnh bin dch cho php chng ta khi to gi tr m con tr tr ti

bng gi tr hng vo thi im khai bo bin con tr:

char * terry = "hello";

trong trng hp ny mt khi nh tnh c dnh cha "hello" v mt con tr tr

ti k t u tin ca khi nh ny ( l k t h') c gn cho terry. Nu "hello"
c lu ti a ch 1702, lnh khai bo trn c th c hnh dung nh th ny:

cn phi nhc li rng terry mang gi tr 1702 ch khng phi l 'h' hay "hello".

Bin con tr terry tr ti mt xu k t v n c th c s dng nh l i vi mt

mng (hy nh rng mt mng ch n thun l mt con tr hng). V d, nu chng ta
mun thay k t 'o' bng mt du chm than, chng ta c th thc hin vic bng hai
cch:

terry[4] = '!';
*(terry+4) = '!';

hy nh rng vit terry[4] l hon ton ging vi vit *(terry+4) mc d biu thc
thng dng nht l ci u tin. Vi mt trong hai lnh trn xu do terry tr n s c
gi tr nh sau:
Cc php tnh s hc vi pointer
Vic thc hin cc php tnh s hc vi con tr hi khc so vi cc kiu d liu s
nguyn khc. Trc ht, ch php cng v tr l c php dng. Nhng c cng v tr
u cho kt qu ph thuc vo kch thc ca kiu d liu m bin con tr tr ti.

Chng ta thy c nhiu kiu d liu khc nhau tn ti v chng c th chim ch nhiu
hn hoc t hn cc kiu d liu khc. V d, trong cc kiu s nguyn, char chim 1
byte, short chim 2 byte v long chim 4 byte.

Gi s chng ta c 3 con tr sau:

char *mychar;
short *myshort;
long *mylong;

v chng ln lt tr ti nh 1000, 2000 and 3000.

Nu chng ta vit

mychar++;
myshort++;
mylong++;

mychar - nh bn mong i - s mang gi tr 1001. Tuy nhin myshort s mang gi tr

2002 v mylong mang gi tr 3004. Nguyn nhn l khi cng thm 1 vo mt con tr th
n s tr ti phn t tip theo c cng kiu m n c nh ngha, v vy kch thc
tnh bng byte ca kiu d liu n tr ti s c cng thm vo bin con tr.

iu ny ng vi c hai php ton cng v tr i vi con tr. Chng ta cng hon ton
thu c kt qu nh trn nu vit:

mychar = mychar + 1;
myshort = myshort + 1;
mylong = mylong + 1;

Cn phi cnh bo bn rng c hai ton t tng (++) v gim (--) u c quyn u tin
ln hn ton t tham chiu (*), v vy biu thc sau y c th dn ti kt qu sai:
 *p++;
*p++ = *q++;

Lnh u tin tng ng vi *(p++) iu m n thc hin l tng p (a ch nh m

n tr ti ch khng phi l gi tr tr ti).

Lnh th hai, c hai ton t tng (++) u c thc hin sau khi gi tr ca *q c gn
cho *p v sau c q v p u tng ln 1. Lnh ny tng ng vi:

*p = *q;
p++;
q++;

Nh ni trong cc bi trc, ti khuyn cc bn nn dng cc cp ngoc n trnh

nhng kt qu khng mong mun.

Con tr tr ti con tr
C++ cho php s dng cc con tr tr ti cc con tr khc ging nh l tr ti d liu.
lm vic chng ta ch cn thm mt du sao (*) cho mi mc tham chiu.

char a;
char * b;
char ** c;
a = 'z';
b = &a;
c = &b;

gi s rng a,b,c c lu cc nh 7230, 8092 and 10502, ta c th m t on m

trn nh sau:

im mi trong v d ny l bin c, chng ta c th ni v n theo 3 cch khc nhau, mi

cch s tng ng vi mt gi tr khc nhau:

c l mt bin c kiu (char **) mang gi tr 8092

*c l mt bin c kiu (char*) mang gi tr 7230
**c l mt bin c kiu (char) mang gi tr 'z'

Con tr khng kiu

Con tr khng kiu l mt loi con tr c bit. N c th tr ti bt k loi d liu no,
t gi tr nguyn hoc thc cho ti mt xu k t. Hn ch duy nht ca n l d liu
c tr ti khng th c tham chiu ti mt cch trc tip (chng ta khng th dng
ton t tham chiu * vi chng) v di ca n l khng xc nh v v vy chng ta
phi dng n ton t chuyn kiu d liu hay php gn chuyn con tr khng kiu
thnh mt con tr tr ti mt loi d liu c th.

Mt trong nhng tin ch ca n l cho php truyn tham s cho hm m khng cn ch

r kiu

// integer increaser 6, 10, 13

#include <iostream.h>

void increase (void* data, int

type)
{
switch (type)
{
case sizeof(char) :
(*((char*)data))++; break;
case sizeof(short):
(*((short*)data))++; break;
case sizeof(long) :
(*((long*)data))++; break;
}
}

int main ()
{
char a = 5;
short b = 9;
long c = 12;
increase (&a,sizeof(a));
increase (&b,sizeof(b));
increase (&c,sizeof(c));
cout << (int) a << ", " << b <<
", " << c;
return 0;
}

sizeof l mt ton t ca ngn ng C++, n tr v mt gi tr hng l kch thc tnh

bng byte ca tham s truyn cho n, v d sizeof(char) bng 1 v kch thc ca char
l 1 byte.

Con tr hm
C++ cho php thao tc vi cc con tr hm. Tin ch tuyt vi ny cho php truyn mt
hm nh l mt tham s n mt hm khc. c th khai bo mt con tr tr ti mt
hm chng ta phi khai bo n nh l khai bo mu ca mt hm nhng phi bao trong
mt cp ngoc n () tn ca hm v chn du sao (*) ng trc.

// pointer to functions 8
#include <iostream.h>

int addition (int a, int b)

{ return (a+b); }

int subtraction (int a, int b)

{ return (a-b); }

int (*minus)(int,int) =
subtraction;

int operation (int x, int y, int

(*functocall)(int,int))
{
int g;
g = (*functocall)(x,y);
return (g);
}

int main ()
{
int m,n;
m = operation (7, 5, &addition);
n = operation (20, m, minus);
cout <<n;
return 0;
}

Trong v d ny, minus l mt con tr ton cc tr ti mt hm c hai tham s kiu int,

con tr ny c gm tr ti hm subtraction, tt c u trn mt dng:

int (* minus)(int,int) = subtraction;

Bi 10 : B Nh ng

Cho n nay, trong cc chng trnh ca chng ta, tt c nhng phn b nh chng ta c
th s dng l cc bin cc mng v cc i tng khc m chng ta khai bo. Kch c
ca chng l c nh v khng th thay i trong thi gian chng trnh chy. Nhng nu
chng ta cn mt lng b nh m kch c ca n ch c th c xc nh khi chng
trnh chy, v d nh trong trng hp chng ta nhn thng tin t ngi dng xc nh
lng b nh cn thit.

Gii php y chnh l b nh ng, C++ tch hp hai ton t new v delete thc
hin vic ny

Hai ton t new v delete ch c trong C++. phn sau ca bi chng ta s bit nhng
thao tc tng ng vi cc ton t ny trong C.

Ton t new v new[ ]

c th c c b nh ng chng ta c th dng ton t new. Theo sau ton t ny l
tn kiu d liu v c th l s phn t cn thit c t trong cp ngoc vung. N tr
v mt con tr tr ti u ca khi nh va c cp pht. Dng thc ca ton t ny
nh sau:

pointer = new type

hoc

pointer = new type [elements]

Biu thc u tien c dng cp pht b nh cha mt phn t c kiu type. Lnh
th hai c dng cp pht mt khi nh (mt mng) gm cc phn t kiu type.
V d:

int * bobby;
bobby = new int [5];

trong trng hp ny, h iu hnh dnh ch cho 5 phn t kiu int trong b nh v tr
v mt con tr tr n u ca khi nh. V vy lc ny bobby tr n mt khi nh hp
l gm 5 phn t int.

Bn c th hi ti l c g khc nhau gia vic khai bo mt mng vi vic cp pht b

nh cho mt con tr nh chng ta va lm. iu quan trng nht l kch thc ca mt
mng phi l mt hng, iu ny gii hn kch thc ca mng n kch thc m chng
ta chn khi thit k chng trnh trong khi cp pht b nh ng cho php cp pht b
nh trong qu trnh chy vi kch thc bt k.

B nh ng ni chung c qun l bi h iu hnh v trong cc mi trng a nhim

c th chy mt lc vi chng trnh c mt kh nng c th xy ra l ht b nh cp
pht. Nu iu ny xy ra v h iu hnh khng th cp pht b nh nh chng ta yu
cu vi ton t new, mt con tr null (zero) s c tr v. V vy cc bn nn kim tra
xem con tr tr v bi ton t new c bng null hay khng:

int * bobby;
bobby = new int [5];
if (bobby == NULL) {
// error assigning memory. Take measures.
};

Ton t delete.
V b nh ng ch cn thit trong mt khong thi gian nht nh, khi n khng cn
dng n na th n s c gii phng c th cp pht cho cc nhu cu khc trong
tng lai. thc hin vic ny ta dng ton t delete, dng thc ca n nh sau:

delete pointer;

hoc

delete [] pointer;

Biu thc u tin nn c dng gii phng b nh c cp pht cho mt phn t

v lnh th hai dng gii phng mt khi nh gm nhiu phn t (mng). Trong hu
ht cc trnh dch c hai biu thc l tng ng mc d chng l r rng l hai ton t
khc nhau.

// rememb-o-matic How many numbers do you want to

#include <iostream.h> type in? 5
#include <stdlib.h> Enter number : 75
Enter number : 436
int main () Enter number : 1067
{ Enter number : 8
char input [100]; Enter number : 32
int i,n; You have entered: 75, 436, 1067, 8,
long * l, total = 0; 32,
cout << "How many numbers do you
want to type in? ";
cin.getline (input,100); i=atoi
(input);
l= new long[i];
if (l == NULL) exit (1);
for (n=0; n<i; n++)
{
cout << "Enter number: ";
cin.getline (input,100);
l[n]=atol (input);
}
cout << "You have entered: ";
for (n=0; n<i; n++)
cout << l[n] << ", ";
delete[] l;
return 0;
}

NULL l mt hng s c nh ngha trong th vin C++ dng biu th con tr null.
Trong trng hp hng s ny cha nh ngha bn c th t nh ngha n:

#define NULL 0

Dng 0 hay NULL khi kim tra con tr l nh nhau nhng vic dng NULL vi con tr
c s dng rt rng ri v iu ny c khuyn khch gip cho chng trnh d
c hn.
B nh ng trong ANSI-C
Ton t new v delete l c quyn C++ v chng khng c trong ngn ng C. Trong
ngn ng C, c th s dng b nh ng chng ta phi s dng th vin stdlib.h.
Chng ta s xem xt cch ny v n cng hp l trong C++ v n vn cn c s dng
trong mt s chng trnh.

Hm malloc
y l mt hm tng qut cp pht b nh ng cho con tr. Cu trc ca n nh sau:

void * malloc (size_t nbytes);

trong nbytes l s byte chng ta mun gn cho con tr. Hm ny tr v mt con tr

kiu void*, v vy chng ta phi chuyn i kiu sang kiu ca con tr ch, v d:

char * ronny;
ronny = (char *) malloc (10);

on m ny cp pht cho con tr ronny mt khi nh 10 byte. Khi chng ta mun cp

pht mt khi d liu c kiu khc char (ln hn 1 byte) chng ta phi nhn s phn t
mong mun vi kch thc ca chng. Tht may mn l chng ta c ton t sizeof, ton
t ny tr v kch thc ca mt kiu d liu c th.

int * bobby;
bobby = (int *) malloc (5 * sizeof(int));

on m ny cp pht cho bobby mt khi nh gm 5 s nguyn kiu int, kch c ca

kiu d liu ny c th bng 2, 4 hay hn ty thuc vo h thng m chng trnh c
dch.

Hm calloc.
calloc hot ng rt ging vi malloc, s khc nhau ch yu l khai bo mu ca n:

void * calloc (size_t nelements, size_t size);

n s dng hai tham s thay v mt. Hai tham s ny c nhn vi nhau c c kch
thc tng cng ca khi nh cn cp pht. Thng thng tham s u tin (nelements)
l s phn t v tham s thc hai (size) l kch thc ca mi phn t. V d, chng ta
c th nh ngha bobby vi calloc nh sau:

int * bobby;
bobby = (int *) calloc (5, sizeof(int));

Mt im khc nhau na gia malloc v calloc l calloc khi to tt c cc phn t

ca n v 0.
Hm realloc.
N thay i kch thc ca khi nh c cp pht cho mt con tr.

void * realloc (void * pointer, size_t size);

tham s pointer nhn vo mt con tr c cp pht b nh hay mt con tr null, v

size ch nh kch thc ca khi nh mi. Hm ny s cp pht size byte b nh cho
con tr. N c th phi thay i v v tr ca khi nh c th ch cho kch thc
mi ca khi nh, trong trng hp ny ni dung hin thi ca khi nh c copy ti v
tr mi m bo d liu khng b mt. Con tr mi tr ti khi nh c hm tr v.
Nu khng th thay i kch thc ca khi nh th hm s tr v mt con tr null nhng
tham s pointer v ni dung ca n s khng b thay i.

Hm free.
Hm ny gii phng mt khi nh ng c cp pht bi malloc, calloc hoc
realloc.

void free (void * pointer);

Hm ny ch c dng gii phng b nh c cp pht bi cc hm malloc,

calloc and realloc.

Bi 11 : Cc Cu Trc

Cc cu trc d liu.
Mt cu trc d liu l mt tp hp ca nhng kiu d liu khc nhau c gp li vi
mt ci tn duy nht. Dng thc ca n nh sau:

struct model_name {
type1 element1;
type2 element2;
type3 element3;
.
.
} object_name;

trong model_name l tn ca mu kiu d liu v tham s ty chn object_name mt

tn hp l cho i tng. Bn trong cp ngoc nhn l tn cc phn t ca cu trc v
kiu ca chng.

Nu nh ngha ca cu trc bao gm tham s model_name (tu chn), tham s ny tr

thnh mt tn kiu hp l tng ng vi cu trc. V d:

struct products {
char name [30];
float price;
} ;
 products apple;
products orange, melon;

Chng ta nh ngha cu trc products vi hai trng: name v price, mi trng c

mt kiu khc nhau. Chng ta cng s dng tn ca kiu cu trc (products) khai
bo ba i tng c kiu : apple, orange v melon.

Sau khi c khai bo, products tr thnh mt tn kiu hp l ging cc kiu c bn

nh int, char hay short.

Trng tu chn object_name c th nm cui ca phn khai bo cu trc dng

khai bo trc tip i tng c kiu cu trc. V d, khai bo cc i tng apple,
orange v melon nh lm phn trc chng ta cng c th lm theo cch sau:

struct products {
char name [30];
float price;
} apple, orange, melon;

Hn na, trong trng hp ny tham s model_name tr thnh tu chn. Mc d nu

model_name khng c s dng th chng ta s khng th khai bo thm cc i tng
c kiu mu ny.

Mt iu quan trng l cn phn bit r rng u l kiu mu cu trc, u l i tng

cu trc. Nu dng cc thut ng chng ta s dng vi cc bin, kiu mu l tn kiu
d liu cn i tng l cc bin.

Sau khi khai bo ba i tng c kiu l mt mu cu trc xc nh (apple, orange

and melon) chng ta c th thao tc vi cc trng to nn chng. lm vic ny chng
ta s dng mt du chm (.) chn gia tn i tng v tn trng. V d, chng ta c
th thao tc vi bt k phn t no ca cu trc nh l i vi cc bin chun :

apple.name
apple.price
orange.name
orange.price
melon.name
melon.price

mi trng c kiu d liu tng ng: apple.name, orange.name v melon.name c

kiu char[30], v apple.price, orange.price v melon.price c kiu float.

Chng ta tm bit apples, oranges v melons n vi mt v d v cc b phim:

// example about structures Enter title: Alien

#include <iostream.h> Enter year: 1979
#include <string.h>
#include <stdlib.h> My favourite movie is:
2001 A Space Odyssey (1968)
struct movies_t { And yours:
char title [50]; Alien (1979)
int year;
} mine, yours;

void printmovie (movies_t movie);

int main ()
{
char buffer [50];

strcpy (mine.title, "2001 A Space

Odyssey");
mine.year = 1968;

cout << "Enter title: ";

cin.getline (yours.title,50);
cout << "Enter year: ";
cin.getline (buffer,50);
yours.year = atoi (buffer);

cout << "My favourite movie is:\n

";
printmovie (mine);
cout << "And yours:\n ";
printmovie (yours);
return 0;
}

void printmovie (movies_t movie)

{
cout << movie.title;
cout << " (" << movie.year <<
")\n";
}

V d ny cho chng ta thy cch s dng cc phn t ca mt cu trc v bn thn cu

trc nh l cc bin thng thng. V d, yours.year l mt bin hp l c kiu int
cng nh mine.title l mt mng hp l vi 50 phn t kiu chars.

Ch rng c mine and yours u c coi l cc bin hp l kiu movie_t khi c

truyn cho hm printmovie().Hn na mt li th quan trng ca cu trc l chng ta
c th xt cc phn t ca chng mt cch ring bit hoc ton b cu trc nh l mt
khi.

Cc cu trc c s dng rt nhiu xy dng c s d liu c bit nu chng ta xt

n kh nng xy dng cc mng ca chng.

// array of structures Enter title: Alien

#include <iostream.h> Enter year: 1979
#include <stdlib.h> Enter title: Blade Runner
Enter year: 1982
#define N_MOVIES 5 Enter title: Matrix
Enter year: 1999
struct movies_t { Enter title: Rear Window
char title [50]; Enter year: 1954
int year; Enter title: Taxi Driver
} films [N_MOVIES]; Enter year: 1975

void printmovie (movies_t movie); You have entered these movies:

Alien (1979)
int main () Blade Runner (1982)
{ Matrix (1999)
char buffer [50]; Rear Window (1954)
int n; Taxi Driver (1975)
for (n=0; n<N_MOVIES; n++)
{
cout << "Enter title: ";
cin.getline
(films[n].title,50);
cout << "Enter year: ";
cin.getline (buffer,50);
films[n].year = atoi (buffer);
}
cout << "\nYou have entered these
movies:\n";
for (n=0; n<N_MOVIES; n++)
printmovie (films[n]);
return 0;
}

void printmovie (movies_t movie)

{
cout << movie.title;
cout << " (" << movie.year <<
")\n";
}

Con tr tr n cu trc
Nh bt k cc kiu d liu no khc, cc cu trc c th c tr n bi con tr. Quy
tc hon ton ging nh i vi bt k kiu d liu c bn no:

struct movies_t {
char title [50];
int year;
};

movies_t amovie;
movies_t * pmovie;
 y amovie l mt i tng c kiu movies_t v pmovie l mt con tr tr ti i
tng movies_t. OK, by gi chng ta s n vi mt v d khc, n s gii thiu mt
ton t mi:

// pointers to structures Enter title: Matrix

#include <iostream.h> Enter year: 1999
#include <stdlib.h>
You have entered:
struct movies_t { Matrix (1999)
char title [50];
int year;
};

int main ()
{
char buffer[50];

movies_t amovie;
movies_t * pmovie;
pmovie = & amovie;

cout << "Enter title: ";

cin.getline (pmovie->title,50);
cout << "Enter year: ";
cin.getline (buffer,50);
pmovie->year = atoi (buffer);

cout << "\nYou have entered:\n";

cout << pmovie->title;
cout << " (" << pmovie->year <<
")\n";

return 0;
}

on m trn gii thiu mt iu quan trng: ton t ->. y l mt ton t tham chiu
ch dng tr ti cc cu trc v cc lp (class). N cho php chng ta khng phi dng
ngoc mi khi tham chiu n mt phn t ca cu trc. Trong v d ny chng ta s
dng:

movies->title

n c th c dch thnh:

(*movies).title

c hai biu thc movies->title v (*movies).title u hp l v chng u dng

tham chiu n phn t title ca cu trc c tr bi movies. Bn cn phn bit r
rng vi:
 *movies.title

n tng ng vi

*(movies.title)

lnh ny dng tnh ton gi tr c tr bi phn t title ca cu trc movies, trong

trng hp ny (title khng phi l mt con tr) n chng c ngha g nhiu. Bn di
y tng kt tt c cc kt hp c th c gia con tr v cu trc:

Biu thc M t Tng ng vi

movies.title Phn t title ca cu trc movies

movies->title Phn t title ca cu trc c tr bi (*movies).title

movies

*movies.title
Gi tr c tr bi phn t title ca cu *(movies.title)
trc movies

Cc cu trc lng nhau

Cc cu trc c th c t lng nhau v vy mt phn t hp l ca mt cu trc c th
l mt cu trc khc.

struct movies_t {
char title [50];
int year;
}

struct friends_t {
char name [50];
char email [50];
movies_t favourite_movie;
} charlie, maria;

friends_t * pfriends = &charlie;

V vy, sau phn khai bo trn chng ta c th s dng cc biu thc sau:

charlie.name
maria.favourite_movie.title
charlie.favourite_movie.year
pfriends->favourite_movie.year

(trong hai biu thc cui cng l tng ng).

Cc khi nim c bn v cu trc c cp n trong phn ny l hon ton ging vi

ngn ng C, tuy nhin trong C++, cu trc c m rng thm cc chc nng ca mt
lp vi tnh cht c trng l tt c cc phn t ca n u l cng cng (public). Bn s
c thm cc thng tin chi tit trong phn 4.1, Lp.

Bi 12:Cc Kiu D Liu Do Ngi Dng nh Ngha

Trong bi trc chng ta xem xt mt loi d liu c nh ngha bi ngi dng

(ngi lp trnh): cu trc. Nhng c cn nhiu kiu d liu t nh ngha khc:

T nh ngha cc kiu d liu (typedef).

C++ cho php chng ta nh ngha cc kiu d liu ca ring mnh da trn cc kiu d
liu c. c th lm vic chng ta s s dng t kho typedef, dng thc nh
sau:

typedef existing_type new_type_name ;

trong existing_type l mt kiu d liu c bn hay bt k mt kiu d liu nh

ngha v new_type_name l tn ca kiu d liu mi. V d

typedef char C;
typedef unsigned int WORD;
typedef char * string_t;
typedef char field [50];

Trong trng hp ny chng ta nh ngha bn kiu d liu mi: C, WORD, string_t v

field kiu char, unsigned int, char* kiu char[50], chng ta hon ton c th s
dng chng nh l cc kiu d liu hp l:

C achar, anotherchar, *ptchar1;

WORD myword;
string_t ptchar2;
field name;

typedef c th hu dng khi bn mun nh ngha mt kiu d liu c dng lp i lp

li trong chng trnh hoc kiu d liu bn mun dng c tn qu di v bn mun n
c tn ngn hn.

Union
Union cho php mt phn b nh c th c truy xut di dng nhiu kiu d liu
khc nhau mc d tt c chng u nm cng mt v tr trong b nh. Phn khai bo v
s dng n tng t vi cu trc nhng chc nng th khc hon ton:

union model_name {
type1 element1;
type2 element2;
type3 element3;
 .
.
} object_name;

Tt c cc phn t ca union u chim cng mt ch trong b nh. Kch thc ca n l

kch thc ca phn t ln nht. V d:

union mytypes_t {
char c;
int i;
float f;
} mytypes;

nh ngha ba phn t

mytypes.c
mytypes.i
mytypes.f

mi phn t c mt kiu d liu khc nhau. Nhng v tt c chng u nm cng mt ch

trong b nh nn bt k s thay i no i vi mt phn t s nh hng ti tt c cc
thnh phn cn li.

Mt trong nhng cng dng ca union l dng kt hp mt kiu d liu c bn vi

mt mng hay cc cu trc gm cc phn t nh hn. V d:

union mix_t{
long l;
struct {
short hi;
short lo;
} s;
char c[4];
} mix;

nh ngha ba phn t cho php chng ta truy xut n cng mt nhm 4 byte: mix.l,
mix.s v mix.c m chng ta c th s dng tu theo vic chng ta mun truy xut n
nhm 4 byte ny nh th no. Ti dng nhiu kiu d liu khc nhau, mng v cu trc
trong union bn c th thy cc cch khc nhau m chng ta c th truy xut d liu.

Cc unions v danh
Trong C++ chng ta c th s dng cc unions v danh. Nu chng ta t mt union
trong mt cu trc m khng tn (phn i sau cp ngoc nhn { }) union s tr thnh
v danh v chng ta c th truy xut trc tip n cc phn t ca n m khng cn n
tn ca union (c cn cng khng c). V d, hy xem xt s khc bit gia hai phn
khai bo sau y:

union union v danh

struct { struct {
char title[50]; char title[50];
char author[50]; char author[50];
union { union {
float dollars; float dollars;
int yens; int yens;
} price; };
} book; } book;

S khc bit duy nht gia hai on m ny l trong on m u tin chng ta t tn

cho union (price) cn trong ci th hai th khng. Khi truy nhp vo cc phn t
dollars v yens, trong trng hp th nht chng ta vit:

book.price.dollars
book.price.yens

cn trong trng hp th hai:

book.dollars
book.yens

Mt ln na ti nhc li rng v n l mt union, hai trng dollars v yens u chim

cng mt ch trong b nh nn chng khng th gi hai gi tr khc nhau.

Kiu lit k (enum)

Kiu d liu lit k dng to ra cc kiu d liu cha mt ci g hi c bit mt
cht, khng phi kiu s hay kiu k t hoc cc hng true v false. Dng thc ca n
nh sau:

enum model_name {
value1,
value2,
value3,
.
.
} object_name;

V d, chng ta c th to ra mt kiu d liu mi c tn color lu tr cc mu vi

phn khai bo nh sau:
 enum colors_t {black, blue, green, cyan, red, purple,
yellow, white};

Ch rng chng ta khng s dng bt k mt kiu d liu c bn no trong phn khai

bo. Chng ta to ra mt kiu d liu mi m khng da trn bt k kiu d liu no
c sn: kiu color_t, nhng gi tr c th ca kiu color_t c vit trong cp ngoc
nhn {}. V d, sau khi khai bo kiu lit k, biu thc sau s l hp l:

colors_t mycolor;

mycolor = blue;
if (mycolor == green) mycolor = red;

Trn thc t kiu d liu lit k c dch l mt s nguyn v cc gi tr ca n l cc

hng s nguyn c ch nh. Nu iu ny khng oc ch nh, gi tr nguyn tng
ng vi phn t u tin l 0 v cc gi tr tip theo c th tng ln 1, V vy, trong
kiu d liu colors_t m chng ta nh ngha trn, white tng ng vi 0, blue
tng ng vi 1, green tng ng vi 2 v c tip tc nh th.

Nu chng ta ch nh mt gi tr nguyn cho mt gi tr no ca kiu d liu lit k

(trong v d ny l phn t u tin) cc gi tr tip theo s l cc gi tr nguyn tip theo,
v d:

enum months_t { january=1, february, march, april,

may, june, july, august,
september, october, november, december} y2k;

trong trng hp ny, bin y2k c kiu d liu lit k months_t c th cha mt trong 12
gi tr t january n december v tng ng vi cc gi tr nguyn t 1 n 12,
khng phi 0 n 11 v chng ta t january bng 1

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