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Article history:
Received 12 March 2010
Received in revised form 12 September 2011
Accepted 15 September 2011
Available online 22 September 2011
Keywords:
Middle America
Subduction zone
Tectonostratigraphy
Accretion
Subduction erosion
Seamounts
a b s t r a c t
The Central American forearc allows insight into the long-term evolution of the Middle American margin and
possible shifts between accretionary and erosive periods of subduction. We present a revised tectonostratigraphic subdivision of the Azuero area based on new eld observations and biochronologic data, and a synthesis of previous age, geochemical and stratigraphic data. The basement of the area is composed of an
autochtonous oceanic plateau, the early Central American arc and accreted seamounts, which are unconformably overlain by forearc sediments. The nature and spatial arrangement of basement units combined with
patterns of uplift and subsidence recorded in overlapping sediments allow reconstruction of the local evolution of subduction tectonics between the Upper Cretaceous and Miocene. Comparison of this evolution with
that formerly proposed for the south Costa Rican margin based on a similar approach (Buchs et al., 2009,
2010) provides an insight into temporal and along-strike changes of subduction tectonics along a
~ 500 km-long segment of the Middle American margin. We nd that subduction erosion (or non-accretion),
punctuated by seamount accretion, was the dominant process along the margin between the late Campanian
and Middle Eocene. In the Middle Eocene, uplift of the Central American forearc, initiation of a volcanic front
retreat in Panama and a pulse of seamount accretion between south Costa Rica and west Panama are likely to
relate to a reorganization of plate tectonics in the Pacic. A contrasted evolution occurred in south Costa Rica
and Panama afterwards, with continued subduction erosion in the Azuero area and net accretion of olistostromal and hemipelagic sediments in south Costa Rica at least until the Middle Miocene. Our results show
that tectononstratigraphic observations in the forearc may represent a valuable complement to offshore drilling and geophysical studies to understand modern subduction tectonics along the Middle American margin.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Middle American margin is one of the most studied around
the world and regarded as an archetypical example of a margin
undergoing subduction erosion (e.g. Ranero et al., 2007). Subduction
erosion is a process by which material is removed from the upper
plate in a subduction zone due to: (1) subduction of topographic
highs such as seamounts and ridges, which trigger temporary
dismemberment of the outer forearc wedge by mass-wasting and
cause tunneling of the overriding plate; or (2), dehydration of the
subducting slab that can enhance hydraulic fracturation and disaggregation of the hanging wall above the subduction channel (von Huene
et al., 2004). Subduction erosion is recognized as a widespread
mechanism along convergent margins (von Huene and Scholl,
1991). ~ 57% of modern convergent margins are considered as erosive,
with a long-term (N10 Ma) history of erosion (Clift and Vannucchi,
Corresponding author at: IFM-GEOMAR, Wischhofstrasse 1-3, 24148 Kiel,
Germany.
E-mail address: dbuchs@ifm-geomar.de (D.M. Buchs).
0040-1951/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2011.09.010
2004). Erosive plate margins are commonly distinguished from accretionary ones by the occurrence of geophysically-identiable features
such as a steep trench slope, normal faulting associated to subsidence
in the forearc area and an absence of large volumes of accreted sediments close to the trench (Ranero and von Huene, 2000; von Huene
et al., 2004). These are common features along the Middle American
margin and support its present-days erosive nature (Ranero and
von Huene, 2000; Ranero et al., 2007; Vannucchi et al., 2001; von
Huene et al., 1995).
In contrast, oceanic complexes exposed in the south Central American
forearc suggest the existence of several events or periods of accretion
between the Upper Cretaceous and Miocene (see Denyer et al., 2006,
and Denyer and Gazel, 2009 for a general review). Complexes that clearly
point toward accretion include: (1) the Osa Mlange that is composed of
Late Eocene to Miocene accreted olistostromal deposits and hemipelagic
sediments (Buchs and Baumgartner, 2007; Buchs et al., 2009; Di
Marco, 1994; Vannucchi et al., 2006, 2007); (2) the Quepos Block that
includes Upper CretaceousPaleocene accreted ocean island basalts
(OIB) (Baumgartner et al., 1984; Hauff et al., 2000); (3) the Osa Igneous
Complex that consists of several fragments of Upper Cretaceous to Eocene
32
geochemical data, radiometric data, seismic data and eld observations. The studied sequences document the development of the
west Panamanian margin between the Upper Cretaceous and
Miocene. Comparison of this development with that proposed for
the south Costa Rican forearc (Buchs et al., 2009) allows us to show
that events of accretion and periods of subduction erosion or nonaccretion occurred at different times and places along the Middle
American margin between the Upper Cretaceous and Miocene.
8400'
8300'
NICARAGUA
8200'
Santa
Helena
sensu lato
2
1000'
50
0m
900'
-3000
-20
MA
T
-50
-10 0 m
00
m
00
m
10
00
Osa
Peninsula
Burica
Paridas Is.
ge
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Las Perlas
Archipelago
Fig.2
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Azuero
Peninsula
-1000 m
?
?
?
?
?
?
11
Coiba
Island
Coiba
fractur
e zone
8200'
cture zone
Panama
fracture zone
8300'
800'
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
COLOMBIA
Balboa fra
8400'
900'
?
?
Son
Secas
Is.
00
m
Ri
d
s
-15
co
DB
1000'
Ladrones Is.
250 km
8600'
1100'
NP
-1000 m
Co
700'
7700'
Colombian
Basin
-2000 m
PANAMA
Chiriqu Gulf
COCOS
PLATE
7800'
PANAMA
MICROPLATE
Fig.9
0m
-2
800'
7900'
-1000 m
Seamounts
Domain
8000'
CARIBBEAN
PLATE
Cao Is.
-25
8100'
COSTA
RICA
5
-3
The Azuero area is dened as the area including the Azuero Peninsula,
Son Peninsula and Coiba Island. It is located in the Panamanian forearc
along the SW edge of the Caribbean Plate, above the subducting Nazca
Plate (Fig. 1). Similarly to the Costa Rican forearc, the Azuero area may
have experienced recent uplift in response to on-going subduction of
topographic highs under the Caribbean Plate (e.g. Sak et al., 2009).
In the most simple terms, the Azuero area can be described as an
igneous basement overlain by forearc sediments. Five distinct rock
associations have been recognized in the basement on the basis of
eld observations, geochemical data, 40Ar/ 39Ar radiometric ages,
and biochronologic data: (1) Upper Cretaceous basaltic sequences
with CLIP geochemical afnities, which are locally covered by
CampanianMaastrichtian hemipelagic limestones (Buchs et al.,
2010; Corral et al., 2011; del Giudice and Recchi, 1969; Kolarsky et al.,
1995a; Lissinna, 2005); (2) proto-arc-related igneous rocks
locally interbedded with late CampanianMaastrichtian hemipelagic
limestones (Buchs et al., 2010); (3) ~71 to 40 Ma arc-related igneous
rocks (Buchs et al., 2010; Lissinna, 2005; Lissinna et al., 2002; Wegner
CHORTIS
1100'
12
Coiba
Ridge8000'
?
?
-2000
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
NAZCA PLATE
7900'
7800'
?
?
?
7700'
Subduction zone
Thrust fault
Strike-slip faults
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Active volcanoes
700'
13
?
?
?
?
Normal faults
Fig. 1. General setting of the Azuero Marginal Complex and Azuero Accretionary Complex (after Buchs et al., 2010).
et al., 2011; Wrner et al., 2009); (4) Paleogene accreted Ocean Islands
(Buchs et al., 2011; Hoernle and Hauff, 2007; Hoernle et al., 2002); and
(5), Upper Cretaceous (?) metamorphic rocks of unclear origins
preserved in greenschist to amphibolite facies conditions (del Giudice
and Recchi, 1969; Tournon et al., 1989). These rock associations have
been interpreted to record the early history of the south Central
American arc and later accretion events along the margin (Buchs et
al., 2011; Corral et al., 2011; Hoernle and Hauff, 2007; Hoernle et al.,
2002; Lissinna, 2005; Wegner et al., 2011; Wrner et al., 2009). However, a detailed tectonostratigraphic synthesis of the Azuero area has not
been provided to date.
Forearc sediments on top of the igneous basement are mostly
composed of turbidites and shallow marine limestones. These sediments (also described below as overlap sequences) occur in offshore
basins and on land, low-altitude areas (Fig. 2). They deposited during
a regional transgression event between the Eocene and Miocene and
have previously been subdivided into the Tonos and Santiago formations based on eld mapping, biochronologic data and a sediment
provenance analysis (del Giudice and Recchi, 1969; Kolarsky et al.,
1995a; Krawinkel et al., 1999; Recchi and Miranda, 1977).
An integration of offshore marine seismic data, on-shore geological observations and biochronologic data was carried out between
south Costa Rica and west Panama by Kolarsky and Mann (1995)
and Kolarsky et al. (1995a). These works support the existence of
six stages of tectonic development in the forearc: (1) pre-Cenozoic
formation of the igneous basement; (2) a major Paleocene erosional
event supported by the occurrence of hiatus in the overlap sequences;
(3) a transgressive event of regional signicance in the Middle
15'
45'
30'
15'
33
8100'
45'
30'
15'
8000'
50 km
Santiago
800'
800'
Oc
Ri
oS
an
Ra
fa
Macaracas
45'
Azu
e
Fau ro-So
n
lt Z
one
Son
Torio
30'
Ce
n
Fa tral C
ult
Zo oiba
ne
So
Fa uth
ult Co
Zo iba
ne
15'
45'
Gerrita
30'
Joaqu
n Fau
Punta
Duartes
Cbaco
Island
30'
lt Zone
Tonos
Playa Venado
Punta
Restingue
Coiba
Occurrence of analyzed
proto-arc dyke or lava flow
Rio Gerra
45'
15'
8100'
Quaternary deposits
Younger arc-related volcanics (basalts, andesites),
sediments and tuffites (Middle Eocene to Miocene ?)
Santiago Formation (Late Oligocene to Miocene)
Forearc sediments (overlap sequence)
Tonos Formation (Late Eocene or? Early Eocene to Miocene)
Forearc sediments (overlap sequence)
Covachn Formation (Middle Eocene)
Forearc sediments (overlap sequence)
Azuero Accretionary Complex (Paleocene-Middle Eocene)
Lower Middle Eocene accreted oceanic islands
Azuero Mlange (Middle Eocene)
Subduction-related tectonic mlange that contains
Maastrichtian accreted seamounts
Punta
Mala
Azuero
Punta
Covachn Blanca
45'
30'
15'
15'
8000'
Fig. 2. Geological Map of the Azuero area modied from the Geologic Map of Panama, scale 1:250,000 (Mapa Geolgico Repblica de Panam, Direccin General de Recursos Minerales,
1991). This map also synthesizes the early work by Terry (1956) and several informal reports produced in the frame of the United Nations Development Program (del Giudice and Recchi,
1969; Metti and Recchi, 1976; Metti et al., 1972; Recchi and Miranda, 1977). Offshore faults are from Kolarsky et al. (1995a).
34
N
Ma
S NE
SW
Coiba area
Pleistocene
Pliocene
10
Miocene
Oligocene
Tonos
Fm
Tonos
Fm
30
Tonos Fm
?
AM
40
Covachn Fm
20
Tonos Fm
Santiago
Fm
Eocene
50
60
Azuero Arc
Group
AAC
Paleocene
?
Maastrichtian
70
90
Upper Cretaceous
80
Campanian
Oc
Fm
Oc
Fm
?
?
PAG
Azuero
Arc Group
Oc
PAG
Fm
PAG
Santonian
Coniacian
Azuero Plateau
Azuero Plateau
Azuero Plateau
Turonian
Cenomanian
?
JFZ
Lithologies
SAFZ
Hemipelagic limestones
Hemipelagic tuffaceous limestones
Shallow-water detrital sediments and
reefal limestone (basal overlap sequence)
Hemipelagic detrital sediments (overlap sequence)
Fig. 3. Chronostratigraphic chart of Cretaceous to Miocene units and formations of the Azuero area. PAG = Proto-arc Group, AM = Azuero Mlange and AAC = Azuero Accretionary
Complex.
n=105
Azuero Plateau
Nb (ppm) *2
Azuero Plateau
(Playa Venado OIB-like)
AI WPA
AII WPA and WPT
B P-type MORB
Azuero Accretionary
Complex
and VAB
AI
Azuero Proto-arc
Group
AII
Azuero
Mlange
Oceanic
Plateau
(Nicoya)
Zr (ppm) /4
Y (ppm)
Ti/V=10
600
Ti/V=20
IA T
500
Oceanic
Plateau
(Nicoya)
Ti/V=50
V (ppm)
400
300
RB
OIB I
OIB II
Ti/V=100
200
tion
la
u
um
acc IB
e
vin in O
Oli
CAS
100
0
0
10
15
20
25
Ti (ppm) /1000
Fig. 4. Discrimination diagrams showing compositional differences of igneous rocks
(SiO2 b 57 wt.%) from the Azuero Marginal Complex and Azuero Accretionary Complex
(data from Buchs, 2008, Buchs et al., 2010, 2011). Oceanic plateau basalts from the
Nicoya Peninsula (North Costa Rica) are displayed for comparison (compositional
eld based on 41 basaltic samples from Hauff et al., 2000). A) NbZrY diagram after
Meschede (1986). WPA = Within-Plate Alkali basalts, WPT = Within-Plate Tholeiites,
and VAB = Volcanic Arc Basalts. B) VTi diagram with trends for some typical environments after Shervais (1982). IAT = Island Arc Tholeiite (high Fe supra-subduction
suites), CAS = Calc-Alkalic Suites (low-Fe supra-subduction suites), and OIB =
Ocean Island Basalts (OIB I = Hawaiian alkalic basalts and OIB II = Hawaiian subalkalic
basalts).
Mlange by the AzueroSon and Joaqun fault zones (Fig. 2). Deformation in the Azuero Plateau is moderate and most sequences remained
well-preserved, although dismemberment is common in the vicinity
of fault zones. The unit is composed of massive, columnar or pillow
basalts that locally contain small volumes (b1% of the unit) of red
siliceous pelagic sediment (Fig. 5A). The sediment yielded radiolarians
of Coniacianearly Santonian age (8985 Ma) (Buchs et al., 2009;
Kolarsky et al., 1995a). 40Ar/39Ar ages from the bulk of the basalts
(Lissinna, 2005) indicate a pre-Campanian, presumably late Turonian
to Santonian age of formation for the unit that is in broad agreement
with sedimentary ages (Fig. 3). Geochemistry of the igneous rocks supports an oceanic plateau origin for the unit (Buchs et al., 2010; Lissinna,
2005) (Fig. 4).
The Azuero Plateau represents an autochthonous basement of the
area. The lowermost tectonostratigraphic position of the Azuero Plateau
is supported by: (1) proto-arc and arc dykes from the Azuero Proto-arc
Group and Azuero Arc Group that locally crosscut sequences of the
Azuero Plateau (Buchs et al., 2010); and (2), stratigraphic relationships
35
36
Fig. 5. Illustration of some lithologies from the igneous basement in the Azuero area. A) Shoreline exposure of pillow lavas in the Azuero Plateau (Torio, west Azuero Peninsula).
B) Basalt from the Proto-arc Group in stratigraphic contact with a hemipelagic limestone from the Oc Formation (Ro Torio, west Azuero Peninsula). The picture also displays a
basalt dyke within the limestone. C) Tuffaceous hemipelagic limestone of the Oc Formation (Ro Gerra, central Azuero Peninsula). D) Deformed pelagic sediments from the
Azuero Mlange (Ro Higueronoso, west Azuero Peninsula).
37
38
Fig. 6. Illustration of some lithologies from overlap sequences in the Azuero area. A) Typical turbiditic sequence of the Tonos Formation (close to Bcaro, south Azuero Peninsula).
B) Turbiditic facies of the Covachn Formation (mouth of the Ro Lajas, south Azuero Peninsula). C) Mass-ow deposit from the Covachn Formation (Covachn, south Azuero
Peninsula). D) Pebbly sediments of the Covachn Formation (coastal exposure west of Ro Lajas, south Azuero Peninsula).
mostly in the southwest corner of the Azuero Peninsula but may also
occur as deformed slices in contact with the Azuero Mlange in the
northwest edge of the Azuero Accretionary Complex (Figs. 2 and 3).
matrix-supported and uncommonly grain-supported, with thin interbeds devoid of pebble. The composition of the bulk of the clasts indicates they likely sourced in the Azuero Accretionary Complex.
AS
FZ
730'
Punta
Duartes
39
Overlap sequences
Tonos Fm
Covachn Fm
Boca de
Quebro
10km
715'
Cacao
Punta
Restingue
8100'
Puerto Escondido
Covachn
45'
Punta
Blanca
Cambutal
30'
Fig. 7. Map of lithologic assemblages found in the Azuero Accretionary Complex (modied after Buchs et al., 2011).
40
Fig. 8. 14) Early Eocene larger benthic Foraminifera, inland outcrop (DB07-010b, Ro Pavo, 555270/801329 UTM WGS84), Azuero Accretionary Complex. Scale bar = 1 mm:
(1) Discocyclina barkeri; (2) Pseudophragmina sp.; (3) Euconoloides sp. cf. E. wellsi and Amphistegina undecima; and (4) Amphistegina undecima. 56) Middle Eocene, debris
ow matrix (POB06-020, Covachn Beach, 540585/799360 UTM WGS84), Covachn Formation. 5) Discocyclina sp., scale as for 14, 6) Lepidocyclina polylepidina. 78) early
Middle Eocene forms from calcarenite interlava (DB07-037b, Ro Horcones, 551116/804002 UTM WGS84), Azuero Accretionary Complex. 6) Pseudophragmina ancoensis.
8) Orthophragmina sp. 9) Lepidocyclina sp. and Operculinoides sp. (POB06-022, east of mouth of Rio Pedregal, 548406/800562 UTM WGS84). Late EoceneEarly Oligocene
shallow marine limestone at the base of the Tonos Formation. 1013) Early Oligocene, shallow marine limestones associated with the base of Tonos Formation, central
Azuero Peninsula. 10) Nummulites panamensis and Discocyclina sp. (AL026-P, Ro Gerita, 543177/837065 UTM WGS84). 11) Nummulites dia (AL026-P, Ro Gerita,
543177/837065 UTM WGS84). 12,13) Lepidocyclina undosa (AL031-P, Ro Gerra, 547806/830010 UTM WGS84).
kugleri and to N.trinitatensis the latter being thicker and having more
closed spiral laminae than N. panamensis. The similarity is such that
Cole (1958) considered this two species as synonymous. Our Panamanian material includes the N. antiguensis, dia, bulbrooki and kowei
types. Similar assemblages were found in other localities of the
Caribbean realm as in Central Chiapas (Frost and Langenheim,
1974) where they are associated with the Early Oligocene Cassigerinella
chipolensisPseudohastigerina micra Zone of Bolli (1966).
In a shallow marine limestone at the base of the Tonos Formation in
the Ro Gerra (sample Al031-P, 547806/830010 UTM WGS84), dominant large Lepidocyclina spp., among them Lepidocyclina tournoueri
and Lepidocyclina undosa (Fig. 9, 1213) indicate an Oligocene age.
8345'
Younger
formations
(arc and
forearc)
N
845'
Ig
Cao
Island
ne Ou
ou ter
s O
Co sa
(Sa Osa
m
n P M
pl
ed lan
ex
rill ge
oU
nit
)
Osa Peninsula
25 km
41
Golfito
Complex
?
?
Osa
Ml
ang
e (C
abo
Mat
apa
lo U
nit)
Osa Mlange
(Salsipuedes Unit)
Golfo
Dulce
?
?
IOIC
Fig. 9. Basement units of the south Costa Rican forearc (after Buchs et al., 2009). Golto Complex: ConiacianSantonian (?) to Eocene volcano-sedimentary sequences that include
an arc basement (Azuero Plateau), proto-arc volcano-sedimentary deposits and younger forearc sediments. Inner Osa Igneous Complex: ConiacianSantonian seamounts or oceanic
plateau (distinct from the Azuero Plateau) that accreted in the Paleocene. Outer Osa Igneous Complex: imbricate of ConiacianSantonian to Middle Eocene seamounts that accreted
in the PaleoceneLate Eocene. Osa Mlange: Late Eocene to Miocene accretionary complex. See text for additional descriptions on the nature and origins of the units.
studied area; and (2), the Azuero Proto-arc and Azuero Arc groups,
which record the subduction initiation along the Azuero Plateau in
the late Campanian and further arc development until the Middle
Eocene (Figs. 2 and 3). These units correlate to the Upper Cretaceous
Golto Complex in south Costa Rica, which is composed of a similar
assemblage of proto-arc-related volcano-sedimentary sequences
and, possibly, CLIP-related igneous rocks (Buchs et al., 2010 and references therein; location and tectonostratigraphic summary of the
Golto Complex are shown on Figs. 9 and 10). The Azuero Marginal
Complex in west Panama and the Golto Complex in south Costa
Rica dene together a nucleus upon which exotic units accreted
since subduction initiation in the late Campanian.
Accreted units in the Azuero area are composed of: (1) the Azuero
Mlange, which includes early Maastrichtian seamounts accreted
between the Maastrichtian and Middle Eocene; and (2), the Azuero
Accretionary Complex that includes PaleoceneEarly Eocene to Early
Eocene oceanic islands that accreted along the margin in the Middle
Eocene (Figs. 2 and 3). These accreted units do not correlate with
those in south Costa Rica that consist of: (1) the Inner Osa Igneous
Complex, which is mostly composed of Coniacianearly Santonian
oceanic basalts with a predominant CLIP-like geochemistry, and
represents seamounts accreted in the Paleocene; (2) The Outer Osa
Igneous Complex, which is composed of 4 units that include a large
population of ConiacianSantonian to Middle Eocene seamounts
accreted between the Paleocene and Late Eocene; and (3), the Late
Eocene to Middle Miocene Osa Mlange, which includes one unit
composed of accreted olistostromal deposits, and two units composed of Paleocene to Middle Miocene accreted hemipelagic sediments (Buchs et al., 2009 and references therein; see also discussion
below and Figs. 9 and 10). Clearly, tectonostratigraphic data from
west Panama and south Costa Rica reect a complicated pattern of
accretion along the Middle American margin between the Paleocene
and Middle Miocene.
Acretionary events and periods of possible subduction erosion or
non-accretion are synthetized in a model of evolution of the margin
(Figs. 10 and 11). This model recognizes seven stages of development
since the Upper Cretaceous:
5.1. Formation of the Azuero Plateau
The rst stage of development recorded in west Panama and south
Costa Rica corresponds to the formation of the Azuero Plateau in the
42
Age
Ma
W Panama
S Costa Rica
Pleistocene
Pliocene
10
Miocene
30
40
?
Eocene
Santonian
Inner
Osa
n
Igneous
ou Complex
80
o
Golfito
ex
Complex
Campanian
Azuero
z
Accretionary
a
Complex
70
a
Azuero Marginal
ple
Complex
Upper Cretaceous
Maastrichtian
60
Osa Mlange
(San Pedrillo
dr Unit)
?
50
Paleocene
3
Osa Mlange
M
(Salsipuedes
Unit)
pu
Oligocene
Osa Mlange
O
(Cabo
o Matapalo Unit)
20
Coniacian
Turonian
90
Cenomanian
Exotic
Exotic
Recycled
Exotic
Margin development
Undifferentiated overlap sequences
Accreted sediments
Accreted seamounts and oceanic islands,
possible oceanic plateau
Proto-arc and arc sequences
Fig. 10. Correlation of the tectonostratigraphic subdivision in the Azuero area (this paper) and south Costa Rica (Buchs et al., 2009). Numbered gray lines outline major, well-dened
events along the margin: (1) formation of the Azuero Plateau; (2) subduction initiation; (3) accretion of an oceanic plateau or seamounts in south Costa Rica (Inner Osa Igneous
Complex); (4) accretion of seamounts in west Panama and south Costa Rica (Azuero Accretionary Complex and Outer Osa Igneous Complex); (5) accretion of olistostromal unit of
the Osa Mlange (San Pedrillo Unit); and (6) accretion of the outermost Osa Mlange (Cabo Matapalo and Salsipuedes units); and (7), collision of the Cocos Ridge in south Costa
Rica. The gure also displays interpreted periods of possible subduction erosion or non-accretion (see also Section 5).
In the Azuero area, the Paleocene to Early Eocene interval corresponds to a hiatus in overlap sequences (Kolarsky et al., 1995a). As
no constructional event has been observed in the basement apart
from the arc development, it is deduced that the evolution of the margin was associated to a period of possible subduction erosion or nonaccretion.
The margin in south Costa Rica records a different history during
the same time interval. The Inner Osa Igneous Complex has been
interpreted as an autochthonous complex part of the CLIP based on
geochemical data (Hauff et al., 2000) or accreted seamounts (possibly
west Panama
1
intraplate volcanism
(CLIP formation)
oceanic
plateau
oceanic crust
oceanic crust
Late Campanian
arc initiation
sea level
N
arc initiation
oceanic plateau
or seamounts
oceanic
plateau
oceanic
plateau
intraplate volcanism
(CLIP formation)
sea level
oceanic
plateau
43
subduction erosion
or non-accretion
subduction erosion
and accretion
(Inner Osa Igneous Complex)
oceanic plateau
or seamounts
retreat of the
volcanic front
Middle Eocene
accretion
(Azuero Mlange,
Azuero Accretionary Complex)
drown
nds
seamounts
ic isla
ocean
retreat of the
volcanic front
retreat of the
Late Eocene to Miocene
volcanic front forearc subsidence
subduction erosion (?)
Late Eocene
forearc subsidence
subduction erosion (?)
Azuero Plateau
Proto-arc
Early Arc
accretion
(Outer Osa Igneous Complex)
Fig. 11. Comparison of the Upper Cretaceous to Miocene interpreted evolution of the margin in west Panama and south Costa Rica. Numbers in the upper left corners refer to major
events outlined in Fig. 10. Full characterization of these events is given in the text (Section 5).
the trench and arc volcanoes. This spatial arrangement likely indicates that the forearc wedge was eroded before the accretion. Accretion of the Inner Osa Igneous Complex was possibly preceded by
subduction of topographic highs that led to indentation of the margin.
Also, a period of net subduction erosion or non-accretion is suggested
between the Late Paleocene and Middle Eocene by severe deformation and lack of large amounts of accreted sediment at the contact
between the Inner and Outer Osa Igneous complexes (Buchs et al.,
2009).
5.4. Middle Eocene volcanic front retreat, subduction erosion and
accretion
In Panama, retreat of the volcanic front since the Middle Eocene
(~5040 Ma) is well documented by radiometric ages and regional
mapping (del Giudice and Recchi, 1969; Lissinna, 2005; Lissinna et
al., 2002; Wegner et al., 2011; Wrner et al., 2009) (Fig. 3). This
retreat occurred over ~150 km to date and allowed the Azuero Marginal Complex to escape from burial under younger arc volcanoes.
Possibly, the retreat occurs in response to subduction erosion or shallowing of the angle of the subducting slab (Lissinna et al., 2002).
In west Panama, accretion of the Azuero Mlange and Azuero
Accretionary Complex occurred in or prior to the Middle Eocene as
dened by the ages and tectonostratigraphic relationships between
these two units and the age of the overlapping Covachn Formation.
44
Interbedded shallow marine limestones of the Azuero Accretionary Complex provide a clear Early Eocene maximal age of accretion for this unit.
Similarly to the Golto and Inner Osa Igneous complexes, the
spatial arrangement of the Azuero Mlange, Azuero Accretionary
Complex, and Azuero Marginal Complex in west Panama suggests
the loss of a signicant part of the outer forearc prior to the accretion
of seamounts and oceanic islands (Fig. 2). Possibly, this spatial distribution reects indentation of the margin by subducting topographic
highs before the emplacement of seamount fragments of the Azuero
Mlange or Azuero Accretionary Complex in the Middle Eocene.
In South Costa Rica, the Outer Osa Igneous Complex accreted at
least in part during the Middle Eocene, as indicated by Coniacian
Santonian to Middle Eocene ages of the accreted seamounts and the
Late Eocene age of formation of some parts of the Osa Mlange
(Buchs et al., 2009). Some of the older seamounts that form the
Outer Osa Igneous Complex possibly accreted after emplacement of
the Inner Osa Igneous Complex during the Early Eocene. Schistose
volcano-sedimentary rocks preserved in greenschist facies conditions
at the contact with the Inner Osa Igneous Complex (Buchs et al.,
2009) may record exhumation processes associated to the accretion
of the Outer Osa Igneous Complex.
5.5. Accretion of the Osa Mlange (San Pedrillo Unit)
The Osa Mlange in south Costa Rica has been previously interpreted as: (1) an accretionary complex composed of deformed olistostromal deposits and hemipelagic sediment (Buchs and Baumgartner,
2007; Buchs et al., 2009; Di Marco et al., 1995); (2) a tectonic mlange
at the base of the Osa Igneous Complex (Meschede et al., 1999); or (3),
an accretionary complex composed of dismembered volcanosedimentary sequences originally located on top of a seamount chain
(Vannucchi et al., 2006, 2007). An olistostromal origin for the innermost unit of the mlange (San Pedrillo Unit) accounts best for mapping along the shoreline at a 1:5000 scale, biochronologic data and
geochemical analyses of igneous rocks (Buchs et al., 2009). These
data show that blocks of sediment and igneous rocks embedded in
the mlange matrix sourced in the Osa Igneous Complex and Central
American volcanic arc. This material and hemipelagic sediment that
forms the bulk of the mlange matrix was interpreted as accreted
trench deposits originally formed during a mass-wasting event. Possibly, this event was triggered by a subducting seamount. A Late Eocene
accretion age of the San Pedrillo Unit is based on biochronologic data
from the blocks and matrix in the mlange (Buchs et al., 2009).
In constrast to south Costa Rica, no accretion is recorded in the
Azuero area during the Late Eocene. This observation, evidenced by
thick turbiditic deposits in the outer forearc (Tonos Formation) and
continued retreat of the volcanic front, supports occurrence of a
period of net erosion until the Miocene.
5.6. Accretion of the Osa Mlange (Cabo Matapalo and Salsipuedes units)
A second phase of accretion of the Osa Mlange is supported by the
occurrence of the Cabo Matapalo and Salsipuedes units that mostly include accreted calcareous hemipelagicpelagic sequences (Di Marco et
al., 1995). A Middle MiocenePliocene age of accretion is based on biochronologic data from accreted sediments and overlapping sediment
(Buchs et al., 2009, and references therein). This period of accretion
broadly correlates the Middle to Late Miocene erosional event observed
on offshore seismic proles (Kolarsky et al., 1995a) and may indicate
accretion was coeval to an uplift in the outer forearc.
45
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