Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FOREWORD
After the 1952 adjustment, Chinas Higher Education in Science and Technology basically
inherited the former Soviet system, namely, establishing universities corresponding to
industrial sections. Engineering Colleges were grouped into civil engineering, electrical
and mechanical engineering, hydraulic engineering, chemicals, mining, aviation, geology,
transportation and other colleges to meet the industrial needs for engineers and
technicians. Arts and Sciences were combined into general university, resulting in the
separation of engineering and Arts and Sciences, an unfavorable situation for engineering
education.
In the 1950s and 1960s, most engineering textbooks translated from the former Soviet
Union. Those were teaching materials with practicality in mind, i.e., students were taught
to design according to design specifications. Since the reform and opening up, department
setup started to follow the discipline line and became to follow the international system,
but the industrys influence remained. In the new textbook Bridge Project published in
2004, all articles, chapters, sections arranged basically inherited the former Soviet Union
old textbooks except some necessary changes under the new requirements.
In the 2006 annual meeting of the International Bridge Engineering in Budapest,
Professor M. Schlaich of the Department of Civil Engineering of the Technical University
of Berlin published a report entitled The challenge of education conceptual and
structural design, at the General Assembly. He introduced ongoing civil engineering
education reform at Berlin University, i.e. combining the steel materials department and
concrete structures department into a new conceptual and structural design department,
and the three full professors no longer taught Steel Design, Design of Concrete
Structures according to the standard methods of analysis and design methods, instead,
they taught conceptual design and structural design methods about all types of building
materials according to the structure (bridges, tall buildings and space structures) to
strengthen the cultivation of students innovative ideas and ability, not only the basic
design skills.
2007 onwards, Bridge Engineering at Tongji University decided to open a new course
Concept Bridge Design for graduate students in order to bring forward a new generation
of bridge engineers with conceptual design capabilities to overcome the shortcoming in
innovative ideas quality and aesthetic considerations in Chinas bridge engineering.
The course started in the Spring of 2008, first in the form of lectures given by several
young professor in the division. 2008 summer, Professor Hoi Fan also joined the ranks of
the course construction, participated in determining the teaching guideline, and coauthored with Professor Xiao Rucheng Chapter 1 Introduction; Chapter 2 Bridge
Aesthetics and Design; Chief Engineer and Senior Engineer Professor Xu Liping and
Professor Wei Hongyi at Bridge Design institute co-authored; Chapter 3 Basic Factors to
be Considered in the Conceptual Design and Conceptual Design; Chapter 4 Analyzes
Innovative Ideas; Professor Ge Yaojun Wrote; Chapter 5 Bridge Structural Disaster
Prevention and Durability, and Part of; Chapters 2 and 3; Professor Xiao Rucheng Wrote;
Chapter 6 Bridge Structural System and its Key Mechanical Problems; Professor Shi
Xuefei Wrote; Chapter 7 New Problems in Conceptual Design and Solutions; and Finally
Conceptual Design Chapter 8 was rewitten by Tongji Urban Bridge Alumni, Tianjin
Urban Construction Group Chief Engineer Professor Han Zhenyong, Senior Engineer. The
book was validated by Professor Xiang Haifan before finalization.
Recently, in the midst of the Question of Qian, we feel the urgency and the necessity
of reform in engineering education in China. We hope that the publication of the concept
of bridge design can bring inspiration and encouragement to Chinese students majoring
in bridges sector as well as colleagues to overcome the deficiencies in Chinas bridge
design, to come out of misunderstanding, and to help the education of bridge engineering
in Chinese Universities rid of the shackles of traditional materials and methods and to
keep up with the international engineering education reform. We welcome all feedbacks,
especially to the errors in the book, from colleagues bridge engineering for future
amendment in the second edition in order to further improve this Conceptual Bridge
Design and make it a compulsory textbooks for 21st century bridge engineers.
Xiang Haifan
February 2010
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of the Development of Modern Bridge (1660 to 1945)
1.1.1 Preliminary Period (1660-1765)
1.1.2 Progressive Era
1.1.3 Development Period IThe Born of Steel (1874-1945)
1.1.4 Development Period IISteel Suspension Bridge (1883-1945)
1.1.5 Development Period IIIReinforced Concrete Bridge (1875-1945)
1.1.6 Summary
1.2 A Brief History of Modern Bridge (1945-2008)
1.2.1 Bridge Type and System Innovation
1.2.2 New Materials and Connection Technology
1.2.3 Innovative Structure Construction and Ancillary Equipment
1.2.4 Innovative Engineering Methods and Equipment
1.2.5 Innovation Theory and Analytical Methods
1.2.6 Summary
1.3 Achievements and Shortcomings of China Bridge Construction (1978 to 2008)
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Bridges the Rise of China in the 1980s
1.3.3 1990s China Bridge Takeoff
1.3.4 China Bridge at the Beginning of the 21st Century
1.3.5 Problems in Bridge Construction in China
1.4 Modern Bridge Engineering
1.4.1 Bridge Engineers Mission and Mandate
1.4.2 Research and Development of Bridge Project
1.4.3 Bridge-building in the Era of Knowledge Economy
1.5 Conceptual Design and Innovative Ideas
1.5.1 Conceptual Design Significance
1.5.2 Basic Principles of Conceptual Design
1.5.3 Definition of Innovation
2.5.4 The Arrangement of the Auxiliary Pier in Cable-stayed Bridge Side Span
2.5.5 Pyramid Select and Proportion
2.5.6 Asymmetric Single Tower Cable-stayed Bridge and Collaboration System
2.5.7 Arrangement of Side Span in Suspension
2.5.8 Proper Height of Main Beam Girder
2.6 Chapter Summary
Review Questions
References
INTRODUCTION
material gradually replaced in natural stone and wood as the main building material of the
bridge.
In 1779, the British engineer Abraham Darby III (1750~1790), designed and built
the worlds first cast-iron arch bridge, the Coalbrookdale bridge. It was 30.65 m-span (Fig.
1.2) and also known as the end of the ancient bridges from first of modern times.
Subsequently, the British engineer Thomas Telford (1757~1834), built more than a
dozen larger span cast iron bridge, from which the most representative one was the Eaton
Hall bridge (45.75 m-span) built in 1824. For the construction of multi-arch iron bridge,
R. Stephenson (1803~1859), invented the Tied arch in 1849, this design spared the pier
from the force generated by the arch and it established a new bridge type Tied Arch
Bridge.
inspiration of cabin truss built a six-span (131 m) bridge spanning multiple lattice trusses.
In 1864, the first cantilever truss girder bridge with hanging hole was built, with sub-span
of 23.9 m + 37.9 m + 23.9 m. This quiet cantilever truss system with hanging hole is
named Gai Erbo truss, because of its simple and clear stress analysis, soon it became
popular in Europe and America and was a major bridge type of large-span railway bridge.
For instance the 1859, Britains Albert Bridge has the main span of 138.6 m, the 1860
Frances Lu Zhate viaduct has a span of 55.125 m + 57.75 m + 49.125 m.
economic efficiency.
Since then, the deflection theory has been rapidly promoted, and between 1926 and
1940, multiple large-span suspension bridge, designed by or consulted with, were built by
using the deflection theory in the United States, the notable ones are:
1. Benjamin Franklin Bridge (L = 533.75 m, 1926)
2. Ambassador Bridge (L = 564.3 m, 1929)
3. George Washington Bridge (L = 1067 m, 1931, Fig. 1.7)
4. Golden Gate Bridge (L = 1280 m, 1937, Fig. 1.8)
5. San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge (L = 704 m, 1937)
6. Bronx-Whitestone Bridge (L = 701 m, 1939)
Advantages of the deflection theory is that the use of gravity suspension stiffness
reduced the bending stiffness of the bridge deck allows design engineers gradually
abandoned bulky truss stiffening girder and used more economical plate girder bridge.
With the reduced plate girder height and corresponding reduction of assumed bending
moment, the safety of the bridge structure is ensured.
and shrink losses of concrete. Success was not seen until 1928, when French engineer
Freyssinet invented the conical anchor using a high-strength steel and high-strength
concrete (1939). After World War II due to shortage of steel, the need for repairing bridges
destroyed in the war led the rapid development of the pre-stressed concrete technology.
1.1.6 Summary
Throughout the course of 300 year development of modern bridges: from the first phase
(1660 to 1765), the theoretical foundation, to the second stage (1765~1874), cast iron
bridge, (wrought) iron truss bridge and eye rod suspension, and the third phase
(1874~1945), of steel (steel truss bridge, steel arch bridge and steel suspension bridge) and
the subsequent emergence of reinforced concrete bridge. It can be said that the mainstream
of modern bridge is steel bridge, including many railway bridges and urban bridge, with
the representing landmark bridges being the Coalbrookdale iron bridge, Scotland Forth
steel truss bridge, steel suspension bridge built in Brooklyn, New York, in the 1930s, and
the representing modern bridges of the highest achievements being the George
Washington Bridge, the Sydney bridge, the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco and
Sweden Sandor bridge.
The span of cast iron arch bridge increased from the initial 30.65 m in steel truss
bridge to more than 500 m in steel truss cantilever bridge, and suspension bridge from less
than 100 ft (30.48 m) of wrought iron rod suspension eye to the Brooklyn bridge of 468 m,
and to Washington bridge which exceeds one kilometer, and the golden Gate bridge set a
striking record of 1,280 m, all are remarkable achievement, results of the combination of
wisdom and hard work of many bridges pioneers. The fifteen most outstanding modern
bridge engineers (16th to 18th century birth) are:
1. Jean R. Perronet (1708~1794), (Fig. 1.11), Stone Arch Pressure Line; France.
2. Abraham Darby III (1750~1790), (Fig. 1.12), Cast Iron Arch Bridge; United
Kingdom.
3. Thomas Telford (1757~1834), (Fig. 1.13), Cast Iron Arch and Eye Rod Suspension
Bridge; United Kingdom.
4. John A. Roebling (1806~1869), (Fig. 1.14), the Brooklyn Bridge; Germany.
5. Gustave A. Eiffel (1832~1923), (Fig. 1.16), Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel Arch
Bridge; France.
6. Benjamin Baker (1840~1907), (Fig. 1.17), Forth Railway Bridge Truss; United
Kingdom.
Research Institute
1970
Swanson
1970
MacNeal
SAP
1970
E.L. Wilson
TDV
1970
D. Janjic
ADINA
1975
Bathe
ABAQUS
1979
Hibbitt
Lusas
1982
Paul Lyons
Midas
MIDAS IT company in
1989
3. Seismic Theory
Early 20th century, the Great Kanto Earthquake of San Francisco and two disasters caused
emphasis on structural anti-seismic research. Researches basic theory in earthquake,
strong motion records, model test, analysis theory had been conducted in the engineering
fields. Structural anti-seismic research started its rapid development period after 1940. In
1943, Biot published accelerated response spectrum deducted from actual seismic records;
from 1950s to 1970s, scholars represented by Housner, Newmark and Clough of the
United States and Muto of Japan laid the foundation of modern response spectrum antiseismic theory and carried out research on the dynamic response process of structural
elastics and inelastic analysis; in the 1970s, Newmark, Park, Paulay put forward the
concept of anti-seismic design ductility; in the mid-1990s, scholars from the United States
and Japan proposed a performance-based anti-seismic design method.
4. Wind-proof Theory
The wind destruction incidence of the Tacoma suspension bridge in 1940, which occurred
at low wind speeds, triggered the beginning of comprehensive study of wind.
Induced vibration and aeroelastic prelude theory concerning long-span bridge in the
engineering field, and T. Von Karman and others of the USA conducted bridge model
wind tunnel tests.
Wind Theory Studied progressed and was perfected since the 1960s. Davenport of
Canada proposed statistical mathematics approach in wind engineering research, solving
creatively the problem of random buffeting and expressing the wind effect as an
equivalent form of wind loads; Scanlan of the USA formed the bridge flutter theory and
the shaking vibration theory; in the 1990s computed fluid dynamics made a significant
progress in fluid dynamics, which is now able to solve the uniform flow, simple form, low
Reynolds number numerical simulation computational problems.
In 1969, the paper by Lifshitz and Rotem were regarded as the first one illustrating the
dynamic response of structural health monitoring and evaluation modern structural health
monitoring concept; in 1987, Britain laid sensors on the 522 m three-span continuous steel
box girder bridge Foyle to monitor the operational phase of the bridge under wind loads
and vibration of the vehicle main beam deflection and strain response, the system is one of
the first and complete health monitoring system ever installed.
In the 1960s, linear systems theory and the progress of modern control theory laid a
theoretical foundation for the structure of the active vibration control; in 1972 Yao Zhiping
proposed the concept of civil engineering structural vibration control by combining with
modern control theory and created a new phase of the study in structural vibration; in 1973
The Mass Damper (TMD) passive control style device was first installed on the CN Tower
in Toronto, Canada; in 1989 Active Mass Damper (AMD) was first used in the Kyobashi
building in Tokyo, Japan. Structure control evolved from passive control and active
control theoretical research, and applied research phase of active control devices.
the main components, and on the performance of corroded reinforced concrete parts in
terms of the components, and research methods such as survey and assessment in terms of
structure. Research in this area is focused on durability analysis using computer numerical
simulation system, durability test basis, lifespan-based concrete aspects of bridge design.
1.2.6 Summary
Reviewing the 60 years of modern engineering development, many new bridge systems,
new structures, new materials, new construction methods as well as the creation and
invention of new theories and methods of analysis have made modern engineering
completely different from the early modern engineering: the value of modern bridge
engineering resides in the spirit of innovation. With the continuous upgrading of the
emergence of new labour law and the corresponding construction equipment, bridge
construction is also increasingly accurate, lightweight, automatic control, less reliance on
manual operations, and the quality of the project better and more durable, continuously
pushing the development of high performance materials. It can be said that the quality and
durability of modern bridge engineering come from equipment innovation. Bridge
engineer must strengthen quality concept, utilising advanced equipment to control and
guarantee the quality, greatly reducing the reliance on manpower.
Bridge engineer should also be continue to improve the aesthetic attainment, master
the method of aesthetics design, promote cooperation with architects, design and create
beautiful bridges to meet peoples aesthetic requirements of the bridge. Beautiful bridges
do not rely on more money, but on balance and harmony of the most reasonable
performance, most economical and most convenient structure construction.
25 internationally renowned modern bridge scholars and engineers are:
1. David Steinman (American, 1886~1961) (Fig. 1.76)
Main designers of the post-war suspension of the United States
Mackinac bridge, 1957
Founder of Robinson & Steinman company
2. Franz Dischinger (1887~1953), Germany (Fig. 1.77)
Externally pre-stressed concrete bridge, 1936
Modern bridge, 1956
Concrete shrinkage and creep theory
3. Ulrich Finsterwalder (1897~1978), Germany (Fig. 1.78)
Hanging basket situ pre-stressed girder bridge construction method, 1950
Pre-stressed concrete sling bridge, 1970
4. Gilbert Roberts (1899~1978), United Kingdom (Fig. 1.79)
British Freeman & Fox Chief Engineer
Forth road bridge, 1964
Severn bridge, 1966
Modern steel box girder bridge, 1966
Humber bridge, 1981
5. Riccardo Morandi (1902~1989), Italy (Fig. 1.80)
Vertical rotation concrete arch bridge construction method, 1955
Because of problems in curved arch bridge built on the soft soil, in early 1970s
Lightweight construction of the reinforced concrete arch truss bridge suitable on soft
ground was created, with the representing 75 m Zhejiang Ninghai bridge in 1976, and the
9 hole 50 m Henan Song County bridge. Meanwhile, in the Yunnan, Guangxi, Guizhou,
Sichuan, south-west mountainous areas, the development of easy non-support construction
of reinforced concrete box arch bridge were built, e.g., the 100 m Yibin, Sichuan Minjiang
River Bridge (1973), the 116 m Yunnan Red Bridge (1974) and the 105 m Guangxi Laibin
Bridge (1978).
In 1972, due to the need to develop oil fields the Shandong Yellow River Highway
Bridge is relatively rare steel bridge in China. Its main bridge is a 4-hole 112 m
continuous steel truss bridge approach using porous 33 m pre-stressed concrete beams.
Bored piles buried deep at a record 107 m. The bridge plays an important role in the
development of China Steel Bridges.
Western technology of cable-stayed bridge was introduced to China in the late 1960s,
Shanghai and Chongqing research department began to build this new bridge, and in 1975
built the 54 m Shanghai new five bridge and 75.8 m Yunyang Tang River bridge in
Sichuan. The completion of these two pioneer bridge is the harbinger of cable-stayed
bridge in the 1980s, in China. In 1980, the 174 m largest domestic span pre-stressed
concrete T-rigid frame bridge opened to traffic.
River Bridge was opened to traffic in 1987, the bridges cables used a New Generation of
hot extrusion PE Parallel to the cable casing system (NWPS). In 1988, the 110 m off the
coast of Guangdong Jiangmen bridge opened to traffic, it is the first short-term use of
precast pre-stressed concrete cantilever erection of advanced construction of continuous
beam bridge.
Throughout the 1980s, the construction of cable-stayed bridge thrived in the country
with the follows worth mentioning:
1. Guangdong Nanhai Jiujiang Bridge (1988), the main span 160 m, using floating
cranes assembled piecemeal cantilever construction.
2. Chongqing Shimen Bridge (1988), the main span 230 m, was the longest cablestayed bridge cantilever construction.
3. Guangzhou Haiyin Bridge (1988), the main span 175 m, the bridge width of 35 m,
was the widest single cable plane cable-stayed bridge.
4. Long Xiangjiang Jiangbei Bridge (1980), the main span 210 m, the first time the use
of light hanging basket full section once before fulcrum suspended casting
construction technology.
Fig. 1.104 Runyang Yangtze River Highway Bridge underground continuous wall. North
Anchorage (Elevation units: m; size unit: cm)
Similarly, south anchorage freezing method technique is the traditional construction
technique for mine shaft, but on the basis of the large size of bridges its use is a bold
initiative with a huge risk. Construction by eliminating the danger, and finally succeeded.
Bridge Tower Construction employed foreign template technology, which greatly
improves the appearance and internal quality concrete progress has been made. As the The
deck height is small, although the lateral wind loads can be reduced, also reduced the
torsional rigidity and thus cannot meet the stability requirements. Construction of the first
time the central buckle and central stabilising plate measures to solve this problem (Fig.
1.105).
Bridge main cable corrosion was first introduced in Japan in dry air de-humidification,
as a new technologies. In addition, the anchorage, foundation, tower, piers and and other
concrete box girder bridge approach works have adopted the technique of fly ash added to
improve the durability of the bridge is expected to ensure a lifespan of 100 years.
Fig. 1.105 Runyang Yangtze River Highway Bridge in central stabilising plate.
Fig. 1.107 Mixed Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge pylon connecting structure.
layout makes wind stability guaranteed. In order to reduce wind load and lateral
displacement of the deck small cable while preventing cable stormy wind-induced
vibration and other vibration, Su Tong Bridge uses Japans advanced surface treatment
technology with pits, as well as the cable side of the damper device. Meanwhile, largescale detailed high reynolds wind tunnel tests and studies to avoid adverse deck vibration.
Installation of the 300 m high bridge tower construction and advanced overhead steel
anchor box demanded efficient, safe, and secure the crane. Su Tong asked French bridge
crane company for advanced reconstruction and transformation, making it suited for Su
Tong Bridge. It also introduced advanced equipment and climbing formwork concrete
pumping equipment. The 1990s advanced equipment to ensure that the bridge Towers
safe, efficient, fast construction, to ensure the completion of the bridge towers quality.
The construction of steel box girder bridge over 1000 m is a challenge. Because Su
Tong Bridge Deck Normandy Bridge and Japan than in France Tatara Bridge should be
wide, although the cantilever length increases, but instead a small wide-span ratio, so that
the lateral stiffness of the construction phase is relatively large, and the side to windinduced vibration is reduced, which is more advantageous. In order to control the Su Tong
Bridge Construction catch the worlds advanced level, construction workers using the
precise geometry control advanced technology, command and construction general
contractors invited to the British and Danish company. COWI company flourished as a
consultant unit, with their advanced software to assist in the control, and achieved good
results. In order to ensure the efficiency and accuracy of assembly, the introduction of the
British Door Lang Company (DL Tech) advanced bridge crane, make up more than 500
meters cantilever erection smooth closure.
In addition, the non-navigation arch of Su Tong Bridge for the first time uses the
international advanced pre-stressed pre-cast segments and in vitro with cable technology,
through the success of the practice, it has made significant progress, catch up with the
world advanced level, became the pioneer in prestressed concrete continuous beam bridge.
The demonstration project (Fig. 1.109).
It can be said, Su Tong Bridge headquarters insisted independent construction, but
does not exclude the developed countries to assist, so that bridge the technology used to
achieve the international standard of the 1990s, and ensure the quality of the project to
improve the efficiency, Made a lot of progress, has also been praised by foreign
counterparts.
Fig. 1.109 Externally pre-stressed pre-cast segmental pre-cast yard Su Tong Yangtze River
Bridge.
Fig. 1.111 Zhoushan Xihoumen Bridge split box section (dimensions: m).
Japan and Denmark are two of the countries in the 1970s, began to connect homeland
across the sea island project. Japans bridge as a starting point, the construction of the
four-island project contact line; the small Danish island project kelp bridge construction
started. In the end of the century with the completion of the two famous sea Belt Bridge
(1997) and the Akashi Strait Bridge (1998), to achieve the ambitious island project plan
while among the world powers of the bridge.
In the 1970s, the worlds longest-linking project is 25 km Bahrain Island Narrows
Bridge between Bahrain and Saudi Arabia by a French construction company.
Bay Bridge construction in China began in the 20th century, the early 90s Shantou Bay
Bridge and the new Hong Kong airport line island project in the three bridges, namely,
Tsing Ma Bridge, Kap Shui Mun Bridge and Ting Kau Bridge. Since then, the Zhoushan
island project has quietly started, gradually advancing to the mainland from the island of
Zhoushan Islands Link. Other coastal cities, island project is also planned.
combination of full bridge deck pavement and a new uniform joints large container truck
traffic provides a smooth, durable good driving conditions.
quality engineering.
Xihoumen Bridge is suspension bridge spanning 1,650 m over the waterway with a
depth of 80 m. As is located in typhoon-prone areas, the basic wind speed up to 44 m/s,
requires flutter test wind speed 78 m/s, exceeding the limits of aerodynamic stability of the
overall streamlined box girder could be achieved, and thus must be split slotted box girder
cross-section. Additional stability is necessary when the central board to improve wind
stability. Xihoumen Bridge has become Chinas largest span when completed, and the first
use of split deck suspension bridge. In 2006, construction of the main cable fairlead first
traction over the sea using a helicopter to succeed, the whole bridge was completed in
2009, making the island of Zhoushan Jintang Island and connected.
Jintang Bridge Engineering Zhoushan island project for the last one to be connected
Jintang Island and the mainland. Originally planned to use the direct route across recently,
due to the Strait of deep water, technically difficult, after the switch to a total length of 21
km, crossing the shallow water ashore in Zhenhai program. A 620 m using the main
navigation span steel bridge, something the two auxiliary points navigable hole hole using
a main span of 216 m of continuous rigid frame and 156 m main span continuous beam,
and the rest were non-navigable approach for 60 m, 50 m and 30 m pre-stress concrete
continuous beam. Jintang Bridge draws on the successful experience of the East China Sea
Bridge and Hangzhou Bay Bridge, the total cost was 7.7 billion yuan, opened to traffic
before the opening of Expo 2009 Shanghai, a century-old dream of Zhoushan people.
in 2015.
Province, facing South-east Asia trade; in Wenchang construction of a new space launch
base. For this reason, the requirements of the railway across the Channel to replace the
current ferry transport, and decided to re-planning and preliminary studies Qiongzhou
Strait project led by the Ministry of Railways. In February 2009, two (railway, transport)
and provinces (Guangdong, Hainan) in Haikou, the first joint meeting was held to discuss
the work to build a highway and railway. Joint Working Group proposed a variety of
comparison program, overall, is currently working on preliminary investigations
navigation area, traffic, geological exploration, hydrological and meteorological
conditions are not sufficient to bridge deep water foundation and technical preparation
immersed tunnel is not enough, as well as coordination problems between the Ministry of
Railways and the Ministry of Transport, the need to have sometime to do the preliminary
work consciously careful argumentation comparison, not hastily.
company as some of the challenges, but also to buy some advanced equipment, such as
Germanys rig, Britain, Italy and France, cranes, movable formwork cast Norway, etc.
Germany and Switzerland as well as large travel joints, vibration dampers and buffers as
well as advanced construction pylon climb molds.
On the software, the United States, Ansys, Korea Midas, TDV, Austria and the United
Kingdom Lusas also introduced major software, major design institutes, independent
design of the bridge to China has played an important role.
In bridge construction boom in the late 20th century, some British companies such as
Hong Kong Maosheng (Maunsell), Halcrow (Hacrow), Ao Weina (Orup) and Bandung
(McDonald) and Denmarks Cowi other well-known companies are in consulting services,
sub-contracting tasks, the joint bid, case studies and other means, to participate in the
design and construction of Chinese Bridge Cooperation of Chinas development and
progress of bridge played a very positive role.
In addition, for some difficult problems to solve, such as steel deck from lack of
pavement, through the introduction of epoxy asphalt American ChemCos patented
technology has been resolved. Another example of fine cracks in the concrete, but also
through the introduction of foreign fiber adding technology to overcome. It should be said,
advanced technologies and successful experiences of developed countries is very helpful.
In the 21st century, our country and outside the companys cooperation has entered a
mature stage. Some large-span bridges and sea project need to rely on large advanced
equipment to ensure the projects quality and durability, but cannot employing sea tactics
and outdated equipment to complete. Some Bridge Engineering Command actively
inviting foreign well-known companies as the sites resident advisor on critical design and
engineering methods were reviewed and checks, and also listed in the budget cost of
purchasing advanced equipment in order to ensure the smooth progress of the project,
such as Shanghai Donghai Bridge, Jiangsu Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge and Su Tong
Bridge. We all recognise that the gap between Chinas equipment manufacturing industry
cannot solve the short-term, we also need time, through the efforts of independent
innovation, to catch up with the level of equipment in developed countries.
In some cities, domestic and international public tenders include foreign and domestic
design companies have begun to design units, or through the establishment of China
branch in the country registered a way to participate. Such as Guangzhou, Chongqing and
Tianjin cities bridges bid by Mr. America Tung-Yen Lin Deng served as the international
design. Some foreign companies have been gradually creative design accepted and
appreciated for the Chinese community has also touched the bridge and inspiration. It
should be said that this is a positive exchanges and cooperation for Chinas development
and progress of the bridge is very useful.
The fifty years of development history of Chinas modern bridge, in the first two Five
Year Plan period (1953 to 1963), by 156 former Soviet Union aided engineering, quickly
established the west since the 18th century industrial revolution two hundred the
accumulated years of modern industrial system. In terms of bridges, aided by the former
Soviet Union Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, we have mastered the modern steel bridges,
reinforced concrete and pre-stressed bridge of advanced technology, with a design and
construction team and several bridges factories. We can say that we have basically caught
up with the pace of the world bridge project forward.
Unfortunately, the Cultural Revolution made Chinas economic on the verge of
collapse, we completely missed the world in the 20th century, 60 to 70 years of postwar
modern bridge technology booming golden age. When in 1979, the first batch of scholars
and students to go abroad and see the Western Highway and the spectacle of urban
modernisation, tremendous progress can only exclaim post-war modern bridge. We must
study hard to catch up lost time to make it up as soon as possible.
Fortunately, the Chinese bridge circles in the 1980s, after learning and catching up, in
the 1990s, to track and improve both the development stage, and seize the opportunity to
Shanghai Nanpu Bridge and Guangdong Humen Bridge construction, chose a learning
foreign advanced technology, but do not give up the right of autonomy of independent
road construction, and finally succeeded. We gradually catch up with the pace of the world
of modern bridge forward, also won the international bridge industry peer recognition and
praise, to become an international bridge an important member of the extended family.
1. Design Innovation
Design is the soul of the project, which largely determine the projects quality, cost,
construction difficulty and duration. Since the reform and opening up, although there have
been a number of representatives of the excellent design of this era, but most designs there
is a lack of innovation, poor economic indicators and the problems caused by poorly
designed wasteful and unsafe bridge on the technical progress of the project with be
adversely affected.
Innovation should be the soul of design. However, we seem to lack an incentive
mechanism used in the design of new structures, new materials and new processes. First,
the design cycle is too short, too much to undertake the task, excessive pursuit of
economic efficiency, the unit did not have enough time to make the design and
optimisation of innovative thinking compared to imitation and plagiarism meet existing
design. Secondly, the lack of truly fair and open competition system and strict design
review and supervision system, but also the lack of creativity and economic indicators bad
design passed and implemented. Finally, there is a look at the size of the awards at all
levels of the project, not to pay attention to the tendency of design innovation and
economic indicators, so that innovative ideas for design engineers tend to indifference.
These are the causes for Chinese bridge design lacking creativity and poor economic
indicators.
Our bridge design has a bad tendency, the thicker text the better the design. However,
the most important design concept is very simple statement, did not say the reason clear
choice programs. Foreign designs are limited to the number of pages of tender documents,
tender design does not have to repeat basic information and requirements, the key is set
forth innovative ideas and solutions approach, so that the file has distinct characteristics
and persuasive.
Foreign bridge design only do the bidding of construction tender design, equivalent to
Chinas preliminary design or technical design, the foundation of a large number of
construction plans by the successful contractor based on business equipment and
experience in the design upto complete the tender. Thus, the design department had
sufficient time and energy to do the work of the design concept and technical innovation.
There are even some smaller consulting engineer firm, specialising in doing the feasibility
study and work program of the competition. This division of labour is very conducive to
innovative design and construction of innovative technologies. We should change the
current form of organisation to complete the design by the institute a full range of work
from the feasibility study until the construction plans as soon as possible.
of strict supervision. Only in this way can China bridges to high-quality brand
internationally respected peers.
4. Economic Issues
The costs of China bridge from the surface is lower than the cost of European countries, so
give people create a false impression that the is the best interms of economy. Chinese
bridge. However, after careful consideration the impression is not true.
First, because of Chinas low labour costs, many bridges have gathered a lot of sites of
migrant workers, bridge equipment using relatively backward. Although the bridge can be
built, and even record-breaking bridge, but often bring construction quality problems.
While an investment is low, but if life is very short, the future costs of maintenance and
reinforcement is very huge, from the viewpoint of the whole life is still very economical.
Secondly, the bridge construction in China are often the first choice by the owners and
design units, made by a scheme comparison, expert consultation meeting to discuss the
decision by the final implementation plan. In economic comparison scheme will be some
counterintuitive phenomena and man-made, even in order to meet the wishes of the
owners and the total disregard of the economy, so uneconomical, weird, difficult
construction program through false irrational economic indicators and not scientific
reasons to be implemented. During the construction phase and then an additional budget
to make the project economic principles useless.
Again, an important indicator of the economy of a bridge is the amount of material per
square meter deck, attached great importance to this reflects the level of competitiveness
and technology indicators in the international design competition. Because of Chinas gap
in the material industry, almost using the same kind of S345 steel bridge steel, concrete
bridge most of the strength of the relatively low-level of C50 concrete, therefore, thicker
steel plate and steel bridge in more varied, complex structure and bring welding process
problems, concrete bridge also often seem relatively clumsy and obesity, the bridge will
lead to increased costs.
Finally, there is a problem in the choice of the bridge span. In addition to the bridge
site topographic and geologic conditions unfavourable to cross the river to be a special
project requirements, the country has a lot on Yangtze River in the blind pursuit of large
span, even in the Xiangjiang River, a tributary branch of the Yangtze River Gan River and
other inland waterways would have to build super-kilometer span bridge, which is very
uneconomical.
design codes and standards, should be one of the most important tasks in the early
2000s to keep up with trends in the world of civil engineering development.
quality of life in four areas. Which in addition to the health sector, and the remaining three
are related and future bridge projects.
Looking into the modern engineering in the next 20 years, we should be fully
understand the mission of bridge engineers and tasks in materials, software, hardware
(construction equipment and monitoring equipment), disaster prevention and re-double
their efforts to a new generation of standardised five aspects, greet challenges across the
sea and island project for building and sustainable development in line with the concept of
the whole life of the 21st century, modern bridge engineering our contribution.
Finally, it should be noted that the invention of plastic in 1907, one hundred years has
gradually developed into a new family of materials. Metal and mineral products have been
a large number of high performance fiber reinforced plastic composites and replaced in the
field of electrical appliances, medical equipment, automotive, aviation, agriculture,
machinery and equipment, etc., and has been infiltrated with cement and steel as the basic
material of the modern civil construction. After the near future (probably in 20 to 30 years
later), engineering plastics and composite materials instead of cement and steel will
gradually become the protagonist of building materials, playing the role of a landmark,
which will be modern civil engineering (engineering) into modern new era, and caused
revolutionary changes in design theory, system configuration, connection technology and
construction method and the like.
Obviously, living in the highest level of the original innovation, it is the first (initiation)
and original (origination). If science to discover (discovery) as the core technology is to
the invention (invention) and creation (creation) as the core patent is a legal means to
protect the original innovations, and core technology came from those with a patent the
original innovations.
About two later levels of innovation, in October 2008, at the Chinese Academy of
Engineering President Xu stated in the speech, to implement the scientific concept of
development, building an innovative country.
Integrated innovation generally is overall an autonomy design driven by national
needs, but the core components are often the best value for money to buy foreign products,
assembly (integrated) up as high-speed rail EMU, regional aircraft, large tunnel excavator.
Introduction, digestion, absorption and re-innovation is primarily a local
improvement based on the imitation, such as home appliances and information industry,
although some core components can be produced, but the poor performance, not durable
(due to materials, production equipment, technology level gap), and some also purchase
foreign patents components and software, pay high royalties, even if completely
successful imitation, but the problem still exists levels of durability, which is the gap.
Have a similar situation in China bridge construction of large mechanical equipment, such
as drilling rigs, cranes and so on. Lower levels of generic success is not truly independent
research, completely independent intellectual property rights, and some do not actually
complete, and some overall design of the product is to ask foreigners to do with the
high-priced purchase. Therefore, innovation must be realistic, to tell the truth, should not
be exaggerate.
Developed countries have a strong technological power innovation, invention patent
them through continuous research and development arising, holds the industrys core
technology. They can stand on end, not only leading the development of science and
technology, but also through the export of capital and technology from high-end low-end
production leadership and command of developing countries.
As Song Jian, former director of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, said: Our only
way out innovation, innovation in order to break the limit, to get rid of containment,
withstood threats, only innovation can grasp out of containment inventions and intellectual
property rights in order. equal access to international cooperation, the former president of
the Chinese Academy of Comrade Zhou Guangzhou also said:. innovation must stand on
the shoulders of giants, the giant is mastered the core technology, leading the developed
technology. Therefore, we must first learn to be innovative application of the most
advanced technology, this is a tough process to the forefront. If you want to further
improve, it can only create new and better technology to replace the existing old
technology, it is necessary new channels, innovation.
At the early stage of reform and opening up, we introduced a lot of international
cooperation through advanced technology and production equipment, but very little
digestion difficult to re-innovation. Comrade Zhu Lilan, former director of the National
Science and Technology Commission said: The core technology is the soul of innovation,
while the core technology cannot be bought. So, to master the core technology, but also
to continue to move forward, we must have a stable R&D investment, the establishment of
a high level of R&D team, and advance technical preparations for sometime, in order to
obtain truly original innovation and core technology, otherwise it will be always lag
behind.
From concept bridge design point of view, the reform and opening up in the 1980s, in
the study of innovation in many developed countries started in the design, there are some
improvements. Since the 1990s, across the major rivers due to the need began to impact a
variety of bridge-record span. To ensure the quality and improve efficiency, we have the
introduction of foreign advanced construction equipment and design software, and also
invited some well-known international companies to help do some of the technical
difficulties of consulting services, has made great progress in technology, has also been
international peer recognition and praise, can be said to have entered the advanced ranks.
In the 21st century, some of the design and construction enterprises have gradually
realised the importance of technological innovation, developed through research and
development to continuously improve learning and experience in technology updates,
have set up R&D team as a backup and technical support, it should be said that this is a
great progress.
Some people think, according to its nature and intensity innovation can be divided into
breakthrough innovation and incremental innovation. The former brings a qualitative
change in technology is a completely different old things revolutionary change, is an
original and pioneering technology, such as modern bridge projects described above 60
years is about 60 original innovation, it makes modern bridge completely different from
the modern bridge of epoch-making change. The incremental innovation is a partial
improvement is based on the original replacement, such as a variety of new variants cablestayed bridge, thin cable becomes tight rope pyramid innovation, cable corrosion change,
the same construction method equipment replacement and advancement. This
improvement may occur dozens a year. Thus, innovation is original or groundbreaking,
but is associated with the core technology. The rest should be called improvements or
updates are local quantitative and improvements based on the original. In the introduction
of absorption based on re-innovation, if not a breakthrough can only be a kind of
improvement. The integrated innovation was more ambiguous and difficult to define.
In short, the conceptual design of a project can have 1 to 2 real breakthrough
innovations and technical improvements of 3 to 5 is a remarkable achievement, there can
be a lot of innovations. Innovation in the a word is a creation (creation) of Italy, cannot
arbitrarily labeled innovative label, but should have the support of patents, a qualitative
change in the performance of the core technology mission to lead a new trend initiative.
motivation, that past achievements and satisfied with the desire to climb new heights.
When a series of quantitative improvements reached its limit, but it is difficult to solve the
problem when it must be broken, namely, the need to create a new technology to replace
old technology. At this time, there have been a qualitative change, an innovation was born.
On bridge innovative, Mr. Deng Wenzhong said in his article urban bridges
innovation, innovation can be simply defined as meaningful improvement. The socalled meaningful must add value, just to different and change, it makes no sense,
cannot be considered innovative.
Modern bridge project six years, cited about 60 major innovations of modern
engineering, including innovative bridge type and systems, new materials and connection
technology, innovation and structural construction and ancillary equipment, innovative
engineering methods and equipment, and innovation theory and analysis methods in five
areas. These are original and inventive, it should be listed as the first level of the original
innovation. And a lot of bridge engineering innovation activities is Mr. Deng Wenzhong
said meaningful improvements to make existing technology to get more value, they are
reflected in the improvement in function and reduce costs (economy), enhanced
durability and aesthetic effect. There is a form in the application of traditional concepts
and methods of expanding its range of applications, because most of the original system
and the beginning of innovative engineering methods are used for smaller spans, such
expand or extend (expansion or extension) is also greatly promote the progress of the
bridge, but also a creative achievement.
To sum up, there innovative bridge is at three levels; original (origination) and
invention, a meaningful improvement, as well as to expand the (extension) on the
application of the prior art. We should have great respect for pioneering achievements,
such as Shibanpo Bridges first hybrid continuous rigid frame bridge deck, the French
Millau bridges first cable-stayed bridge continuously pushing construction. To encourage
a large number of bridge engineers meaningful improvement, every new bridge will be
able to do a better job than the previous one bridge to overcome the shortcomings and
eliminate hidden dangers, step on a higher level. For the expansion of technology
applications have certainly, but do not bother to pursue the span of, and should not be go
barely expanding, wasteful, and thus give up on inventions to explore new and better
technologies. Therefore, we must be meaningful expansion, which must be beneficial
and add value. Specifically, to get more value in the structural performance, economical,
convenient construction, increased durability and so on. For example, the caps do more
deep foundation piles high the greater the number of most contention pile, size of the caps,
but in a strong river erosion, or strong earthquake zone, or other aspects of the anti-ship
collision, high-pile platform whether it is the best? Are there hidden dangers and risks?
We must consider whether it makes sense to expand this, if there is a better solution, not to
pursue meaningless expansion.
Mr. Deng Wenzhong said: Innovation comes from a question. First ask why? This
problem gives us the opportunity to challenge the conservative habits. Why only use the
same old thing? Why should imitate, copy the original design? Why only someone did
something we can do?
The second question is why not? It gives us the opportunity to introduce new ideas and
breakthroughs constraints. Why not another way to do it? Why not try another material?
Why cannot modify the old norms? Why not put anything else in the industry learn from
the successful experience to solve our problems? The Why not? the problem is the core
of innovative power, which lead us to be bold and innovative, play our greatest
imaginative and creative, resulting in many new concepts and solutions, greatly improving
the quality of conceptual design.
The third question is What if? It allows us to be cautious and conservative, that is
properly solve new problems arise because of the creative, so creative carried out, without
a security risk. Some people say: Innovation will increase the risk. This is the
traditionalist excuse is lazy in philosophy. For the result of innovation and the challenges
and the way forward in what we need to do is overcome the difficulties, and it is part of
the innovative ideas.
Among the three questions of Innovative, the last one is the key to success.
Mr. Deng Wenzhong stressed: The project is a multi-program, so the engineers duty
is to choose the most suitable solution. Therefore, we must not meet in the conceptual
design for feasible, and to the pursuit of excellence that all aspects of the requirements
and conditions to find an optimal solution.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In 60 years of the development of modern bridges, unlike in developed countries has
created many new bridges of modern technology, is widely used around the world,
what do you think are the ten most influential technology? And compared these
advanced technologies, China reform and opening up 30 years built a major bridge
project, there are several technologies which have originality?
2. Chinas achievements and progress in modern bridge is huge, compared to developed
countries, but there are still gaps and weaknesses, what do you think the main
reason? How to overcome these problems?
3. Innovation There are many different interpretations and positioning, which view
you agree? Media propaganda in the completely independent intellectual property
rights was, how should evaluate?
4. Are you on the conceptual design, meaning, principles, tasks and content of a new
understanding? In the future design work in practice, how would you go to
implement it?
REFERENCES
[1] Yin Delan Wendi with Bridge Chinese articles Beijing: Tsinghua University
Press, 1988.
[2] Brandon China Bridge Shanghai: Tongji University Press; Hong Kong: Hong Kong
Building and City Press, 1993.
[3] Square Mingkun Bridge Essay Beijing: China Railway Publishing House, 1997.
[4] Modern Highway Bridges. Twentieth Century Blend of Major Scientific
Achievements, 1998.
[5] Meng Hoi Fan Bridges Twenty-first Century, Shanghai CAST: Shanghai Branch of
the Altar, 1998.
[6] Troitsky M.S. Conceptual Bridge Design//Bridge Engineering Handbook. CRC
Press, 1999.
[7] Of the Twentieth Centurys Greatest Engineering Achievements of Science and
Technology Highway Articles. Chinese Academy of Engineering, 2001.
[8] Klaus H Ostenfeld. Major Bridge ProjectsA Multi Disciplinary Approach. IABSE
Workshop Shanghai 2009-Recent Major Bridges, IABSE Reports, 2009 (95).
[9] Hoi Fan, Hong Xuan Pan, Zhang History of the Holy City of China Bridge
Shanghai: Tongji University Press, 2009.
Efficiency, economy and elegance are considered to be the three elements of design
guidelines since ancient Greece and its followed by the world engineers. Chinas reform
and opening up previously, due to the limited economic conditions, the only mention of
the practical, economic, possible conditions under proper care and beautiful
construction principles. In the 1990s, with the national strength, this principle has been
changed to safe, suitable, economic, aesthetic, the eight-character principle, to secure a
prominent position. Especially in urban bridge construction, bridge aesthetic requirements
continue to increase, reflecting the demand for functional and aesthetic value of the
landscape in the future to improve the lives of the bridge. Therefore, the aesthetic design
of the bridge should be an important part of the concept of bridge design. As a bridge
engineer, one has the responsibility to strengthen the aesthetic ideas in the initial stages of
the design concept, engaging with beautiful ornamental bridges to meet peoples
aspirations.
Of course, aesthetic considerations should not violate the basic principles of technical
safety, application and economy. Similarly, when according to technical and economical
criteria options, nor should deviate from the target aesthetics.
AD 354~430 years) (Fig. 2.6) then said, God is the root of all things beautiful.
AD 476, the Western Roman Empire was defeated by the Northern Germanic peoples,
Europe entered a medieval feudal period, which is the knight and theocratic despotism
period of upto one thousand years of the Dark Ages. Italian 15th century Italian
Renaissance Alberti (Alberti) (Fig. 2.7) defined beauty as the harmony of the parts, and
again to carry forward the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras aesthetic philosophy.
The rise of western classical school in the 18th-century generated German idealist
philosopher Baumgarten (1714~1762) (Part Fig. 2.8), Kant (1724~1804) (Fig. 2.9) and
Hegel Seoul (Hegel, 1770~1831) (Fig. 2.10), as well as students of Kant Schopenhauer
(1788~1860). Western materialistic philosophy school, there are British Burke
(1729~1797), Diderot (1713~1784) (Fig. 2.11) and the 19th-century Russian revolutionary
democrat Czerny Schiff Chomsky (1828~1889) (Fig. 2.12). Baumgarten is known as the
father of Western aesthetics, his book in 1750, Aesthetics, a book advocating
Aesthetics is artistic beauty way to thinking, is beautiful art theory. Kant believes that
the aesthetic nature of the representation of an object is something purely subjective
aspects. Hegels idealism has established a complete aesthetic system, he believes that
the concept of beauty is absolutely outside by the human mind into the sensual image that
America is the concept of emotional show.
Although China entered a bronze as a symbol of the slave society of the Xia Dynasty
(2140 BC) nearly two thousand years later than in the West, but it had developed rapidly,
after providers and Zhou have reached the heyday of the slave society, the Book of
Changes yin and yang, gossip already pregnant with the simple philosophy. To the Spring
and Autumn Period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770 BC to 221 BC), Chinese society
began the transition from slavery to feudalism, the emergence of contending ideological
thinkers and cultural prosperity. Eastern philosophy whereby the originator, the most
influential thinkers in when Confucianism and Taoism.
Confucian, founder of the school of Confucius (551 BC to 479 BC) (Fig. 2.15)
promoted virtue and music, mainly the pursuit of harmony and unity of man and society.
Aesthetic concepts of Confucianism is Zhiyong, head concept, Bede, Praising God,
stressed the practical beauty, shape beauty, moral beauty and spiritual beauty, namely,
about beauty and ethical unity.
admitted that the reaction of the spirit and initiative is the essence of dialectics, the two
combine to form a contemporary outlook of materialist dialectics.
important. Improper proportion will be give a feeling of deformity, weird, ugly and
distorted image.
While the above does not specifically emphasise the creative process of innovation
and aesthetic considerations, but Professor Leonhardt who has created many new
technologies bridge aesthetics master minds, innovative ideas should be run through the
how to make in this creative process reflects their design work in front of the beauty
talking about innovation, unified the beauty, the proportion of beauty, balance beauty,
harmony and beauty, rhythm and coordination of the beauty, only through constant
practice and compare to comprehend, the final contest results will be on your best
judgement creative work.
3. The French engineer Jean Muller designed Brotonne Bridge (Fig. 2.22) in
1974. Although there are so many beautiful cable-stayed bridge in the world,
but this is only the span of a single cable plane 320 m concrete cable-stayed
bridge with its simple, clean, shape and hardness and softness coordination
demeanor got the judges unanimously appreciated.
domestic large-span bridges were cross-sectional analysis and find out some errors and
gaps in order to strengthen our bridges in the future aesthetic considerations design.
Under the impetus of the late president of Tongji University, Brandon Lee, Shanghai
Nanpu Bridge (Fig. 2.37) pioneered the success of independent Chinese long-span bridge
construction, the bridge uses Tongji proposed light weight, construction speed, more
suitable Bond Beam deck Cable Stayed Bridge in Shanghai Soft and busy Huangpu river
shipping channel conditions. The bridge tower, tall and beautiful, was hailed as the most
beautiful cable-stayed Shanghai citizens.
In the middle reaches of the Yangtze River (WuhanNanjing section), in order to meet
the requirements of navigable inland level (clear height 24 m), the use of cable-stayed
bridges with the main span of 400~500 m is a reasonable choice for the economy. If the
underlying low construction cost can also be used across 160~200 m of multi-beam bridge
to meet up and down the rows of holes navigation. However, in the blind pursuit of largespan, but there have been some misguided thinking across a river 800~1000 m span cablestayed bridge, and even super-kilometer suspension bridge. At this point, span and bridge
clearance height ratio much higher than the 20 : 1, even upto 50 : 1 entire deck lying on
the water, completely lost beauty. Moreover, the cost is very expensive, and the adjacent
smaller bridge span is also very coordinated. France, Greece, in the design of the Strait of
Rion-Antirion bridge, in order to meet the requirements of 180000t of navigation, the use
of multi-span cable-stayed bridge 560 m (Fig. 2.46). Between Denmark and Germany Fei
Manen Channel Bridge, for the navigation 260,000t seagoing vessel, the recommended
solution is multi-span 780 m double rail-cum Cable Stayed Bridge, bridge truss Composite
Beam (Fig. 2.47), a solution worth learning.
at the actual water depth and geological conditions are arranged left-right asymmetry (left
and right edges of different pore size). As the water widens, it can also be arranged in a
symmetrical side hole, plus about the length of different non-navigable water hole bridge,
to form an asymmetric distribution holes in general, and to indicate to the navigation of
the ship channel the water side of the actual bias location. Sometimes, you can also
employ single tower cable-stayed bridge asymmetric arrangement or the use of
collaborative systems to adapt to nature, and to achieve the purpose of the economic fabric
of the hole.
Take the design of a bridge to the program as an example [Fig. 2.48(a)], because the
owners unreasonably required by the symmetrical arrangement of the water and had to
increase the span of the main hole to 428 m, and the need to move the channel 46.5 m, in
order to meet shipping requirements, navigable but still biased side of the main pier,
increasing the risk of ship collision. Moreover, increasing the main hole is not conducive
to the stability of the whole economy and arch bridges, but also increases the difficulty of
construction.
Instead, the use of asymmetric arrangement [Fig. 2.48(b)] not only conforms to the
natural, to the economy and security in general, but also in the aesthetic point of view, a
reasonable asymmetrical arrangement can also be presenting a beauty.
Fig. 2.48 Facade arrangement of a bridge (size unit: m) (a) Arranged symmetrically; (b)
Are arranged asymmetrical.
Domestic cable-stayed bridge, a strong side beams and pouring of concrete at the ends
of the hole plus the weight of the transition are commonly used to to provide balance
weights, there will be a mutation in the shape of the beam, affect the appearance. It is
mostly used in foreign countries made a long pull anchor seat, anchor pier on the use of
weight to balance the tail rope pull force, and set the continuous transition pore (transition
span), the joints move to the rear end of the transition pore to optimize the structure at the
anchor pier, as shown in Fig. 2.50.
Fig. 2.49 Beam stiffness affect the relationship between la/lm and p/g of (kac = 0. 4 time).
Steel deck
0.4
0.35~0.39
Bond beam
deck
0.2
0.40~0.45
PC deck
0.125
0.46~0.5
Fig. 2.51 Arrangement of shore side span in cable-stayed bridge pier aid (size unit: m) (a)
Nommandy bridge; (b) Stonecutters bridge.
Obviously, cable-stayed bridge with span less than 500 m, if the bridge width is more
than 30 m, the ratio of H2/B is not good enough, the pyramid will be look chunky and not
beautiful.
Navigation bridge deck clearance height determines the deck height H1, if they wish a
H/H1 ratio less than 4, the main span of L should satisfy the requirements of the following
formula:
As mentioned earlier, such as the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, the bridge height less
than 30 m, main span of 628 m, is inappropriate and unnecessary in the navigation. Under
the bridge span is too large to make the legs after Chantha than the total height of the
tower is too small, resulting in poor aesthetics short legs. Similarly, Su Tong Bridges
main span of 1088 m, but insufficient headroom under the bridge 60 m, such as the use of
the legs of the proportion of gem-shaped pylons are not good enough, do not use inverted
Y-shaped legs of the tower is more beautiful, is the right choice.
Hong Kongs Stonecutters Bridges main span is 1018 m, bidding plans such as single
column bridge pylon tower, A-shaped towers, inverted Y-shaped towers all avoided the
imbalance problem caused by legs.
In addition to Nanjing Bridge, the Yueyang Dongting Lake Bridge, white sandbar
Bridge and Runyang Bridge Auxiliary Channel Bridge also used gem-shaped pylon legs,
the height of its deck following a high percentage of the total column and are small, giving
a sense of short legs, affecting the aesthetics of the bridge tower. Each of the bridge are the
result of the irrational pursuit of large-span. Only when the main span to navigable
headroom maintain proper proportions, can sleek pylon be achieved.
access cable-stayed bridge formed a collaborative system. In order to make use of the side
beams and double cable-stayed bridge deck and use a central box girder continuous girder
bridge can smooth docking, you must set a transitional period, so that the bridge structure
is more complex, which is a drawback collaborative system.
Our Zhaobaoshan Bridge has a similar topography, also used the transition period with
a single tower cable-stayed bridge and the bridge connecting structure of the cooperative
system. Although the cable-stayed bridge cantilever bridge construction, due to improper
control of the emergence of the web and the bottom of the box girder section crush
accident, but after the removal and repair damage zones and construction control method
has been adjusted and pre-stressed arranged after successfully built a bridge. Clearly, as
long as the design and construction handled properly, this cooperative system with single
tower cable-stayed bridge in the special terrain is very appropriate.
Fig. 2.55 Suspension facade arrangement (dimensions: m) (a) Tsing Ma Bridge in Hong
Kong; (b) Dragon Bridge, Hong Kong.
Bridge is generally used oblique arrangement of cable plane. At this time, due to the
oblique cable plane (structural measures) provide a good torsional capability, high beam
girder can be small as much as possible, through a wider aspect ratio to reduce wind
resistance and vortex shedding. Such as the use of parallel cable planes and even a central
single cable plane cable-stayed bridge, you still need to consider the main beam should
have sufficient height and torsional rigidity. When using separate double box and slotted
central section (aerodynamic measures), the main beam height can be chosen to be as
small as possible, because the separation tank has provided sufficient aerodynamic
stability.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Fundamentals bridge aesthetics to evaluate the bridge you are familiar with China
and the worlds most beautiful bridges and make a comparison, talk about your
feelings.
2. What is your evaluation and learning experience for the German professor Leon Hart
of the creative process?
3. Successful examples of your Chinese aesthetic design of the bridge and there is a
problem any different opinions or supplementary examples.
REFERENCES
[1] Engels, Dialectics of Nature Beijing: Peoples Publishing House, 1956.
[2] Huancheng Tang Bridge Beauty Philosophy Taipei: Plain Bookstore, 1994.
[3] Leonhardt Bridges Architecture and Modeling Beijing: China Communications
Press, 1988.
[4] Yin Delan Wendi Articles with BridgeChina Beijing: Tsinghua University Press,
1988.
[5] Ito school. Bridge Shape. Japan Maruzen, 1998.
[6] Troitsky M.S. Aesthetic Requirement / / Bridge Engineering Handbook. CRC Press,
1999.
[7] Hoi Fan. Aesthetic bridge thinking. Science, 2002, 54 (10).
[8] Cai ytterbium Bridge Building bridges Yizhu dreamTaipei: Technology Books,
2003.
[9] Xu Fengyun, Chen Derong Aesthetic Principle Bridges Beijing: China
Communications Press, 2007.
The basic concept of the design factors that should be considered include other natural
conditions, function and various bridge type and basis of suitability and investment.
Natural conditions is an objective at the bridge site, not to change the will of the
designer, we have through research, collect and test analysis to fully understand and fully
grasp it. Extensive research, such as the river regime, must be at the bridge site over the
years of hydrological data, the reaction riverbed erosion and siltation, the deep channel
stability, etc., over the years bathymetry and tidal information, etc., to make sub-holes are
arranged to meet the riverbed underwater environment the laws of nature, laws of nature
without destroying hydrology, but also to ensure the structural safety of the bridge.
Conversely, if the destruction of the hydrological environment, leading to a lot of erosion
and siltation, causing riverbed changes, deep grooves change, will be affect shipping,
affect bridge safety. Therefore, through full study, understanding and digesting the results
of the rational use of the thematic biography bridge natural conditions, the concept can be
scientifically designed to meet these natural conditions, a basic safety requirement for
conceptual design.
Functional orientation must be subject to the objective requirements of engineering
construction and road construction, urban construction, transportation construction and
shipping master planning regulatory documents. Determine the functions to meet the
functional requirements, including bridges flat, vertical alignment design, layout, and
other section shall meet the requirements of the traffic feature, set the main navigation and
sub-hole layout should meet the requirements of the shipping function, the applicability of
the concept design of the basic requirements.
A variety of bridge type and applicability is one of the bases of the professional
knowledge, only more learning, more accumulation, in order to ensure the creation of the
designer has a scientific basis and foundation of all kinds of bridge type has its history,
characteristics and stress the applicability of the concept is designed to meet the scientific
laws, can only local conditions and constant innovation.
Economy is a basic requirements of designers from the state, conceptual design must
comply with reasonable requests economy. Rational innovation economy is the real
technical innovation, meaningful innovation. To understand the evolution of technical
suitability, as well as the scope of the various forms of bridge-variety basis, and know how
to use economic point of concept selection. This is the conceptual design of technological
innovation and economic rationality of the basic requirements.
1. River Regime
In the river dynamics, river regime is defined as a plane posture rivers, including the
mainstream lines, waterlines and flat morphology (e.g., branch road, corners, edges beach,
the heart of the beach, riverbank, floodplain) posed and surface phenomena is about the
form of the elements of assembly, sometimes referred to as the basic river flow potential.
In addition, there are also pointed out that the definition of river is river flow situation and
development trend of the plane. Include: changes in the distribution and trend of river flow
dynamic axis position, direction, and the bay, shoreline and sandbars, beaches and other
heart.
Evolution of river bed is a branch derived from the research and practice of river
regulation process by engineering and technical personnel and technology workers from a
broad riverbed evolution out of pure research to a separate branch of the flow plane
change. Therefore, the river regime change is the interaction of water and sediment and
bed boundary conditions, the results of mutual influence.
The main factors influencing the evolution of river generally include the following
three aspects:
1. Water and sediment conditions: mainly refers to the total amount and the process of
entering the water and sediment downstream.
2. River border: mainly refers to accommodate the main features and parameters and
constraints river border movement of water.
3. Project boundary: mainly refers to the case of other works by the stream length,
arranged in the form, size and spacing between the upper and lower engineering
convergence as well as engineering.
Overall, the main concern when choosing the bridge site is about how over the years in
the area of the riverbed mechanical action of the water, the main river channel, waterway
and other elements of the situation, determine the extent of the impact the stability of the
natural elements, and after the bridge on these basic conditions.
River regime also inflience the location of navigable hole layout and thus plays a
decisive role.
Example 3.1. Taizhou Yangtze River Road Bridge over election.
Reach for the comparison of Zhenjiang Yangtze river bridge site from the existing
shoreline conditions and planning, as well as the stability of river areas, identified three
possible positions, namely, Wing Chau North, South Wing Chau Bridge eight bits. Fig. 3.1
Taizhou Yangtze River Highway Bridge segment total plane.
Wing Chau Pak channel on the right bank of the water turning red top position, the
downstream heart bypass beach area, look left and right support thalweg still swing within
a certain range from years of data analysis, but the range is limited, cross-sectional area
over the water, river width, average depth change is limited. 1998 more after the changes
tend to be small, river regime basically stable. Fig. 3.2 shows a cross-sectional Wing Chau
North Bridge bits.
Wing Island South Corridor is wide and shallow riverbed, was typical W-shaped,
central to the heart of the beach, the main features of evolution: Heart on the beach above
mentioned diversion point decline occurred when the heart beach plane position is not
stable enough, about thalweg appears limited swing (over 200 meters), the river regime is
relatively stable. Fig. 3.3 shows a cross-sectional Wing Chau South Bridge bits.
Eight bridge has wide and shallow river channel, deep grooves stickers right, Ushaped cross-section, the deep grooves on both sides of the development of this position
closely with upstream over the hearts of Boat Harbour Beach, while the confluence point
of the lateral movement of a large (500 m), 1998 years later, and have put on the right.
Beach and river regime by heart day Xingzhou greater impact. Fig. 3.4 is eight bits Bridge
cross-section.
2. Hydrologic
That is flow, flow, water quality, tidal, wave and other basic information on the maximum
and minimum navigable water level, of bridge site area and needed for bridge design,
constant level, the design frequency of flood level, wave height, wave power, etc., design
parameters.
According to General Specification for Highway Bridge Design (JTG D60-2004),
freeway, highway design flood frequency Bridge 1/300, 1/100 Bridge.
The pier is located in the water, the water pressure should be calculated, and so the
role of wave forces on piers, bridge tower.
Example 3.2 Wuhan White Sandbar Bridge.
Wuhan White Sandbar Bridge is City Master Plan linking the north and south sides of
another traffic arteries, the Hankou hydrological station, 11.1 km downstream, during
which the Han river to import, according to statistics, the average annual flow of the Han
river accounts for about 6% Hankou station, average annual sediment load accounted for
10.8% Hankou station, therefore, Hankou hydrological station sediment eigenvalues
basically reflects the bridge site reaches of run-off and sediment conditions. Table of
hydrology, sediment characteristics Hankou station value Tables 3.1.
Table 3.1 Hydrology, sediment characteristics Hankou station value tables (table elevation
Wusong elevation).
76100
1954/8/4
2930
1865/2/4
579
1964
2.67
1954
4.26
0.772
1966
0.273
1954
0.611 1953~1991
Item
23438 1865~1991
1953~1991
From the run-off and sediment from the Hankou station statistics, Hankou station to
sediment run-off during the year mainly concentrated in the flood season in October,
73.3% of its accounts for the year runoff, sediment accounts for the year 84%, more
sediment than to focus on the flood water.
Wuhan river flood control standard shows, according to the Yangtze river flood control
planning, once in a century flood contained within dikes and flood diversion area
upstream of the joint use of the standard range of defense, while the water level in Wuhan
dike designed for the highest level measured in 1954, 27.64 m (Yellow Sea elevation, the
same below), therefore, the use of bridge design water level with the corresponding values
of 27.99 m, the design flow using the value of 1954 Hankou station measured maximum
flow rate 76100 m3/s minus the Hanjiang river flows into the sink after 73380 m3/s.
Highest navigable water level used is the 20-year flood peak of 26.25 m, the minimum
guaranteed rate of navigable water level of 99% using the low water level 10.21 m.
highest and lowest effective temperature. Maximum and minimum standard value of the
effective temperature of the structure is calculated according to the local calendar highest
or lowest average daily temperature average daily temperature, such as for steel deck
bridge, with temperatures between 20~45C, its effective temperature standard value = 38
+ (Tt 20)/2.00; the temperature is between (2~50C), the effective temperature of the
standard value = 1.48 + Tt / 0.91. Such as the lack of actual survey data, the value
adopted by the specification table.
According to the environmental conditions in which the durability of bridge design is
performed, specification of the environmental atmosphere is grouped into four
environmental categories: (i) class is warm or cold regions, and non-aggressive contact
with water or soil; (ii) class is cold regions of the atmosphere use of de-icing salt
environments, coastal environments; (iii) class is the marine environment; (iv) class is
subject to aggressive substances affect the environment.
Example 3.3. Hangzhou Bay Bridge.
Hangzhou Bay is located in the eastern coast of China, the sub-tropical monsoon
climate zone, monsoon significantly, the annual four seasons, mild climate, humid, and
rainy. Meteorological elements characteristic bridge area values can be analysed based on
the series of Cixi weather weather stations and bridge the north shore of Pinghu south
bank from 1954 to 2000, measured data, the results shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Meteorological eigenvalues bridge area exemplar project Pinghu Cixi.
Item
Air temperature
38.4
Chee
creek
39.1
10.6
9.3
15.8
16.2
3.7
4.1
28.2
28.3
5.4
14.7
40
28.9
1220.3
1294.6
468.3
(June)
569.3
(June)
2.7
2.7
20
19
20.3
22.6
32.2
31.9
Precipitation
Pinghu
Wind
Often wind
SE
ESE
Strong wind
NW
NW
16.3
11.1
Typhoon affect
5~11
5~11
2.56
2.56
57
67
35.6
21.5
82
81
56
58
32.1
36.6
15
17
Years up
The annual average
Years up
The annual average
Severe weathers affecting the Hangzhou bay area are mainly typhoons, tornadoes,
thunderstorms, strong cold air, fog, heavy rain, etc. These severe weather has some effect
on the construction and operation of the bridge, need to be considered.
4. The Topography
Topography mainly refers to the terrain and location of surface morphology, including
natural and artificial surface features, including the feature, the ups and downs of the state
of the surface. Its natural form can be divided into mountains, hills, plains and basins.
Example 3.4. Hangzhou Bay Bridge.
Hangzhou bay is located in the Yangtze river in the landscape, river plain area north of
Zhejiang plain area, is composed of coastal and lake sediment accumulation formed
environment, low and flat, the general elevation of 2~7.5 m, many in the region, Wu Tong,
dense river network. Near the bridge site can be divided into land, beaches and waters of
the three geomorphic units.
1. Land: Across the Hangzhou bay is a vast plain terrain, flat, local monadnock
distribution.
2. Beaches: Beaches across the Hangzhou bay has developed, with silty sand and silty
floodplain dominated under the tide, is a tidal flat topography. North Shore beaches
narrow to shore erosion mainly south coast beaches, said three north shallows to
silting based.
3. Sea: Under the strong trend of Hangzhou bay, the main role of the formation of the
trend and the trend of the ridge notching two landforms.
Example 3.5. Su Tong Bridge.
It was known from October 2001, underwater topographic maps that the main channel
bridge bit of Su Tong Bridge has a steep slope on the right side, in the south of the main
pier on both sides to be selected around each 200~300 m slope of 2.5% to 4% zone
relatively slow, and the bridge upstream position 40 m deep trench distance of about 500
m, obviously this bridge than the engineering feasibility study stage main pier south axis
to optimize more favorable position, shown in Fig. 3.5.
Figure 3.6 June 2003 schematic cross section measured bridge axis, the distance
between the levee is about 6250 m. Main channel was V shape, a bit south coast, 10 m
contour covering waters width 1970 m, 20 m contour covering waters width 1170 m, the
deepest point elevation of about 32.7 m, the north-south main tower location situation
bed elevation are about 15 m and 26 m; clip groove in the main channel south of the
main channel and clip groove center distance of about 1700 m; clip was bowl-shaped
groove, width of 430 m, a bottom surface elevation of about 10 m .
5. Geology
Geology refers to the nature and characteristics of the earth. Mainly refers to the earths
material composition, structure, construction, development and history, including the
Earths spheres of differentiation, physical properties, chemical properties, rock properties,
mineral composition, rock formations and output state, the contact relationship between
the Earth history of structural development, biological evolutionary history, the history of
climate change, as well as the status and distribution of occurrence of mineral resources.
Fig. 3.5 River bed topographic maps near the South Main tower.
Quaternary
System
Codenamed
Jane
Main lithological
thickness
(m)
<70 Top pale yellow loam, silt clip Asian
central gray clay, the lower order mucky
Asia Clip silt clay.
Holocene
Q4
Upper
Pleistocene
Q3
30~80
Pleistocene
Q2
20~80
Q1
Geological survey results show that 1 in 4 layers of loose overburden, 5 layer of dense
dense fine sand, 6 to dense sand layer below.
Layer-based, local folder with soft plastic clay layer. 6-1 and 8-1 large sub-sub-layer
thickness, depth of approximately 65 m, 76 m, stable distribution Fixed, is an ideal base
stratum.
The downside of the Su Tong Bridge bedrock geological conditions that are deeply
buried (on the 21st floor of weak wind flower basalt, elevation 309.59 m, that is the
bedrock depth of nearly 300 m), not directly as a substrate bearing stratum, the foundation
cannot support the underside strength. The deformation of the rock; advantageous in that a
sedimentary, stratigraphic distribution is relatively stable, relatively uniform thickness,
which base at the end deformable surface is also more evenly, reducing the likelihood of
uneven settlement.
Preliminary design studies may form the basis of a variety of uses, after a preliminary
post-election than the main caisson foundation and pile foundation for two species form
the basis of equal depth research, and various forms of pile foundation conducted a
comprehensive comparison. Holding force on the caisson foundation analysis layer as
shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Described the basement geology
Item
North tower
Substrate 6-1 layer of coarse
bearing sand, formation
stratum elevation 87. 2~80.6
m, Thickness of about 7
m, thickness,
distribution is more
stable. Foundation
allowed Carrying
capacity of 450 kPa.
Carrying
capacity
of 300
kPa
Outanane
7 layers of fine sand, dense, containing a small
amount of grit. Stratigraphic elevation 91.8~ 73.6
m, thickness of about 18 m. Thickness, the
distribution of stable foundation permit.
5-2 layers of fine sand 6-1 layer of gravel sand, small thickness of about 4
overlying strata,
m, distribution is more stable. Ground capacity Xu
saturated, dense,
carrying capacity of 450 kPa.
relatively homogeneous
in thickness than the
small, distributed stable
foundation allowable
Under the seven layers 7 layers of silt, dense and relatively homogeneous.
of fine sand strata
Small thickness, foundation permit hosts force 200
lying, dense, relatively kPa.
homogeneous. Greater
thickness distribution
Stable foundation for
allowable bearing
capacity 300 kPa.
Conclusions on the main tower pile bearing stratum are shown in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5 The main tower foundation pile tip bearing stratum and program and evaluation.
Project pile tip bearing stratum program a sharp bearing stratum Option II
Pile tip
6-1 layer of coarse sand,
8-1 layer of coarse sand, gravel containing
bearing
dense, containing gravel,
local pebbly sand, dense, roof Elevation
stratum
roof elevation 73.6~
94.2~94.9 m, depth 71.5~80.4 m, thickness
78.2 m, depth of 54.5~54.7 30.9~34.9 m, average 32.9 m, thickness,
m, thick 13~18.2 m,
distribution is more stable. The upper clamp 8average 15.6 m, thickness 2 layers of fine sand, the North Tower
and distribution of stable. dunshang clayey layer sandwiched 8-3
Overburden 5-1 layer overlying strata 7 layers of silt, dense and relatively
powder, sand, sandy loam, homogeneous. Stable distribution.
dense, relatively
homogeneous, thick
Degree, the distribution of
stable.
Under
7 layers of silt, dense and
lying strata relatively homogeneous.
Small thickness,
distribution.
Evaluation 6-1 layers are not suitable for the pile tip stratum. Two towers at the north
and south piers 8-1 layers stable distribution, greater thickness, is an ideal
pile tip bearing stratum; pier at North Tower uneven 8-3 Layer in 8-1 layers
of soft plastic clayey layer sandwich, nature, although the thickness of only
2~3 m, but if the pile tip close to the settlement of the larger pile tip should
be pass through the layer. Pile tip elevation 120 m around, or 9 layers for
the pile tip bearing stratum, the pile tip elevation 125 m below.
After analysis and calculation, the north tower base layer used 8-1 layer, south tower
selected nine-layer as a drilling pile bearing stratum on the basis of the pile tip, pile
bottom elevation 126 m.
6. The Seismic
Earthquakes are the Earths internal media locally generated seismic rupture occurs
abruptly, causing the phenomenon of ground shaking within a certain range. Earthquake
Earths surface is a fast shock, also known as the earth in ancient times. It and the wind,
rain, lightning is a natural phenomenon often occurs on earth. The earth shook and the
earthquake the most intuitive and general performance. Strong earthquake occurred in the
sea or coastal areas, can cause huge waves, called tsunamis. Earthquakes are very
frequent, global earthquake occurred about 5 million times a year.
Usually through seismological bureau and other departments, seismic safety
evaluation report was produced on the bridge site, such as in Jiaojiang bridge designed for
Earthquake Research Institute proposed bridge site area of ground motion parameters
study the technical requirements: The bridge site area of fault activity and fracture the
impact of the bridge project to evaluate the liqueifaction potential discrimination grounds
under shock effect and impact on the land bridge to determine the programs tower bridge
pier at the bedrock and soil in site design ground motion parameters, characteristics of
long-period ground motion.
1. According to the data collection and field geological survey, combined with
geophysical exploration carried out the preliminary design phase, the results of
exploration drilling work near the bridge site area comprehensive evaluation of fault
activity, as well as possible to evaluate the impact of the bridge.
2. Provide Pylons bit of surface drilling location venues around the 100-year base
period, three probability level of ground motion parameters were 100-year
probability of exceedance 63%, 10%, 4% (corresponding to a return period of 100
years, 950 years, 2500 years) of the horizontal and vertical acceleration response
spectrum, response spectrum should be considered long-period components, cycle
should be greater than 15s; when given design ground motion parameters, you should
be consider 3%, 5% damping ratio of the two.
3. Provide drill bits around the main tower of the location of each probability level, i.e.,
100 years beyond the 63% probability, 10%, 4% (corresponding to the return period
of 950 years & 2500 years) site under the surface of each drilling location horizontal
and vertical acceleration and horizontal displacement to process data files synthetic
seismic waves, provide at least three samples in each time course data. To provide
horizontal and vertical ground acceleration synthetic seismic wave, you should
consider the long-period component (greater than 15s), and the corresponding
reaction with spectral match.
4. Offers typical north and south bridge approach surface drilling location venues
benchmark 50-year period, the probability of three levels of ground motion
parameters were 50-year probability of exceedance 63%, 10%, 3% (corresponding to
a return period of 50 years, 475 years, a 642 years) of the horizontal and vertical
acceleration response spectrum; in the design ground motion parameters are given,
considering 3%, 5% damping ratio of the two.
5. Provide drilling north and south bridge approach typical location of each probability
level, i.e., 63% probability of exceedance in 50 years, 10%, each drilling location site
surface 3% level under the direction and vertical acceleration and horizontal
displacement of synthetic seismic wave away data files, each time history data to
provide at least three samples. To provide horizontal and vertical ground acceleration
synthetic seismic wave should be react with the corresponding spectral match.
6. Response spectra and seismic waves process data must be provided in a spreadsheet
format.
Example 3.7. Zhejiang Taizhou Jiaojiang Bridge.
Modern seismic project area is characterised by the strength of the weak, the small
magnitude, low frequency, the basic seismic intensity less than VI degrees. According to
historical statistics and information on the recent earthquake monitoring stations, Taizhou
and adjacent regions (including North since Ning Hainan to Wenzhou, east to the west
coast of Jinyun) historical earthquakes was recorded rarely, mostly less than 4 magnitude,
which is equal to or greater than 4 in the historical earthquakes have six times the
maximum magnitude 4.75 earthquake Wenzhou October 17, 1813 occurred. Strong
earthquake in the history of the region (referring to an earthquake greater than or equal to
4) are concentrated in the 55 years between 1813~1867.
Recent earthquakes are less than two microseismic, and occurred in the area west of
the Western Cape - Fenghua large fault zone near the north-east, and there is a certain
distance from the surveyed area.
Earthquake intensity: motion parameter zoning map China to (GB18306-2001)
according to the State Quality and Technical Supervision issued in February 2001, the
work area partition peak acceleration of ground motion parameters for < 0.05 g area.
Scour depth engineering site design ground motion parameters in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Engineering site design ground motion parameters (erosion layer depth,
damping ratio 5%).
Ground motion parameters
North shore of
the
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
3.1.2 Functionality
Use features include transport function (road-rail, rail and pedestrian non-motorized
transport), shipping functions (navigation bridge, port, etc.) as well as possible to reserve
space for development (reserved lanes, rail or navigable holes, etc.) landscape feature
requirements.
Bridge construction to meet the social development needs of direct transport function,
landscape features, etc., but it is a structure for shipping obstructions, so the two bridges
span arrangement and there is always demand for navigable waterways contradictory,
mutual influence, later see Art. 3.2.
Bridges functionality should be determined according to their orientation of highways,
railways, urban transport planning, construction regulatory documents, by type of
discourse analysis needs roads, function, class, capacity and rail, rail transportation, etc., if
necessary, to consider their long-term needs reserve function, determine the basic
technical criteria including design, including a cross-section.
Here we have different types of bridges with different conceptual design requirements
in accordance to their functional aspects, in general, different functions of the bridge, its
construction clearance (including width and in height), load, stiffness and power
requirements are not the same.
1. Highway Bridge
(a) Vehicle Load
Highway bridge design load is divided into road I and II levels. Lane load by uniform
load and concentrated load components. Highway I level lane load uniformly distributed
load standard value qk = 10.5 kN/m, concentrated load standard value selected according
to the following provisions: a bridge span is less than or equal to 5 m computing time, Pk
= 180 kN; bridge span is equal to or computing greater than 50 m, Pk = 360 kN;
calculations span bridge between 5~50 m, Pk values obtained using interpolation within
the line. Lane highwaylevel load uniformly distributed load and concentrated load
standard value 0.75 times the standard value according to the load lane highwaylevel
adoption.
clear width specified by the traffic lane width W, the left and right shoulder width L1, L2
and other components. Among them:
W Lane width (m), for the number of lanes, lane width multiplied, and included in
the set plus (minus) fast lane, emergency stop road, climbing lane, the slow lane
or the wrong lane width. Lane width is determined according to the design
speed, generally 3.75 m, 3.5 m and 3 m.
L2 Bridges and culverts on the right shoulder width (m), corresponding to different
levels of road have different requirements.
M1 Intermediate width (m), the two left-side curbs and median strip with a
composition, which varies with design speed related, such as design speed of 120
m/s, median strip width of 3~2 m.
L1 Bridge on the left shoulder width (m), eight-lane highways and bridges should be
set on the eight-lane over the left shoulder, and its width should be 2.50 m. The
left-side of the left shoulder width contains curbs width.
H Clearance height (m), highways and bridges on secondary roads should be 5.0 m,
three, four bridges on the road should be 4.5 m.
2. City Bridges
(a) Vehicle load is all vehicle load defined by the existing roads and bridges. Also given as
four flat trailer loads of special loads, respectively, 1600 kN, 2200 kN, 3000 kN, 4200 kN
special flatbed trailer.
3. The Footbridge
(a) Crowd Design Load
Beam, truss, arch, and other large-span structures, using the following formula: When
loading length is 20 m or less (including 20 m),
When loading length is 21~100 m (100 m over the same 100 m),
Fig. 3.8 Three or five median clearance gauge (four) (dimensions: m).
Trusses, arches
L/800
2.5 m; all levels of overhead cables and bridges, stairways surface, the minimum vertical
distance between the ramp surface shall comply with City skywalk pedestrian underpass
technical specifications (CJJ 69-95) Table 2.3.3 requirements.
4. Rail
(a) Train Vertical Static Live Load
Trains are divided into large car and small car sub-categories, static live load calculation
formula shall comply with Fig. 3.9, wherein the axle load P(kN) value access: When fully
loaded, large and small cars were 160 kN, 140 kN; empty upload, large and small cars are
95 kN, 70 kN.
Fig. 3.9 Single train static live load calculation schema (dimensions: m).
(c) Clearance
Rail gauge should be determined according to the outline of a comprehensive analysis of
the size and performance of different vehicle line features, equipment installation and
construction methods and other factors. Rail-bound and bound into a vehicle, equipment
gauge, construction clearance. Pantograph gauge is an integral part of the vehicle
bounded.
Vehicle gauge is the maximum dynamic envelope of a vehicle under normal operating
conditions.
Equipment clearance is intrusive boundaries outside a vehicle for limiting installation
Construction clearance is a bounded envelope equipment outside. Clearance between
construction clearance and equipment should be fully considered installing equipment and
pipelines on the location of the building, in the width direction should stay out of 20~50
mm safety clearance between the equipment and pipelines and equipment gauge.
According large vehicles such as (catenary power supply) vehicle contour, vehicle
gauge, gauge and plot devices, equipment gauge at its widest point is 3 530 mm, line
segments outside the cave highest pantograph gauge for 4 800 mm.
Allowable value
deflection
L/900
Side
span
L/900
Cross
L/750
L/900
L/800
Side
span
L/800
Cross
L/700
(c) Clearance
According to the standard gauge railway construction clearance standard gauge (1435
mm) railway construction clearance limit is defined as a cross-sectional contour and line
perpendicular to the centerline. In this profile, in addition to rolling stock and locomotives
have interaction with a device (vehicle speed reducer, train staff giving and receiving, a
contact wire and other), other equipment or buildings shall not be intrusive. Bridges and
bridge restrictions limit-1A limit-B applies to new and re-built steam and diesel traction
singlet and double rail, its load of freight trains should not exceed the height of 5300 mm,
bridges and bridge limit-2B limit-2A applies to new and re-built when single-line and
double electric traction railway, using the gauge, cargo train loading height should not
exceed 5300 mm. Fig. 3.11 and Fig. 3.12 are the bridge and the bridge limit -1B limit -1A
gauge chart, bridges and bridge limit-2B limit-2A bounded diagram, figure, the solid line
for the bridge construction clearance, dashed for the basic construction clearance in the
basic building can be installed lighting, communications and signaling equipment between
the gauge and bridge construction clearance.
Fig. 3.11 Bridge and the bridge limit -1B limit -1A bounded diagram (dimensions: mm).
Fig. 3.12 Bridge and the bridge limit -2B limit -2A bounded diagram (dimensions: mm).
Understanding and being familiar with roads, city bridges, railways and rail traffic lane
width and height of the other basic requirements help designers conceived the bridge
section and its flexible structure types. In modern bridge function, since urban land
resources, major rivers Guojiangtongdao resources are increasingly scarce, and urban
development need to build more roads and municipal bridges, high-speed railway bridges
and rail bridges, so in many cases bridge will be need to share a bit of resources.
When required to meet highway bridges, rail transportation and other functions, one
should pay attention to its technical requirements, as described below.
Design Live Load
Combined rail bridge on the existing railway bridge specification double railway live load
combinations, you can access the reduction factor of 0.9, while the live load in
combination with the road, multi-lane highway in the live load in accordance with the
specifications off road under reduced circumstances, is still on the road after the live load
reduction be discounted; Metro design specification is not specified live load reduction
when the double railway portfolio, mainly taking into account the urban rail transport
loaded with high probability, for highway and railway bridges integration whether the
reduction of live load when a combination of road and rail is not specified. Taking into
account the full rate of urban rail transit, traffic density, for not double railway live load
reduction when combined cannot live load reduction when the rail and highway live load
combinations, only the live load in accordance with its lane highway number of reduction
according to specifications.
Vertical Deflection
Note the difference between the S-Bahn and a large railway, high-speed railway between
the bridge stiffness requirements. Railway freight train load large, vibration, bridge
stiffness requirements of the most stringent; high-speed rail load light, but the speed is
high, the train bridge, bridge will have a greater vibration of the bridge stiffness
requirements are very strict; Urban Mass Transit load, low speed across the bridge, the
bridge stiffness requirements can have a greater relaxation. In addition, in the form of road
and railway bridges with one of the plane has a larger lateral stiffness, which makes the
upper part of the lateral stiffness of the beam is no longer a controlling factor, or even the
main navigation Long Span Bridge can also be natural to meet the train running for the
bridge lateral stiffness claim.
According to domestic and international rail and metro design specifications, for beam
bridge, using stiffness standard L/1500; for such large-span cable-stayed bridge Shanghai
Yangtze river bridge, the main channel of the bridge, according to the actual construction
experience at home and abroad, using stiffness standard L/500s .
On large-span bridges, railways states had no clear specification limits stiffness from
railway bridge has been built at home and abroad to see, flex cable-stayed bridge across
the ratio between 1/350 to 1/550, Suspension Bridge scratch span ratio between 1/200 to
1/250. These vertical stiffness of the bridge is much less than the relevant norms
prescribed value on small and medium-span railway bridge, but the operations of these
bridges are very good.
Pier Longitudinal Stiffness
The requirement for the limit for the longitudinal stiffness of the pier are for two main
purposes: First, to meet the requirements of CWR, the second is to meet the train operator
safety requirements. As Shanghai Yangtze river bridge consecutive non-navigation bridge
over 350 m in length, temperature and more cross-linked structure long beam joints of
large deformation, the bridge is set long CWR is difficult. The bridge mostly high pile
platform, and high piers, pier stiffness by increasing CWR meet set requirements,
extremely unreasonable economically, there are also difficulties in the design, the bridge
structure to be used simply support system, is more unreasonable. To this end, the track
joints in the beam off, set the track telescopic adjustment means for controlling the basic
design is no longer off the rail force, longitudinal horizontal stiffness requirements of the
piers can also be relaxed; as for traffic safety issues, are as previously described urban rail
traffic load is small, low speed across the bridge, the bridge stiffness requirements can
have a greater relaxation, has been carrying out analysis of train running study, the
conclusion is entirely feasible.
Beam End Corner
Different railway bridge specification standards for different trains made different
requirements on the beam end corner, depending on the circumstances, Shanghai Yangtze
River Bridge in Urban Rail Transit train, the beam end knuckle using 3% limits. In
addition to the main navigation calculations show cable-stayed bridge, the other bridges in
the road and rail transport joint action live load can be controlled within 3%, the main
channel cable-stayed bridge in the joint action of road and rail transport of live load, Liang
end knuckle can be controlled in 3%, but with neighbours across superimposed over 3%.
To this end, consider setting retractable buffer device to solve, or adopt appropriate
measures to reduce the beam end knuckle value.
Example 3.8. Shanghai Yangtze River Bridge take into account urban rail transit across
the bridge, using the same forms to build roads and railways plane is different from the
typical highway bridge, is also different from a typical rail bridge, shown in Fig. 3.13. The
bridge design has more characteristics of roads and bridges in general, and must be
consider the technical requirements of rail transportation.
Fig. 3.13 Shanghai Yangtze River Bridge cross-section layout (dimensions: m).
Example 3.9. Originally designed the Tsing Ma Bridge in Hong Kong, only road and rail
access to the airport, and on Lantau container berth will go through the Tsing Ma Bridge,
then this channel has also been retained to cope with bad weather. Capacity to achieve this
all-weather shell encased by stainless steel rail and two road lanes. Fig. 3.14 shows a cross
section of Tsing Ma Bridge arrangement.
Therefore, the preparation of navigable hole, the first being the Nanjing bridge main span
of 2, using two 330~340 m of hole-way navigation programs; followed by two-way
shipping to select single-hole program, try to use more main navigation large span (then
drawn about 500 m). The technical requirements of special demonstration showed that the
two-way hole hole 336 m of the main navigation scheme is more suitable smooth
convergence route between the two bridges, better than other programs.
Established in accordance with technical requirements for navigation span
arrangement requirements, span and side span are 336 m and 192 m, respectively, its sidecenter ratio is 0.571, far more than the general layout of cable-stayed bridges, especially
when using three-tower cable-stayed bridge during its vertical stiffness are worse, it is
difficult to meet railroad operational requirements. While the 0.571 cross-ratio is more in
line with the edge of mechanics characteristics of warping, but 336 m main span girders
Stiffness requirements for bridge will be find it difficult to meet the high-speed rail.
the 336 m main span constructed of vertical stiffness of steel truss arch structures, on both
sides of the cross smaller side-span continuous steel trussed girder, smooth connection
between the formation of a six-span continuous steel truss archtruss composite structure
bridge beam alignment graceful, structural rigidity, can meet the high-speed trains run on
the bridge and smooth navigation of ships required under the bridge, realisation of bridge
style and the bridge function in a perfect integration.
1. Scheme 1
Effect of horizontal alignment as shown in Fig. 3.19, curvy layout landscape better.
Effect of vertical alignments as shown in Fig. 3.20, from the side elevation point of
analysis, between the main private channel bridge is slightly rough, but concaving part is
not so obvious. Effect of bridge traffic view is shown in Fig. 3.21, you can see the
majestic appearance of the bridge very well from the main bridge and private airlines.
Road and bridge junction is slightly concaved, but linear pattern is basically smooth.
2. Scheme 2
Effect of horizontal alignment as shown in Fig. 3.22, curvy layout landscape looks better.
Effect of vertical alignments as shown in Fig. 3.23, seen from the side view, the whole
bridge line in one fell swoop, complete smoothly. Bridge traffic view effect is shown in
Fig. 3.24, the high bar provides a good view of the main bridge-view can be used to show
the curves of bridge deck, the whole line radian is beautiful, good landscape effect, the
scheme is recommended.
3. Scheme 3
Effect of horizontal alignment as shown in Fig. 3.25, bending linear layout compared to
the programme of one or two minor changes, the whole plane change is not obvious.
Curvy layout landscape better.
4. Comprehensive Analysis
Bridge adjustment programmes meet the recommended scheme of horizontal alignment of
bridge landscape requirements, main channel bridge and private airlines road and bridge
connecting the transition gently, dovetail with the approach curves and smooth, from
bridge traffic view when you can see at different distances the main bridge tower images
while watching the bridge there is a coherent whole momentum, but due to the overall
horizontal alignment of the bridge does not is a double-curved s-shaped, curved to the left
(birds eye view from Nantong direction), so compared to the landscape and the left lane
right lane is a bit poorer.
Jinghai Pharmaceutical East shugang road, Jiaojiang bridge bridge a total length of
3460 m, and flight path angle 74345. 85327, namely, bridge line of the angle
between the normals and waterway about 4.9, meet the requirements specification
for angle is not more than 5, but the premise is to remove moved to Anhui conch
cement pier, policy processing is difficult. North and south, the two sides had an S
bend, alignment is poor.
Comparing the above three bridge schemes, it is concluded that plan B has the basic
line with overall urban planning, the bridge centre line with pathway near orthogonal,
marina and buildings demolition have constructability, engineering cost (taking into
account the relocation of plant and equipment cost) the advantages of lower, has obvious
advantages, it is recommended to implement bridge.
port, Rhine, Rotterdam Hong Kong, North America, New Orleans Mississippi River
Harbour.
The inland river system in China, Yangtze River and Pearl River is the most important
navigable waterways, leads to the East and South respectively. From Yibin to Shanghai,
more than 700 km of the Yangtze River waterway navigation is basically divided into
three sections: the Nanjing port carries upto 50,000 tons below below the level of the sea
wheels, vertical clearance of high 50 m; to consider the future development of the
shoreline of Jiangyin bridge needs, so its navigable levels increase to 100,000 tons level,
vertical clearance is a 62 m.
Nanjing to Wuhan over our waterways inland I-level channel, required vertical
clearance of high 24 m, 160 m net wide for 2 holes with a main span 160 m of the Nanjing
Yangtze River Bridge to meet I-level standard of waterway; above from Yibin, Wuhan is a
river II-level channel, requires clean and high 18 m, NET a 2-hole 105 m, Wuhan Yangtze
River Bridge main span of 128 m meet the navigation standard.
After the completion of the three Gorges Dam, reservoir water depth increased,
suitable for larger inland waterway vessel traffic, sources say-Chongqing section of the
three gorges allows Navigation of 10,000 ton ships. But the three gorges ship lift was still
designed for 3,000 tons ships, 10,000 ton ships cannot pass the three Gorges to the
Nanjins waterways, and therefore cannot be sailed from Shanghai to Chongqing.
Guangzhou channel of the Xijiang River waterway and Delta of the Pearl River water
system according to the standard of inland waterway segment classification (see Table
3.8).
Table 3.8 China inland navigation standard.
Ton
(t)
3000
Clear
height
(m)
24
Clear width
(hole)
(m)
125~160
II
2000
18
90~105
2.6~3.8
75 14 2.6
III 1000
10
40~70
2. 0~2.4
IV
500
35~60
1. 6~1.9
45 10.8 1.6
500
30~45
1. 3~1.6
35 9.2 1.3
VI
100
4.6~6
18~22
1.0~1.2
32 7.0 1.0
VII
50
3.5~4.5
14~18
0.7~1.0
32 6.2 0.7
Level
Build bridges over river shipping channel needs to meet more than 5,000 DWT ships
navigation requirements, such as the lower reaches of the Yangtze river, the Pearl river
access to the sea and waterways of Shanghais Huangpu river.
According to the International Committee of Qiaoxie Tissue Research was proposed to
prevent accident risk reduction of ship collision with bridge piers ship domain theory
(Fig. 3.29), free (dont slow down, about 30 knots 55 km/h) safety of navigation width is
3.2 L (the captain), and constraints (snare) navigation can be halved to 1.6 L, such as
seagoing vessels entering and leaving the harbour pilots dictate speed-pass span; or
waterway, only a small number of large-tonnage ships occasionally through the bridge
opening, should be also take into account slowdown, saving bridge cost.
Greece sailing Rion-Antirion bridge is to use constraint criteria of 180,000t ship to 16
knots ( 30 km/h) speed by bridge provides two high net 65 m, net 500 m wide holes up
and down navigation clearance, finally uses the porous 560 m cable-stayed bridge CHST,
and does not take into account kilometers or more long-span bridge program. This is
worthy of our reference examples.
depth (m)
Vessle
(empty size height
loaded)
DWT
Navigation requirements
Vertical Net
Free
Restricted
clearance (m) navigation navigation B
Notes
(Loaded ~
B (m)
(m)
(Containers)
empty)
(TEU)
Separate Separate Joint
Hoint
hole hole
hole
hole
10000 t 150 m
43
m
6~9
34~36
2 600
1200
2 300
600
700
30000 t 250 m
50
m
7~11
41~45
2 700
1400
2 350
700
50000 t 270 m
52
m
9~13
50~53
2 800
1600
2 400
800
100000 300 m
t
63
m
11~16
58~62
2 1000
2000
200000t 320 m
70
m
13~18
60~65
2 1000
2200
300000t 350 m
80
m
15~21
65~70
2 1200
2400
2 (
600)
500000t 460 m
90
m
22~28
70~75
2 1500
3000
1000
II
1800
Channel setting the upper and lower rows of holes (two channel) or up and down rows
of holes (a channel) traffic, how to choose separate hole or joint holes depending on
topography, geology, and foot bed construction conditions, to span the economy (from the
top hole of a structure and principle of equal to the lower part of a pier and abutment
Foundation cost) is smaller than hole sailed wide vertical clearance requirements, you
should choose separate hole navigation programme based Pier, Greece Rion-Antirion
bridge 2 560 m hole 180,000t of seagoing vessels for navigation requirements. Such as
base cost is too high, you should use more than 1000 m one of the main hole to meet up
and down-hole the navigation requirements.
And as the Huangpu road, Shanghai is 35,000 DWT of shipping lanes. Due to heavy
shipping, should not be located in the water tricks, one hole across the River, and therefore
uses the above 400 m of large-span cable-stayed bridge with one hole and arch bridge
spanning the Huangpu River.
Suzhou-Nantong Yangtze River Bridge asked to see 100,000 tons of shipping,
demanding high net 62 m net wide and 800 m (or 2 400 m), are used.
Cable stayed bridge with a main span of 1,088 m, side spans are arranged in auxiliary
navigation channel of the river steamer is reasonable.
Combination of the Shanghai Yangtze River tunnel for the South Northbridge,
continues South as requiring carries upto 150,000t boats, tunnel crossing. North port
requires only 50,000 tons of lanes, one hole 712 m cable-stayed bridge.
Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge spanning 50,000 ton lane, net height 50 m. 800 m at
that time was considered a hole of cable-stayed bridge over economic programme, decided
to take advantage of the South Bank of the construction of a suspension bridge with a
main span of 1385 m anchorage conditions.
Above from Nanjing to Wuhan Yangtze river level fairway, navigation or hole that you
can use 2 160 m 1,320 m hole transport, depending on the economy may be. Tongling
Yangtze River Bridge, built in the early 1990, of the 20th century (432 m), the Jiujiang
Yangtze River Bridge (216 m), Wuhan Yangtze River (400 m), the Wuhu Yangtze River
Bridge (312 m) in hole pattern is very reasonable. Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge over the
river grade channels in Yichang, vertical clearance of high 18 m, movement 2000t class
vessels. However, starting in the late 1990s, the pursuit of span to break the trend had the
upper hand, a number of bridges over the upper reaches of the Yangtze River 600 m and
even the span of more than 1000 m. At the level of river channel (NET 24 m) 500 m on
long-span bridges, if there is no special reason it is inappropriate, certainly is not
economical. We should have a very good reflection, out of misunderstanding. In the hole
layout first step in design of navigation requirements and meet the economic and rational
concept of hole designs work well.
Height of the ship design (water lines to top of mast) and Helen have a certain
proportion of the length of, and safety mark vertical clearance and wide wheel having a
certain relationship, such as constraint navigation 1.6 times rounds long. Therefore, the
vertical clearance of high and wide net there a certain ratio. Such as inland waterways,
General Navigation NET width and height in ratio 6~8 between the main span to height
ratio is generally not advisable for more than 10, if the terrain needs to cross the river or
water depth and geological complexity make larger span, consider hole transport, main
span and height ratio should not be more than 20, or it will make the imbalance, affect the
bridges appearance. See Chapter 2 bridge aesthetics design.
According to track lay out of main navigation span (one hole or two holes) and the
necessary auxiliary navigation opening size and location, we can start bridge type
selection.
Effect simulates
Landscape analysis
Combination of beam bridge and cable-stayed
bridge makes the main bridge cable-stayed
bridge
Scenario
two: cablestayed
bridges
1. Arch Bridge
Arch Bridge is an ancient bridge type. From the historic stone arch bridge, such as the
Zhaozhou bridge in China and Italy completed Augustus bridge (Pons Augustus), the first
cast iron bridge was built in 1779, 1867~1874 year for the construction of Eads Bridge
Steel Arch Bridge, 1978 United States using weathering steel-built masterpiece of earlyage concrete arch bridge in the New River Gorge Bridge, 19 centuryfrance Chatellerault
Bridge until our countrythe modern concrete-filled steel tubular through arch bridge of
yajisha bridge and welded steel box arch rib of the Lupu bridge. Construction method of
Cantilever construction of full space supports, slings, erection and other, forming a rich
and varied material application and construction method of the bridge type system, and
other aspects of the history of technology, learning the history, can we provide conceptual
design an important accumulation of knowledge.
The first cast iron bridge was built in 1779, Coalbrookdale bridge across the Severn
river, a main span of 30.5 m, composed of 5 parallel consist of cast iron arched ribs, as
shown in Fig. 3.32.
3. Cable-stayed Bridge
In the 1850, of the 19th century, Dischinger design of cable-stayed bridge in the sense of a
first realCable Stayed bridge, Strmsund Bridge, see Fig. 3.44. The bridge is located in
Sweden, built-in 1956, with a main span of 183 m, on both sides of the cross is 74.7 m, the
tower is a door-frame, cable a radial arrangement, beam formed by two pieces of plate
girders.
Study on calculation means of limitation did not prevent the engineers and design
better, more innovative forms of bridges. At the same time, in 1966, the German H.
Homberg designed the first secret cables of cable-stayed bridges in the worldon the
Rhine, Friedrich Ebert Bridge, as shown in Fig. 3.45. After most of the cable-stayed
bridge cable system uses this key. Friedrich Ebert Bridge recovery with a thinner cable,
and before the cables are relatively crude. Box girder used in 20th century 50~60 Pu again
using the steel box girders, and greater use of concrete stiffening girder of cable-stayed
bridges in the future.
the main tower of the bridge, with crane lifting every piece of 270 t of pre-cast segments.
The bridge is North Americas largest for long-span cable-stayed bridge, completed by
Arvid Grant and Fritz Leonhardt cooperation. The bridge stay cable using a radial, and
cables all from cable top pass, as shown in Fig. 3.48. Fig. 3.49 shows the construction of
pre-stressed concrete girder of the bridge.
Composite girder cable-stayed bridge main span is an example of classic 465 m
Canada Annacis Bridge, as shown in Fig. 3.50 and 3.51. Full bridge girders of girder
system, consists of two longitudinal steel girders and enemy of the steel cantilever steel
beams and the sidewalk and other components of the steel frame combined with the beam
on top of the concrete form. Tower for h-shaped steel-concrete structure by using
rectangular hollow cross section.
Fig. 3.54 Concrete beam and steel box girder binding site.
Zhihou, Japan very much renound as Mr. bridge for Normandy bridge, became the
longest cable-stayed bridge in the world. Many Luo bridge 890 m, beam has been adopted.
Luo bridge has also been adopted for the first time, while many parallel wire hot-extruding
anti-corrosion cable bushing, concave surface finishing of construction methods.
Our main channel bridge of Su Tong Yangtze River Bridge main span of 1,088 m, is
the worlds largest long-span cable-stayed bridges, steel box girders, beams of the tower
for the first time by damping plus the limit connection system, damper for seismic and
other responses play a role; limit focuses on limiting under vertical wind plays a limited
longitudinal displacement between the beams of the tower, but also can effectively control
tower force.
5. Suspension Bridge
Development of modern suspension bridge started in 1883 with United States Brooklyn
Bridge, as shown in Fig. 3.60. Its main span is 486 m, cross 286 m on both sides. By the
famous engineer John A. Roebling designed. Roebling had already involved in the design
work of several suspension bridges, and in 1854, at wheeling a suspension bridge that
spans the Ohio river disaster after largely influenced his design ideas. The accident
inspired him using other than the rigidity of cable itself has greater stiffening girder and
cable way to make up for the shortcomings of simple suspension system. At the time of
construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, roebling suspension bridge high-order hyperstatic
systems cannot be accurately calculated. But through the component force between a
reasonable distribution, and guarantees that the overall balance to guarantee against failure
of security.
United States San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge main span 385 m, side 180 m, 2007
years to build and is shown in Fig. 3.72.
Self-anchored suspension bridge construction has just started in China, history is less
than 10, but is developing rapidly, in order to meet the urban landscape requirements.
N-bridge of Zhuji city, Zhejiang Province, was completed in 1999, Chinas first selfanchored suspension bridge built by one of the pedestrian bridge. Its long-span 2 70.6 m
Dalian jinshitan Golden Bay Bridge, completed in 2002, is the worlds first reinforced
concrete self-anchored suspension the bridge, the main bridge span for 24 m + 60 m + 24
m, the main bridge width 12.5 m fushun wanxin bridge of Hunhe river, completed in
2005, is a double cable planes pre-stressed concrete self-anchored suspension bridge with
a main span of 160 m, TRANS-70 m, anchorage cross 15 m height-span ratio is 1 : 8.
2007 pingsheng bridge built for a world level and difficulty with single tower and singlespan four cable plane self-anchored suspension bridge, cross the Dongping waterway, the
main bridge span arrangement for (from North to South): 29.6 m + 30 m + 350 m + 30 m
+ 5 40 m + 39.6 m, the main bridge length 680 m, wide 2 m, as shown in Fig. 3.73.
Stiffening girder of steel and concrete composite structure, pylon for the three column
gantry-style tower.
overcome the fatigue problems and responsibilities for inclined hangers hangers exert preloading, main cable shape when you will no longer be a parabola, and must use exact nonlinear finite element determined by iterative calculation of main cable, whether calculation
errors may result.
Finally, it would be point out that self-anchored suspension bridge structure low
redundancy, once the main beam failure will lead to structural failure disaster
consequences. Therefore, the self-anchored suspension bridge is not a system of excellent
performance, economy and ease of construction.
Direction-Tower cable-stayed bridge with low pylon cable-stayed bridge with low
towers, steel-concrete concrete composite girder with corrugated steel webs main Liang
Aita PC cable-stayed bridge.
Matakina is high-tower cable-stayed bridge with low pylon of the bridge, according to
the results of main tower with the cost of cable-stayed tower height 25~30 m minimum.
Taking into account the pier base foundation engineering and future maintenance and
other factors to finalise the main tower height is 26.5 m China also belongs to the higher
Tower of Xiamen Yinhu bridge
Mucengchuan bridge (Fig. 3.75) in order to meet the needs of 275 m long-span girder
in main span of 110 m cable-free area in the Middle uses a steel box beam. Connector
located at upper flange pressure positive bending moment within a segment, to improve
the decks life span. PC with corrugated steel webs refers to the roof beams and floor
using concrete materials, Web plate steel webs, with vitro VIVO cable cable box girders.
Applied cable the axial force acting on the top and bottom all; mainly with corrugated
steel webs under shear stress produced by the bending and torsion. Compared with the
ordinary concrete box girders, PC girder with corrugated steel webs weight lose
25%~30%. Currently, Himi Yume Bridge is concrete composite girder with corrugated
steel webs main Liang Aita PC cable-stayed bridge (Fig. 3.76).
9. Summary
Throughout the history of bridge technology, it can be seen that bridges technical progress
from the demands of human civilisation, bridge technical progress achieved depends on
the development of science and technology in human society, including materials science,
theory of computing, structure, construction technology and other developments in the
field, making bridges technical progress can be achieved, so the bridge fully integrate
technological advances in human society in the development of science and technology.
Study the history of technology, contribute to its development a part of our law will help
us to scientific and technological innovation, helps us to grasp the bridge to technology
development and trend.
Bridge type
Economic
scope (m)
Span limit
(m)
RC slab bridge
10~20
50
20~50
100
50~150
200
150~300
400
200~300
400~500
200~500
600~800
500~700
800
~1000
700~1400
1
500~2000
1 000~5000
6
000~7000
10
Cable bridge
>3.000
In general, each bridge has a span of its most affordable. Under or over this affordable
economical range, although it is possible to build, but is often not economical or technical
difficulties on the other indicator. Therefore, should in principle within the scope of the
economic alternative to competing programs. Main span of 200 m bridge PC continuous
girder bridges, PC continuous rigid frame bridge with continuous beam bridge, arch
bridge of concrete-filled steel tube and steel, steel box arch bridge and PC cable-stayed
bridge (Tower) options and comparisons. Main span of 500 m bridge steel box arch
bridge, a steel truss arch bridge, PC cable-stayed bridge, girder cable-stayed bridge
options and comparisons. Generally, 700 m should choose a lighter steel deck pavement of
bridge deck cable-stayed bridge cable-stayed bridge. However, due to Chinas truck out of
control, durability of steel deck pavement has not been properly resolved, paving damage
cannot be repaired in a timely manner would cause fatigue crack of the orthotropic steel
bridge deck, affecting the durability of steel deck. Because this improved performance
more reliable structural steel deck and extend use of composite girder cable-stayed bridge
is worthy of consideration.
Cable-stayed bridge spanning breakthrough kilometers, its economic scope upto 1200
m, 1400 m, plus, stiffness, cable-stayed bridge cable replacement, and does not require
anchorage advantages will be an advantage in competition and suspension bridges, thus
forced back toward the larger span of suspension bridge. Can even be envisaged within the
span of 1500~2000 m, cable-stayed and suspension cable system may be able to anchor
construction easily made of low stiffness and suspension bridge and further to 2000 m
back down.
According to the development trend of seagoing vessels, the seventh generation of
container ships has reached 400,000 tons, high vertical clearance requirement is above 70
m. In order to adapt to existing port bridge navigation standard, larger seagoing vessels
would limit height, and continue to grow in width and length show vertical clearance
width will increase accordingly, but will not increase without limit. We shall continuously
improve the lower foundation in deep water technology and economic level, across the
span of a bridge linking the island and the Taiwan Strait in the future limit at the level of
around 3500 m to improve bridge competitiveness of the beams for the tunnel option.
Because as the bridge span increases, and its cost will rise rapidly, in the face of
increasingly sophisticated tunnel DAO technical and economic indicators, the bridge will
be difficult to compete and tunnel scheme.
Finally, it is to be noted that, from the perspective of the development trend of ship
navigation (see Table 3.9) and is currently navigable routes less than 300,000 tons road
hole bound navigation time, 2 holes 750 m of multi-tower cable-stayed bridge has been
able to meet the requirements, such as being designed by Germany and Denmark carries
upto 260,000t of Fei Manen Strait between ocean liners, 34 Tower cable-stayed bridge
across 780 m more economic plan would eventually overcome the large-span (5)
suspension bridge even for the future potential of a 500,000 ton lane, 2 1500 m
navigation requirements can also be used more competitive multi-tower cable-stayed
bridge scheme, so as to avoid deep water anchorage difficulties. Furthermore, programmes
are more likely to meet the rail cable-stayed bridge for two stiffness requirements for
bridge, especially the advantages of cable can be replaced, durability and total lifecycle
cost of the cable-stayed bridge suspension bridge better than the suspension bridge. In
short, the km over the span of bridge type selection of cable-stayed bridges should be
given priority, and caution on suspension bridge. Unless faced with water deeper than 100
m and a wide channel, which span more than 1500 m, you must use consecutive TRANS2000 m (5) suspension bridge At this point, such as Sham Shui Po anchorage must be
addressed through research and development, anti-sliding at the tower of the main cable,
and rigidity of customs key technical problems and also had to face the strong competition
of the tunnel option.
Denmark and Germany between instances of the Fehmarn Belt Bridge is an important
revelation: in order to meet 260,000t sea navigation ask, after thorough investigation and
analysis of ship collision risk, recommending three-span bridge program is a four tower
780 m of truss composite beam cable-stayed bridge, who gave up on large cross-(2000 m)
ICP-suspension bridge, to stay competitive on the tunnel option.
Since most of the tonnage of the ships below 300,000t, ultra large ocean liners were
just a few of the more than 300,000t. Even if you want to ask at full speed, freedom of
navigation porous 1~200 m have been 300,000t to meet the shipping requirements (see
previous Table 3.9), occasionally there are a few more than 300,000t of ultra large ocean
liners pass through, deceleration can be used by constrained navigation. In this way,
1200 m long-span cable-stayed bridge is the most competitive Cross-Sea Bridge. Cablestayed bridges stiffness, wind resistance performance is good, cables can be replaced, and
avoid deep water anchorage of suspension bridge and across the main cable saddles of
suspension bridge tower problems such as skid-resistance, not only economy better than
suspension bridges, but also has the competitive advantage of the tunnel option. Therefore,
in addition to 5 km-width Super Sham Shui Po (100 m) strait-tower suspension bridge
spans must be used (for example, Italy Messina Strait Bridge), the water is wide (20 km)
Strait Bridge should be give priority to the economic rational scheme of cable-stayed
bridge, rather than blindly span breakthroughs, not economical for large-span suspension
bridge scheme and loss of competitiveness in tunnels.
In General, the current main types of rigid spread foundation of bridge foundations,
piles and column bases, the caisson and bell-shaped bases, sink box foundation and piles,
pipe, bell formed the basis of open caisson, a combination of foundation, where the oldest
and most commonly used in amounts foundation is the biggest pile, then caisson
foundation. Pneumatic caisson construction of foundation for security and other reasons,
this technology in Japan has become less application, instead, auto pneumatic caisson
foundations in the early 1990, of the 20th century, the medium-term, fundamental
developments are mainly tubular column base combined base and bell-shaped bases and
foundation; late in the 1990, of the 20th century, forms the basis of many other bridges to
build, such as locking steel pipe pile, column bases, underground continuous wall of
double tubular column foundation bearing platform, and so on. At present, with the needs
of the sea-cross bridge construction and advances in construction technology, pre-cast or
overall basis set show prospect, which is similar to the offshore drilling platform design
and construction of ultra deep foundation also received wide attention and research
engineer.
In bridge foundation design, must consider the feasibility of bridge structural system
and construction as well as depth, geology, hydrology and environment many bridges,
such as the natural conditions by analysing and comparing the foundation type selection.
Natural conditions of the bridge is the underlying type determinants of choice.
For the depth of water is less than 5 m and have exposed bedrock, rigid spread
foundation is the preferred type for depth of 5~50 m range bridges, piles, tubes and
caisson is the underlying type of the applicable, in which 5~20 m depth, domestic
construction technology quite mature; at a water depth of 50~70 m base, the construction
is very difficult, more suitable for installation of pre-fabricated construction of sinking
well foundation and bell-shaped base, in this regard, there are many success stories
abroad; for a water depth larger than 70 m basis, whether in the basic shape type selection
and appropriate construction technology is a challenge, may adopt similar forms the basis
of offshore platforms.
For the foundation through the overburden thickness, steel piles and pipe buried near
50 m; 100 m bored pile to soil; open caisson of fitness appropriate range of 35~50 m,
maximum 100 m locking steel pipe pile 35~50 m soil depth is more appropriate based on
the underlying type.
For bridge site geology, such as thick in the river gravel layers greater than 10 m,
driven piles, pipe foundation, locking construction of steel pipe pile foundations have
difficult issues.
If structural basis, ground and river areas are required to have the ability to resist
horizontal force, inclined pile foundation, Shen Jing Ji bases are a good choice.
All in all, a variety of bridge Foundation respectively, to adapt to different geological
conditions and environmental factors, at the location of the bridge superstructure of
requirements and load characteristics, and so on. the following three general forms the
basis of modern times, appeared after the war forms the basis of modern and 1990s, there
were two forms the basis for the development of three new categories based on their
structural characteristics and fit as described in condition.
(a) Foundation
Pile foundation of bridge deep water Foundation is the most commonly used and forms
the basis of the most economical.
Pile foundations are so versatile, versatility, working mechanism varied, so piles are
often based on the material, the degree of impact on soil, construction, construction
method and load conditions as well as the relative position of the CAP, were classified.
Table 3.12 lists components of poles.
Table 3.12 Post classification.
Classification
Materials
Types of pole
Stakes, steel piles, reinforced concrete piles pre-stressed concrete
piles, composite pile.
Friction piles (pure friction piles, pile end bearing friction) piles
(piles pure friction piles).
Location of caps
Foundation.
5. Specific site conditions and construction feasibility on pile foundation design options
need attention:
For sinking piles, RC, PC, PHC pile suitable water depth is 20~30 m, permeable
overburden thickness upto about 35 m, mass for the saturated fine sand, clay, sand and
gravel; compared to the steel pile and pile type mentioned above, as long as the
construction equipment available, which adapt to water depth, covering a wide range of
thickness but 10 cm over gravel layer, containing a lot of the strata of rocks or other
obstructions, the types of sinking piles are suitable for. Similarly, when the surrounding
pipelines or dilapidated houses, are sensitive to soil compaction effect, there is no suitable
use of soil compaction effect of sinking pile foundation.
Bored pile than sinking piles, piles can be penetrate the hard gravel, cobble and
Boulder, also available through the complex geological conditions cave, construction
equipment, simple, no squeezing effect, construction noise and vibration, suitable depth
and depth greater. Among which the rotary drill hole piles suitable water depth upto about
30 m, depth is more than 100 m; impact drill hole pile adjustment suitable water depth and
reach the hole is slightly decreased, but you can use a variety of ground conditions,
especially in karst areas, would be a plus application of bored pile.
Considering pile bearing capacity of end-bearing pile applied in soft soil surface is not
very thick, but for hard soil layer in the lower part of the case; brush pile applied in soft
soil surface with a thick, with moderate compressibility of the soil layer in the lower part,
and hard soil depth in a lot of situations.
For low pile foundation and high pile bearing platform of choice depends on the depth
and ease of construction, typically in the floodplain, or shallow water sets the low-pile pile
foundation. High-pile bearing platform of design should be noted for the underside and
navigable relationships to protect the pile from influence of ship collision.
In addition, from the point of use, helical pile than a vertical pile has a strong ability to
resist horizontal force, may ship impact, waves beats and seismic effects used on the
bridge. At present, some latest piling barge equipped with a plug piling upto more than 82
m.
Inclination of 18.5 increased pile capacity; but in the bored pile construction tilt,
limited capacity of domestic equipment, generally only achieved approximately 5 of
inclination sloping pile. In contrast, foreign construction equipment more capable,
diameters can be carried out 1.5 m, 40 m length, tilt 1 : 4 bored pile construction, while
form 3 in diameter. 5 m expanded diameter.
At present, the pile foundation construction technology is very mature, large pile
foundation success stories, too many (as in bridge bored maximum diameter pile has
reached 4 m Su Tong bridge main pylon pile foundation composed of 131 diameter
2.5~2.8 m, 124 m bored pile), Has very good economic effect of piles, on many occasions
would be preferred. Pile foundation design, there are two points it is worth mentioning:
firstly, pile foundation of bridge in the country at present some bias in the application of
the project, seems to be without piling without foundation tendencies. However, in a
busy shipping channel, bridge with earthquake requirements, whether with high-pile
Fig. 3.78 Cap structure and pile layout schematic (size: m) (a) platform faade structure;
(b) pile layout.
5. Pile hammer equipment capacity and length of PHC pipe piles, pile weight and
the pile bearing capacity of an uncoordinated, cant be Heavy hammers
tapping the pile requirements.
Construction of pile foundations of Donghai bridge practice experience is: the choice
of pile foundation of bridge pier foundation should be take full account of environmental
conditions the influence of high strength, torsional behavior of the pile should be chosen
well, hitting resistance capacity of steel pipe pile; offshore waters affected by seabed scour
and deposition, wave impact differs from the geological structure of the continental shelf
seabed geological structure, the design should fully analyse soils and bearing capacity
force of bridge pile foundation in offshore waters, and upon the request of both vertical
and horizontal bearing capacity; whether the waters off the coast with PHC pipe pile
foundations, should be based on comparison and selection of foundation conditions were
reasonable, to control the construction of the total number of blow and penetration, in
order to ensure piling process the pile structural integrity and durability of structures
using.
Example 3.18. United States, San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge.
United StatesSan Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge East span bridge is a double-deck
all 10 lanes of large-span bridge, with a total 4 km, full-bridge into self-anchored
suspension bridges and viaducts on the sea, on both sides of the approach spans four parts
of wiring, substructure for the pile foundation.
Foundation design of one of the most characteristic is the use of inclined pile
foundation of high-pile, pile structures in multi-cell box shaped steel frame filled with
concrete, being a concrete-filled steel tube. From the perspective of geological condition
of the bridge, river bed under the soil distribution varies widely, on main bridge tower is
located in relatively shallow bedrock slopes. Most other foundations located deep in the
mud layer.
Oakland Bay Bridge East span bridge located in the strong earthquake, seismic risk
can cause two major geological fault lines of Sandy Bridge site 12 km and 25 km only.
Requests by two fortification level for aseismic design (normal use and safety features of
earthquake).
First piers of the viaduct by sea 50 m high bridge pier foundation (Fig. 3.79) as an
example, the pier is located deep in the slime layer shang, pile high 6.5 m, water 2 m,
constructed in the form of box-shaped steel frame filled with concrete, to fight for
concrete shrinkage, creep and deformation caused by temperature and reduce the cracks.
Foundation due to earthquake deformation and the size of the cap, and cap set of 6,
diameter 2.5 m, length about slope respectively, 1 : 8, 1 : 12100 m, pile of steel pipe piles.
Design wall thickness along the pile of steel pipe pile long range, range from 51~68 mm,
mainly based on bending bearing capacity of piles, ductile, corrosion and scored based
meter. Within the upper two-thirds length of steel pipe filled with concrete, in order to
ensure the transfer of load from the combination between concrete-filled steel tubular
pipe, steel pipe pile (a concrete filled area) welded onto the inner wall of shear studs,
bottom weld shear ring plate. Fig. 3.79 shows the plane and elevation of pile-raft
foundation and steel pipe pile elevations.
Construction sequence was: Mencke MHU 1700 hammer for pile foundation
construction and pre-fabricated pile floating and sinking in place, through the internal steel
frame system pile with steel pipe piles and pier reinforcement of internal connections, and
then fill high strength concrete and light-weight concrete, finally setting collision bezel
facilities.
Fig. 3.79 Elevation plan of the piled-raft foundation and steel pipe pile elevations (unit:
mm).
construction process is not complicated. The open caisson foundation disadvantage is that
during a long, fine sand and silt soil in the hole pumping prone quicksand phenomenon,
caused the caisson tilt; under the open caisson sunk in the process of large boulders, rock
or the bottom surface of the trunk tilted too much, will bring to the construction of certain
difficulties. Table 3.13 lists part of the caisson classification form.
Table 3.13 Caisson classification.
Classification
Types of pole
Steel open caisson
Materials
Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge anchorage (Fig. 3.80) sunk well of length 69 m, width
51 m, high 58 m, was the worlds largest caisson.
To ensure smooth caisson sinking, elaboration of the general construction plan for
non-wood production for the land, repeatedly sinking, sinking method according to the
specific conditions of drained and undrained sink combination, and auxiliary air curtains
help heavy under water concrete.
Fig. 3.80 The Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge North anchoring sunk shaft foundation of air
curtain structure (unit: cm).
To address safety problems, currently Japan auto pneumatic caisson base was
developed. Mechanised mining system in order remote control excavator operations,
minimise artificial the caisson and improves the safety of construction to automatically
Fig. 3.81 Pipe pile foundation of Yokohama Bay Bridge (unit: mm).
Pipe column base materials can be divided into reinforced concrete pipe, pre-stressing
force concrete tube, steel tube column, according to the cap position low string based, high
pile bearing platform management foundation.
Tube base can be used for deep water, tidal influence, the rock face rugged riverbed
without coating or overlay is very thick, are suitable used to close clay and all kinds of
rock, soil, and through caves, boulders supported on dense soil layers or fresh high on a
rock. String base not too applies to regions with serious geological defects, such as
crushing or serious fault loose areas. In general, within sunk pile appropriate range of
application pile foundation tubing can be used.
Example 3.20. Wuhan Changjiang river second bridge piers, 8th: steel-pipe column base.
Wuhan Yangtze 8th pier continuous rigid frame bridge with intermediate activities
supporting pier. Construction during flood period the maximum velocity of about 1 m/s,
deep ~ 25 m, the geology is complex, covering layer thickness 23~27 m top to bottom is
silty and fine sand in layers and 0.2 ~ 0.3 m thick round gravel rock surface elevation
about 21.5 m, under which the conglomerate fully strong weathered and weak weathered
and conglomerate fracture zone.
8th original design for double-wall steel cofferdam for pier foundation bored pile
foundation bearing platform, but taking into account the adverse geological conditions, the
cofferdam resistance water area is large and has little depth, a structure may vary
depending on local soil erosion is difficult to guarantee stability. Comprehensive
comparison of select high pile steel pipe column base (Fig. 3.82).
The foundation a total of 12 pieces of steel pipe column, column inner diameter of 2.2
m, wall thickness 14 mm, long 49.5 m; hole diameter 1.8 m, drilling deep 14.5~28.5 m
double-wall steel cofferdam for outer diameter of 20.6 m, thickness 0.6 m, the level 22.05
m.
Fig. 3.84 Main bridge of Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, 2nd Pier and open caisson and
tubular column foundation Schematic (unit: cm) (a) sunk shaft with steel Tubular column
foundation structure; (b) level of caisson and Cap hinge.
Hydrogeological conditions along the pier located at the depth of about 30 m, covering
layer thickness of about 40 m, scour the riverbed of 23 m, based on the technical
conditions to adopt the single string base have difficulties or caisson foundation. From the
caisson and string combinations to form the basis of, it tube embedded within the bedrock
of the lower end of the column, top embedded in the pile of concrete, concrete caisson
bottom sealing and capping the connection string into integer steel can be used as a guide
frame and cofferdam in construction of open caisson, is part of the permanent structure,
3. In the 1990 of the 20th Century has two Basic Forms of New
Development
Owing to the harsh water conditions, construction time and quality are difficult to ensure,
on the other hand, pre-casting and installation needed for transport, cranes and other
equipment and technology to further mature, large pre-cast foundation in deep water or
floating installation process as a whole has developed rapidly.
As early as 1939, United States pioneered the Bell foundation in recent years, there
have been new developments and applications. Similarly, underground continuous wall
foundation originated in the 1950, of the 20th century in Europe, alongwith the dredging
machinery and technology development, is another forms the basis of the recently
developed rapidly.
Fig. 3.85 American St. Mary Stewart iron bridge built-in Haiwa on the basis of Bellshaped pile.
The clock on the pile-foundation this simple base with less construction materials,
construction methods, construction speed the advantages, but its biggest drawback is the
high technical requirements for construction. In addition, by Yu Zhong-Foundation for
main tower of large span bridge, Pier foundations, foundation load capacity, high
requirements for foundations, built directly on the basis of sometimes requires the rock
stone ground.
In use, bell-shaped foundation and caisson resemblance, namely, pre-fabricated
loading method and applied to sea-spanning bridge construction.
Example 3.23. Canada Federal bridge Bell Foundation.
In 1997 completion of Canada Federal bridge across the Northumberland Strait, for 44
holes of main spans of pre-stressed concrete box girder of long span 250 m, in order to
meet the conditions for offshore operations, it, bell-shaped pier foundation and upper
structure are all using pre-fabricated components, factory pre-fabricated on shore, use
large gondolas for installation on site. Bell-shaped base (Fig. 3.86) basal diameter of 22 m,
based on height to the depth of 10~35 m vary within a range, base made cone-shaped
platform at the top, with the pier closed. Construction used large floating hanging bellshaped base lifting sinking into place, then piers pre-cast foundation crane-mounted
directly into the top of the cone-shaped platform, through the pre-stressed structures both
as a single entity.
Example 3.24. Greece Rion-Antirion Bridge: reinforced earth base isolation.
Greece bridge of Rion-Antirion bridge in highly exceptional circumstances,
environmental factors, depth of greater than 2500 m length range more than 65 m, steep
on both sides of the sea bed, accompanied by strong seismic activity (recurrence period of
2000 the maximum peak acceleration 1.2 g) and the tectonic movement (Fig. 3.87). Gulf
shipping request, ship impact force for 180000 t/16 section (section 1 = 1 nautical mile/h =
1.852 km/h); geological factors (Fig. 3.88), bedrock depth of the bridge over 500 m, under
the sea-bed soil order are as follows: (a) 4~7 m non-stickiness gravel, (b) rather unstable
sand, silty sand and silty clay layer, free (c) 30 m is a homogeneous layer of silty clay or
clay, for the typical soft ground. A 20 m liquefaction of deep layer is on the north shore.
The bridge main controlling factors on the seismic safety of the design. Apart from the
upper structure selects five outside the floating structural system of cable-stayed bridge
span continuous, in the sub-structure of the processing, diameter 2 m, deep steel pipe piles
with 7 of 25~30 m~8 m the spacing of soil and solid, covered with sand, gravel and
crushed stone pile top 3 m thick composed of sand-gravel cushion forming class
Composite Foundation, which is located on 90 m in diameter formed box foundation for
the sliding of the reinforced earth base isolation (reinforced soil foundation) (Fig. 3.89).
Fig. 3.86 Canada Northumberland Strait Bridge Bell Set the base (size: m).
Fig. 3.87
m) and the deep (85 m) two schemes make choices and, finally, according to
characteristics, economic and reasonable structure, construction easier and used the flat
shallow scheme. Also used a similar lock in construction (with gaps of steel tubes and
steel plugs) the new connector.
Fig. 3.90 Aomori diaphragm tower foundation of pylon pier of the bridge division of the
element and the construction sequence (size: m).
cross in the mountains of West-Central Valley Project, the priority should be relatively
economical and cable-stayed bridge cable can be replaced or suspension bridge scheme.
Full justification must be provided for suspension must be used, and is not to replace the
main cable control rot should be dealt with seriously, in order to ensure the durability of
their lifecycle. Not only the pursuit of span by ignoring economic principles when
choosing suspension bridge schemes.
Same bridge conditions, different layout structure and span of the bridge material
indicators, economic indicators are different and, therefore, economy of bridge type
alternatives tend to be conceptual design scheme selection of the most important
considerations.
Example 3.26. Of Taizhou Yangtze River Bridge.
Taizhou Changjiang bridge preliminary design phase for a total of six economic
analysis and comparison of the design, as shown in table 3.14.
Table 3.14 Six programmes cost comparison
Engineering
Main
1690
198131
34481
Approach 3840
57057
4572 321295
Main
2400
232476
28490
Approach 3450
50576
4511 355544
Main
2350
226795
28385
Approach 3520
51240
4479 349359
213410
29059
73175
4614 359887
1900
198561
30737
Approach 5160
78646
4690 348354
Main
333841
365466
359117
360051
348354
Example 3.27. Su Tong bridge preliminary design phase bridge type selection.
1. Tower cable-stayed main span span is determined as 1088 m, take 500 m side spans,
two auxiliary piers, taking into account the auxiliary channel, khunj uplink channel
requirements, the span arrangement for 100 m + 100 m + 300 m + 1088 m + 300 m +
100 m + 100 m.
2. With a total length of 2088 m continues taking into account location, south anchorage
on the main channel and navigation channels between shoals, north of anchorage on
the north side of the main channel the 8 m terrain around, considering the main
channel and the secondary channel is set in the bridge main span that are required in
the span of about 1510 m, mining with a three-span suspension, integrated structure
factors, take 453 m + 1510 m + 453 m = 2416 m cloth across the way.
3. South anchorage in a dedicated channel on the South Shore levee between the shoals,
north of anchorage on the north side of the main channel is 5 m elevation close,
considering the main channel and the secondary channel is set within the main span,
dedicated lanes set up in the South Shore, and the use of three-span crane, Heald
structure factors, take 938 m + 2010 m + 938 m = 3886 m cloth across the way.
Investment estimation: full-bridge cable stayed bridge with a main span of 1088 m
programme a total investment of 59.0 Yuan, suspension bridge with a main span of 1510
m programme bridge, a total investment of 68.300 million Yuan, 2010 m programme full
bridge suspension bridge main span with a total investment of 82.200 million Yuan. Main
span of 1510 m cable bridge program investment than cable stayed bridge with a main
span of 1088 m price 9.300 million Yuan, a main span of 2010 m scheme of suspension
bridge main span 1 088 m cable-stayed bridge scheme investments increased by 23.200
million Yuan, the cable stayed bridge with a main span of 1088 m programme of
investment in the province.
Example 3.28. Qingdao Bay Bridge.
Qingdao haiwan bridge across Jiaozhou Bay connected with the main city and
Huangdao of Qingdao and auxiliary city city of large bridges, railway bridge project
surveying and designing Institute in the feasibility study report of the bridge, ferries and
two bay bridge under different conditions of bridges examined a number of long-span
suspension bridge scheme.
According to traffic under the bridge function, combined with topography and geology
and other natural conditions, respectively, on the ferrys bridge and the bay bridge overall
layout.
(a) The ferry bridgeBridge Program (Fig. 3.91). East side features two large holes
meet the requirements of port channel and the central fairway, Lee of nonnavigable spans of sand ridges area in central pier or contact the bridge in the
middle, with waters on the west side or edge of the cay set in shallow water anchor
pier based on cay on the west side of port channel setting in the middle of longspan cable-stayed bridge.
Fig. 3.91 Qingdao Bay ferry bridge scheme selection (size: m).
Prepared a programme of three tower suspension bridge, spans the composition 350 m
+ 1200 m + 1200 m + 350 m, central tower of 250 m, two 160 m tower. Main cable
resulting from the unilateral load in order to overcome the huge levels of tension vertically
using a main tower-like structure, this class bridge-both at home and abroad, there is no
large instances.
Option II for suspension bridge with two hand decorate, share a bi-directional
anchoring, anchoring the main cable. Span consists of 350 m + 950 m + 350 m + 350 m +
950 m + 350 m. Similar bridge main span in the world for the first time.
Option III for a two-seat hybrid cable-stayed bridge joint layout, steel box girder of
cable-stayed main span and side spans of pre-stressed concrete box girder span constitute
330 m + 950 m + 330 m + 330 m + 950 m + 330 m. The main span of the bridge is also a
world record.
(b) The ferry bridgeBridge Program (Fig. 3.92). Each bridge main span across the
central deep water shipping. Depth on both sides of the main tower is about 25 m,
anchor set in near-shore shallow water district.
Programme I of three tower suspension bridge, spans the composition 646 m +
1652 m + 646 m, central tower of 250 m, two RC master 255 m tower. The main
span of the bridge at the first bridge of its kind in the world.
Programme II of three-span continuous steel box girder of suspension bridge,
spans the composition 652 m + 1832 m + 652 m, RC primary 265 m tower.
Programme III is a three-span suspending cable-stayed hybrid structure, spans
the composition 592 m + 1832 m + 592 m. The bridge world the first.
(c) Number of Major Works: Corresponding to the above-mentioned scheme, number
of main bridge of the main projects as shown in tables 3.15 and 3.16.
Table 3.15 Ferry and bridge engineering quantity comparison.
Project three-tower
Suspension
bridge
Suspension bridge
with two of 950 m
22550
19080
11050
46000
49300
51000
Tower
63700
36200
92000
Foundation
117600
134200
160000
Main tower of
concrete (m3)
Fig. 3.92 Qingdao Bay ferry bridge scheme selection (size: m).
Table 3.16 Ferry and bridge engineering quantity comparison.
Main Span 1652
m suspension
bridge
30400
Steel box
beams (t)
39900
44400
41800
75600
88900
108700
126500
141300
142340
Anchorage
151000
167300
125000
Foundation
111199
99400
120560
Item
Cable wire (t)
Anchorage
concrete (m3)
the economy is controlling factors of the economy of the entire programme, once the
bridge and determine the layout and is difficult to reduce costs, only partially, a small
amount of to optimise and reduce costs.
At present, long-span cable-stayed bridge has exceeded kilometers, and there is
development potential in the range of 1200 m-span entirely from anchor angle laqiao of
the economy will be significantly better than suspension bridges. Also, rigidity and windresistant stability of multi-span cable-stayed bridge and construction are superior to many
suspension bridge. For example, France designed by Greece Rion-Antirion bridge, depth
of 65 m, and is located in an earthquake zone, navigable sea of 180,000t round, 560 m said
that a very economical and reasonable scheme and new cable-stayed bridge of reinforced
soil-isolated foundation, does not adopt a more cross-suspension bridge Such as Germany
and Denmark Marne Strait bridge between (Fehmarnsund Bridge) programme selection
spans 780 m of cable-stayed bridge to meet 200,000t navigation requirements for seagoing
vessels, is the most economical Cross-Sea project, for the lower reaches of the Yangtze
River in China Cross-River project and the southeast coast of the island-sea link project
has provided an important reference.
A
B
Two piers Proprietor pier on land,
are on land west main pier at the shore
C
Proprietor pier on land, in
the water main pier west
602
580
520
Lower structural
costs/ total cost
19%
27.5%
35.5%
N + 1 470
N + 640
Total cost
(10,000 yuan)
Plan A: Two main piers are located on land, main span is 602 m;
Plan B: East main piers located onshore, west side main piers located in the original
terminal location, half water, half on the ground, the main span size is 580 m;
Plan C: East main piers located onshore, west of main piers in the water, main span 520 m.
These three scenarios, such as plan a main pier foundation construction cost for 1.0,
and the shore, the proportion of the cost of in-water pier foundations 1.0 : 2. 1 : 3.3,
directly affect the total cost of the bridge. Although cost is directly related to the size and
span of the superstructure, the greater the span the more expensive. But because the cost
of land based and water based differences, resulting in long span 602 m model a total cost
than span B, 520 m and span C, 580 m programmes were reduced to 6.4 million Yuan and
14.7 million dollars.
Jian fei
Relative
(10,000 yuan) relationship
64849
1.13
2.
53411
0.93
3.
57366
1.00
4.
58012
1.01
Example 3.31. Jiaojiang bridge main span 480 m girder structure of the program as a
whole process of idea generation, is in a great deal of information based on the collection,
analysis, test design based on the results of the various concepts, through the concept of
choice, eventually forming the half-closed steel box set beams, a new concept of
composite beams. During the main girder of pre-stressed concrete box girders, I-beams,
fully enclosed steel beam combination beams, box-girder beams, fully enclosed and semienclosed steel box composite beam of steel box composite beam test design and
estimating the investment results are shown in Table 3.19.
Table 3.19 Cable-stayed bridge of main girder structure scheme design.
Name of main girder structure construction
Jian fei
(100,000,000 yuan)
Relative
relationship
Concrete
beam
5.80
0.88
Full steel
girder
7.49
1.13
6.52
0.99
6.88
1.04
6.88
1.04
Example 3.32. Completed in 1986, Canada Annacis bridge main span 465 m of composite
beam cable-stayed bridge, two main towers, respectively located in shallow waters on
both sides of the river channel and filling sand foundation construction connected with the
bank. According to the proposal (programme for process tuliang coagulation, option two
for composite beams) results: the economic performance of composite beams with more
advantages than the concrete beams, laminated beams has a cost about 20% lower.
Example 3.33. Completed in 1984, Spain Luna bridge main span of 440 m pre-stressed
concrete double tower, double cable plane cable-stayed bridge main span across the water
reservoir of 50 m reservoir bottom gravel overburden thickness of 17 m layer, the bedrock
is limestone. Two main tower located on the shore. In early 1980, the design, and made 22
of the ICP for main girder of steel girders, concrete beams are superimposed demonstrate
the beam, came to the conclusion that: a concrete beam construction cost.
Example 3.34. In accordance with Chinas Anhui Province, preliminary design, detailed
comparisons of Anqing Yangtze river bridge: the main span of 500 m steel cost about
124% of the concrete cable-stayed bridge. Based on domestic economic conditions, 500 m
within the main span concrete cable-stayed bridge has a considerable competitive edge.
Fig. 3.93 Three tower schemes (a) Inverted y-shaped tower (b) Diamond-shaped towers;
(c) A-shaped tower.
Table 3.20 comparison of different engineering and construction of the tower. Because
the one tower anchor area separation of two towers, tower space is relatively small, and
steel-anchor-box anchorage, other towers of steel anchor box and circumferential
prestressed programmes carried out analysis and comparison. As can be seen from the
table in the use of steel-anchor-box anchorage of the same mode, inverted y-shaped towers
than the diamond-shaped tower JI, Jian province about 1 of 5 million Yuan. When using
circumferential pre-stressed, diamond-shaped tower with a-shaped tower cost basically the
same, and inverted y-shaped towers the most economical.
Example 3.36. Su Tong bridge tower-shaped materials and different economic
comparison in the preliminary design stages, the tower of reinforced concrete, steel, steelconcrete combined the three schemes are the same depth of research and compared.
Tower: The tower height is 297.7 m lower pylon column for ministers at the end of 15
m, wide 8 m, wall thickness 1.5 m chang 8 m, anchor, 8 m wide, wall thickness 1.2 m.
Cable tower: The tower height is 297.7 m lower pylon column for ministers at the end
of 15 m, 8 m wide, steel plate thickness 40 mm; head of anchor 8 m, width 8 m, plate
thickness 38 mm.
Steel-concrete composite pylon tower: The tower height is 297.7 m lower pylon
column at the base length of 15 m, width 8 m, wall thickness 1.5 m, anchorage area is
steel structure, length 8 m, width 8 m, plate thickness 38 mm.
(Note: in the selection of materials section, cross Tower Bridge to the direction
longitudinal to size for top of tower 8 m 8 m, bottom of tower 8 m 15 m, and
eventually selected the top size 9 m 8 m, 8 m 15 m at the end of vary, and coagulation
tusuota cable uses a section of steel anchor box.
Tower project number and cost comparison of different materials are shown in Table
3.20.
Table 3.20 Tower of quantities and construction fees (all bridges).
Materials
Inverted Diamond
A-shaped
Y-shape
(Steel
box)
51002
shape
(Steel
box)
56410
Bars (t)
12308
Ordinary
steel (A3) (t)
Concrete
(m3)
52321
59533
13636
13821
12638
14417
3808
4226
4258
3914
4475
Anchor box
of steel
(Q345) (t)
1800
1800
Strand (t)
374
456
530
550
632
Anchors (set)
864
1008
1616
1712
1856
Construction
fee (10,000
yuan)
18338
19823
16947
15545
17732
Constructioninstallation
ratio
1.081
0.924
0.848
0.967
Table 3.21 Tower project number and cost comparison of different materials.
Project
Concrete (m3)
Concrete pylon
50318
Steel tower
3036
Combined tower
44032
302
208
Bars (t)
12226
304
8146
Steel (t)
5988
32738
8638
18617
58888
27553
3.163
1.480
Strand (t)
Construction-installation ratio
Note: Tower engineering to scheme comparison of early value, little different from the
final design recommendations.
As can be seen, towers of concrete, steel towers, tower of steel-concrete composite
construction cost ratios of about 1 : 3.163 : 1.480.
Example 3.37. Taizhou Tabgtze River Bridge Tower of steel tower with concrete tower
concrete structure of the tower two, a steel tower of a scheme is shown in Table 3.22.
Table 3.22 Side tower plan comparison.
Tower plan
Tower number
three
Scenarios
description
Construction
costs (10,000
yuan),
Cost ratio
Comparison
Conclusion
Concrete tower:
Concrete tower: a concrete light
ktype concrete beams beam crossing with a steel cross
Programme
web portfolio
Steel towers: a
k-cross beam
scheme
9180.51
8926.76
24066.94
0.97
2.62
Scheme
Recommendations
Scheme Comparison
Scheme
Comparison
Analysis according to Table 3.22, steel tower cost concrete tower 2.6 times, therefore,
finally, concrete tower scheme as a recommendation.
Example 3.38. Tower of Jiaojiang bridge scheme comparison.
Scenario comparison and selection of design after several rounds of tower, tower
concentration in bud form, on a diamond-shaped and Vase-shaped, as shown in Fig. 3.94.
According to the consultants, observations on the three towers has done to further
optimisation. Table 3.23 is a three-tower design renderings and the material quantity, cost
comparison.
Fig. 3.94 Three tower schemes (a) diamond-shaped tower; (b) bud-shaped tower; (c) a
vase-shaped tower.
Table 3.23 Comparison of three-towers-jiaojiang bridge.
Tower-shaped
Quantity (m3, a single Suo Taji)
Construction fee (10,000 yuan) (based on full
bridge two meter)
Construction installation ratio
Diamondshaped
about 10683
about
13101
19718.6
22008.9
21848.4
1.12
1.11
Recommended solutions
recommendation selection
selection
Fig. 3.95 Three-tower suspension bridge towers in rectangular open caisson solution (unit:
mm).
Main tower of bored piles with 118 root f3.1 m/2.8 m bored piles (steel pipe diameter
3.1 m), as shown in Fig. 3.96. Friction piles, plum blossom decorate bottom of pile height
110 m, 106 m bottom of pile bearing stratum for gravelly sand. Caps shuttle shape, flat
feet inch is 87.4 m 67 m. Cap above the highest navigable the cap crest + 6 m, cap 10 m,
sealing concrete thickness 2.5 m to prevent the ship impact pile, lateral sealing concrete
along the cap end of a local thickening. Table 3.24 shows bridge caisson and scheme of
bored pile works.
Fig. 3.96 Tower suspension bridge pile foundation program (unit: mm).
Comprehensive comparison of the recommended solutions based on open caisson.
Example 3.40. Tower of Jiaojiang bridge scheme comparison.
According to geological data were furnished with the friction pile and pile embedded
in rock, as shown in Figs. 3.97, 3.98. Friction piles with 2.5 m pile diameter, 48 numbers
of pile of length 108 m. Variable diameter rock-socketed piles and pile diameter from 2.9
m change to 2.6 m, 24 numbers of pile at North Tower with an average length of about
115 m, the South Tower, with an average length of about 135 m. By calculation, allowable
value of axial compressive bearing capacity of single pile of 68230 kN, pile total lateral
resistance of 8049kN (12%), the total lateral resistance of rock-socketed segment 22393
kN (33%), the total resistance is 37789 kN (55%).
Table 3.24 Caisson drilling pile schemes.
Project
Concrete (m3)
Project volume
Programme drilled
100725
Caisson pile
155972
Bars (t)
3929
23037.5
Steel (t)
5376
19880
31543.85
28
27
Total 60 m of open caisson (Fig. 3.99), elevation 55.17 m, top height + 4.83 m
Caisson Song Festival 15 m steel concrete caisson, the remaining segments for 45 m high
concrete open caisson concrete strength class C35 underwater, cutting edge of plate wall
16 mm and the remaining wall thickness of steel segment 8 mm, concrete wall thickness
of 1.2 m, 8 mm steel shell concrete wall insulation thickness. The bearing layer containing
clay roundstone (4-2), the fa0 = 320 kPa. Three basic scenarios shown in Table 3.25.
Table 3.25 Side tower plan comparison.
Type of
foundation
Flat size (m)
60
Very small
reduction 244
(bridge later
98)
76996
78371
Recommended
solutions
Selection
Selection
Recommendation
Fig. 3.97 Pipe pile foundation of Yokohama Bay Bridge (unit: mm).
Fig. 3.98 Main pile foundation of Yokohama Bay Bridge (unit: mm).
relatively harsh (a similar construction method where did not have the conditions
imposed), concept design must take into account specific construction methods.
meet the design requirements, it is technically feasible. Three stage lifting scheme of arch
bracket assembled on the bridge, bridge alignment easier to control, middle section of
main arch by temporary tie rod alignment adjust shape, while keeping the structure system
transformation is more complicated. Swing construction programmes take full advantage
of the side arches and across half an arch formation self balancing system, large diameter
loop ensures that the balance is in the rotary process, enough of the factor of safety against
overturning and adjustment buckle Suo Lali, can make the side arches and a main arch
during the rotation process in an optimal stress state, but using high-precision synchronous
lifting technique. Whole floating hoisting transport Fulcrum 53 m vault of 88 m transport
system for variable structure, risk is too big. And because of inadequate treatment, bridge
caused a number of residual stress in the cross section is too large, has obvious flaws in
the technology.
(ii) Three stage lifting scheme of peacetime construction influences on waterway is small,
but because the waterway favour south, scaffolding and construction trestle occupied main
channel waters and waterways, department continues expanding to the north, and set
emergency turn-around bridge upstream and downstream areas, and smaller ships waiting
parking area, in the interest of navigational safety. Middle section of main arch floating,
positioning, lifting both construction procedures need to cover, such as homework, in
order to ensure Hong Kong normal production, requires two 24 h completed within a
climatic ebb and, unable to carry out continuous operation.
Erection scheme of main arch assembled on shore, changed a lot of Spider-man for the
ground operation. Because the clearance under the main arch much greater than the design
navigation clearance, in the process without cover, Swivel, to minimise the impacts on
waterway.
(iii) Three hoisting assembly bracket and lifting scaffolding upto 60 m, a larger amount of
material, temporarily tied several times adjustable the entire, complex operation. Due to
the side effects of supports on channel, it is necessary to widen the waterway, while deeper
draught barges required for floating van surrounding waters for dredging, and aerial
operations required compensation for the shipping sector, incurred large costs and difficult
to estimate.
Swing construction programme despite an increase of some agreed temporary works,
and rotation construction requires high-precision synchronous lifting equipment, but less
uncertainty, project cost control.
(iv) Three stage lifting scheme can be of rotation programme and processes work in
parallel, can shorten the duration.
Comprehensive comparison, swivel construction plan is safe and reliable, with
minimal impact on waterway, short duration, economy, experts demonstrated many times,
review determined to implement the programme. Swing construction successfully
completed on October 24, 1999.
Example 3.42. Anchor block of Taizhou Changjiang River Bridge construction method of
comparison with economy.
Fig. 3.103 Diagram of anchor structure (North anchor) (unit: cm) (a) side facade; (b)
plane.
Rectangular open caisson foundation programmes: general arrangement to reduce the
overturning moment, anchoring, anchoring base with eccentric reset hole in the back
filling grouting in rock ballast, so that more uniform stress under dead load. Due to the
supporting layer of silty sand North Coast as far South Bank is deeply buried, so North
anchorage of caisson sizes larger than south anchorage. Sinking plane dimension of north
anchor with 52.0 m 58.8 m sink caisson depth 57 m, floor 1610.8 m 12.5 m borehole;
the South anchor with 50.0 m 56.8 m, open caisson high 51 m, layout of open caisson
for the 16 10.3 m 12.0 m large hole. Section wall thickness at the end of 2.15 m, the
remaining wall thickness 2.0 m, wall thickness 1.6 m sink hole section of 10 m for
concrete-filled steel and the remaining section of reinforced concrete. Sealing concrete 10
m, covers an average thickness of 5 m. Steel Q235 steel, concrete C30, sealing concrete
water C30, C40 manhole cover concrete. Knot frame as shown in Figs. 3.103, 3.104.
Underground continuous wall base surface can be arranged into rectangles and circles
in two scenarios. While working with a circular cross-section in construction of
underground continuous wall of reasonable strength, but due to anchor the bottom section
is rectangular, round base with rectangular cross-section does not match the anchorage,
rounded volume large, uneconomic. Underground continuous wall of rectangular layout is
very compact, and longitudinal stiffness, reasonable force as a whole, the composite
diaphragm wall foundation considers only rectangular plan.
Fig. 3.105 Of north anchor underground continuous wall chart (unit: cm) (a) I-I profile;
(b) floor plan.
North anchor underground continuous wall foundation: its structure and open caisson
structure the same size as north anchor wall anchorage to the substrate 29 m, structure is
shown in Fig. 3.105.
Design according to the comparison (Table 3.26), featured rectangular open caisson
foundation programme.
Table 3.26 Underground continuous wall of sink well and plan comparison table (North of
anchorage, for example).
Project
Project
volume
Bars (t)
4449
7 953
Steel (t)
1223
771
22
26
Concrete
(m3)
Duration (months)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Related to climate and meteorological data analysis what are the basic parameters in
which designers can use? And brief usage.
2. Please tell us your main factors on bridge site selection.
3. The brief span several main span of the bridge economy and limit.
4. Would you please talk about the advantages and disadvantages of self-anchored
suspension?
5. Briefly mix based on applicable conditions.
6. Select landscape when you tell us what type of bridge requirements and control
investment relationship.
REFERENCES
[1] The sea sails. Conceptual Design of Large-span Bridge Problems//proceedings of
the 16th National Conference on bridges. Beijing: China Communications Press,
2004.
[2] Ocean sail. Reflection on Chinese Economic Problems of Bridge. Bridge, 2010. 4.
[3] Haifan, et al. Introduction to Civil Engineering. Beijing: Peoples Communications
Press, 2007.
[4] The Lei Junqing, Zheng Mingzhu, Xu Gongyi. Suspension Bridge Design. Beijing:
Peoples Communications Press, 2002.
[5] Shao Changyu, Lu Yongcheng. Technical Characteristics of Shanghai Changjiang
River Bridge//proceedings of the 17th National Conference on bridges. Beijing:
peoples China Communications Press, 2006.
[6] In Highway Planning and Design Institute, et al. preliminary design of SuzhouNantong Yangtze River Bridge project across the river. 2002.11.
[7] Jiangsu Provincial Highway Traffic Planning and Design Institute etc. Taizhou
Yangtze River Highway Bridge Crossing the River Bridge Project Preliminary
Design, 2006.10.
[8] The Research Institute of Tongji University Architectural Design (Group) Co., Ltd.
Jiaojiang bridge preliminary design and wiring engineering. 2008.
[9] Dou Wenjun. The Choice of Large-span Cable-stayed Bridge Main Pier Location.
1994 International Symposium of the Conference of the cable-stayed bridge.
[10] Yin Haohui. Construction Scheme of Main Arch of Guangzhou Yajisha Bridge
Option. Guangdong Highway Transportation, 1999 (4).
[11] He Zonghua. Urban Light Rail Transit Engineering Design Guides. Beijing: China
Architecture and Building Press, 1993.
[12] Yi Lunxiong, Gao Zongyu. New Record of High Speed Railway BridgeBridge of
Nanjing Dashengguan. The bridge, 2009 (4).
[13] The Peoples Republic of China Industry Standards. CJJ 69-95 Technical
Specifications of Urban Pedestrian Overcrossing and Underpass. Beijing: China
Building Press, 1995.
[14] The Peoples Republic of China Industry Standards. JTG D60-2004 General
Specification for Design of Highway Bridges and Culverts. Beijing: peoples
Traffic Publisher, 2004.
[15] The Peoples Republic of China industry standards. CJJ 11-93 City Bridge Design
Standards. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Publishing, 1993.
[16] The Peoples Republic of China Industry Standards. TB 10002. 1-2005 of Railway
Bridge and Culvert Design Specifications. Beijing: China Railway Publisher, 2005.
[17] In Shanghai Municipal Engineering Construction Standard. DGJ-08-109 Code for
Conceptual design is based on safety, utility, economy and beauty, durability and
protection principle in order to bridge engineering and related disciplines knowledge and
practical experience on the basis of (large bridges in particular requires a multidisciplinary
approach), with technical innovation as the goal, make suitable natural conditions, to meet
with functional design. Concept design is the soul of design.
Due to the condition of building the bridge is different, it is impossible to copy others
outstanding design achievements, however, we can learn people managed to design
thinking, grasp its essence, together, become a rich source of our conceptual design.
Learning, research the innovative ideas and design concepts, as well as successful
experience is learning to concept design, innovative ideas important ways.
For this reason, this chapter from the following view descriptions, analyse the
successful conception of philosophy and its distinctive design.
1. The bridge scheme and general layout ideas. Bridge scheme refers to all kinds of
bridge the conception and selection, overall including the layout and facades the span
and cross-section layout, etc., containing the main navigation span settings, side
spans, towers, piers and girders and other major structures, study on the structure and
support system, and so on. It is the overall layout considerations and decision-making
of conceptual design for structure, concept design fully reflects the basis and
guarantee of six design principles.
2. Technical innovation in the bridge program. Mr. Man-Chung Tang, a bridge
engineer said, if you do not try to in the design of each as much as possible to
improve, then it does not fulfill the obligation of the engineer. Natural conditions and
the functional requirements of each bridge vary, provided through research and ideas,
creating groundbreaking technology solutions and become a technology of
conceptual design flash points of light, is technological innovation. A bridge
program, the pursuit of 1~2 innovative ideas, worthy of our bridge technicians work
more efforts and re-double their diligence.
3. Bridge program consideration of landscape. Comparison and selection of bridge
schemes conceived and is based on the principles of economical and suitable for all
bridge programme should be accord with aesthetic principles. For the city an
important bridge to living in the city (region) demand for landscape designers will be
become an important factor in order to fully meet the needs of landscape functions.
This would need to be designed to rely on wisdom find a balance point of six design
principles and purpose.
4. Records span the right concept: Maximum span of each bridge there is a current
record, there are also bridges performance and its limitation span of the current
material properties (see Chapter 3, Section 3.3.2), and they are developing and
Suspension Bridge.
2. Overall Layout
Tsing Ma Bridges main span the width of navigation under the bridge, here to hang a
width of 1200 m, east of the bridge tower was built on the shore, while the West Tower
was built-in where the water is relatively shallow, and therefore decided to bridge the most
economical main span of 1377 m, 2160 m (Fig. 4.1).
Design idea: according to the terrain and waterway conditions, selected from among more
than three-tower cable-stayed bridge scheme, which does not use more than more
expensive rigid tower design, instead of using stable cable and plug in the cable tower of
steel anchor box and beam, transverse cable, steel-concrete composite beams with
combined structure, such as a series of distinctive design and construction.
Ting Kau Bridge is the 3rd most important part of the route, the bridge tunnel in north
main line of country park, across the Rambler Channel South Tsing Yi and Lantau Link
and can be provide the North-West New Territories to the Chek Lap Kok new airport,
Kowloon and Hong Kong Islands convenient channel.
Bridge navigation headroom requirement is 240 m wide, high 62 m channel. If there is
a Tower located in the Strait, plus ship collision protection system to guarantee total
tonnage of vessels of upto 220000 DWT without disturbing the fairway to the piers. 250 m
continues minimum width of the anti-collision facilities a safe distance so that the
minimum span between the towers of 300 m, and headroom is limited to the bridge towers
higher than 220 m, since Hong Kong is often affected by Typhoon, bridge design for 3s
gusts of 200-year flood event for 300 km/h.
Survey results show that at Ting Kau coast, fine grained porphyritic granite are in the
land of 2~3 m, in Rambler Channel seabed stratigraphic layers for marine sediments, rock
and alluvium of the original soil, 26 m thick layer of marine sediments of raw soil from
under the very soft composed of weathered volcanic Tuff and granite of Tsing Yi Island,
waterway center maximum depth of 25 m.
1. Tower Cable Stayed Bridge with Three Spans (Main Span of 420 m)
In order to facilitate the project bid, the Government commissioned a consultant engineer
to do a feasibility design, bridge-like facade decorated for 140 m + 420 m + 140 m tower
cable stayed bridge with three spans (Fig. 4.5), pylons as folding legs h-shaped, PC box
girder bridge is a single room, beam 6 m, a tower pier is located shore of Tsing Yi Island,
while another pylon located on an artificial island in the Strait.
Fig. 4.5 Twin towers three-span cable-stayed bridge scheme (unit: m).
construction is easy. 220 m, a-pylon could increase the torsional stability of the tower
itself, or cancellation in addition to the traditional design for main cables of suspension
bridge caused by reversing the effect, two steel cables diameter of 77 cm, near bridge
main span towers one-fourth midspan, two main cable connected form for single cable
form, thus increasing torsional stiffness and reduced the main cables of the bridge tower of
torque, would count as a new design. However, after the review believes that this is the
most expensive option.
3. Dual-Tower Cable Stayed Bridge with three Spans (Main Span of 900
m)
This is the programme instead of cable-stayed bridge of single span suspension bridge
above, and 146 m + 900 m + 146 m of main tower of three-span double cable plane cablestayed the bridge (Fig. 4.7), the two 146 m there are two auxiliary side of pier, bridge
towers as a tilted h-shaped deck for the inverted trapezoid, add beam in steel box girder of
main span is 5 m high, plus streamlined cladding on both sides, while the side span for 5
m PC four-cell box girder, increased to reduce the upward tension caused by its main span.
Cable adopts France Normandy galvanised steel wire beams design concepts in parallel, in
order to facilitate installation and maintenance. This disadvantage is the main span and
side spans quite uneven, pull upward at the side spans have a great foundation special
handling.
Fig. 4.7 Twin towers three-span cable-stayed bridge scheme (unit: m).
bridges pier. PC girder of 5 m high six-cell box girder, with a balance of on-site pouring
concrete in construction law, construction of main girder at speeds up to daily 1 m. All in
all, programmes in terms of aesthetic, economic, construction, construction and
construction costs than other programmes a plus. This programme and final programme is
very similar.
Fig. 4.8 Twin towers three-span cable-stayed bridge scheme (unit: m).
In January 1994, the department chose seven qualified companies to carry out the
design and construction methods of bidding, according to owners of existing designs,
bidders to present their design and cost. Through the commercial and technical
assessment, the lowest bidders won. Finally, successful programs at 17. HK $ 3.8 billion.
Fig. 4.11 Layout and structure of tower (size: m) (a) Main tower column cross section; (b)
Main pylon; (c) Tower.
Tower anchorage of cable-stayed, the bridge used in concrete pagoda design of lateral
anchorage of column of steel anchor box, this can be obligate omitted in the tower body,
casting anchor link, on the installation of steel anchor box for cable, stretching and
provides jobs platform, especially for four-cable-plane cable-stayed bridge of this bridge,
this design shows more advantages (Fig. 4.12), as shown in Fig. 4.13 construction photos.
Fig. 4.15 Tsurumi channel bridge girders and tower (unit: mm).
highway, the lower level is double-line railway bridge navigation clearance of 57 m. Main
tower is an h-shaped bridge tower stayed-cable of the harp-shaped parallel cable (Fig.
4.18).
Fig. 4.20 Main bridge steel truss composite girder section (unit: mm).
Fig. 4.21 Bridge approach steel truss composite girder (unit: mm).
Manufacture of steel truss composite beams (Fig. 4.22) and pouring of the concrete
deck slab is in Spain. Beam segment length 140 m, 7,000t, contains upper concrete deck
and lower deck railway concrete channel beam, use flat-bottomed barges transported to
the bridge site, dabeiertexiqiao Swan, crane ship (lifting capacity up to 8700t, raising 70
m) lifted onto a pier (Fig. 4.23).
Designers draw bridge towers and research how to make it look more like a single
tower. Move closer to the two towers, beam will be cut short; after beam cut short, just not
in bending yield but caved in under the cut. Designers and ask, why not just make it just
under the shear yield? If it doesnt look like the usual tower bends bend, but the shear
yield how? If multiple towers closer together, the tower look like a single tower structure
(Fig. 4.25).
1. Design Philosophy
Taking into account the advantages of concrete and steel is light weight, ultimately chose
the hybrid structurethe main span of the bridge in the middle used steel box girder and
the rest using conventional concrete. 800 mm thick concrete slab under pressure, C60 is
approximately equal to 100 mm thickness and yield stress of steel plates for 345 MPa
compression capability, the latter is the most commonly used steel in China. However,
thick concrete slabs construction easier than plates. Therefore, close to the pier girder
using concrete makes more sense. The middle part of the main span steel, steel can be
thinner, reducing weight and thus reduce the mid-span bending moments, more valuable.
Light mix concrete weigh about 60% of conventional concrete. Used across the middle
weight about conventional concrete box girder of steel box girder of 30%.
If using span definition, equivalent to all the ordinary concrete beam, and at the end
have the same moment of consolidation the needed span. Reduced weight for intermediate
beam, calculations show that when they span the middle one-third with steel box beam,
330 m hybrid girder span is equivalent of 269 m.
Fig. 4.28 Span layout of the the old and the new Shibanpo bridge (size: m)
Select steel box beam segment length the second consideration is the recommended
construction method design, entire segments of steel box girders on factory production, to
barge onto the scene, integral hoisting, such operations are limited. In addition, the factory
is located in the three Gorges dam downstream, dam ship lock length limits the size of
steel box girder. After careful study, decided to adopt the middle length of the steel box
girder 103 m. Total length of steel box beam segment also includes 2 at each end. 5 m
transition section, total length is 108 m, weighing about 1400t.
Ultimate new shibanpo bridge as shown in Fig. 4.29. In addition to the main span steel
box beam segment in the Middle, and the remaining parts are made of conventional
concrete.
Although Foundation located in solid rock, in order to increase the ability to resist lateral
loads, set 2.5 m and 2.0 m short pile of pile diameter Dig-hole pile is necessary.
Standard cross-section of the bridge to direct Web box girder sections. Bottom width 9
m, total width of the roof is 19 m, each flanking margin-width 5 m (Fig. 4.30).
Inside the box girder of main span of 330 m, installed a 4 section 27 units of externally
pre-stressed steel stranded wire. If necessary, by adjusting these steels twisted deformation
of steel box girders of the stress correction.
Fig. 4.30 Concrete box girder and steel box girder of cross-section (unit: mm).
structures and construction method, create the conditions for improving project quality
and reduced impact on the environment.
Segment length
(m)
70
16
18
16
21
38
21
16
18
16
70
Top flange
thickness (mm):
S460
30
35
40
40
35
30
35
40
40
35
30
Bottom flange
thickness (mm)
35
45
60
40
40
40
40
40
60
45
35
Lower flange of
steel grade
S460 S460 S690 S460 S460 S690 S460 S460 S690 S460 S460
Web thickness
(mm): S460
20
22
22
22
20
18
20
22
22
22
20
very special, cable-stayed and suspension system programme mixed the two newer
concepts of design, and the self-form of anchor, but so is more complicated (see Fig.
4.40).
Fig. 4.41 Five renderings (a) Programme a; (b) Second plan; (c) Scenario three; (d)
Programme IV; (e) Programme five.
Option one is a a-pylon cable-stayed bridge, a main span of 1017 m, 292 m and 321
m, respectively, with a total length 1630 m. Cable layout as a semi-scalloped, stiffening
girder side span and near the main span of the bridge tower 52 m part is a concrete box
girders, parts for double-box steel box girders. Top of the tower is a steel core surrounded
by stainless steel cladding. Overall, the programme in the on the design and construction
is a traditional programme.
Scenario two is an inverted Y-shaped towers of cable-stayed bridge. Its main span is
1000 m, TRANS-300 m, full-bridge a total length of 1600 m. Cable distribution and
connect as a semi-scalloped girders on either side, each pair of cables in the middle by a
deflector cable banded into a anchored to a tower. Girders and pylons in recent 100 m part
of the tower as a single entity. Stiffening girder side span in concrete box girder in main
span 800 m is a steel box girders of the central authorities. In addition to the arrangement
of the cables out, which is a traditional design.
Scenario three is a funnel-shaped pylon of cable-stayed bridge, upper part of the
bridge tower 112. 5 m is a steel structure under the portion is this concrete slab Bridges
main span is 1018 m, TRANS-298 m, respectively. Full-bridge has a total length of 1, 616
m, cable with half a pie cable layout as a semi-scalloped, stiffening girder side span and
near the main span of the bridge tower 24 m part is a concrete box girders, with box-beam,
double-box steel beam by beam together. Overall, the programme both in design and
construction for a new beam scheme scenario four is a h-pylon cable-stayed bridge, tower
when stiffening girder above cross-bar with no. The main span of the bridge is 1001 m,
full-bridge has a total length of 3001 m, cable with half a pie cable distribution as a semiscalloped in two vertical planes. Full-bridge are made of steel box girders, joined in a steel
box girders of side span in concrete to increase the dead load weight to balance the main
span. Due to the tower from the bridge extra high without beams, both in design and
construction of the programme seems to be rather special.
Option one is a a-pylon cable-stayed bridge, a main span of 1019 m, 280 m and 321
m, respectively, with a total length 307 m, the bridge has a total length of 1616 m for cable
distribution in a fan-shaped manner, on the anchorage of steel anchor box in the tower the
upper set, add beam supported by pylons in the vertical and lateral directions. Stiffening
girder side span and near Tower Bridge main span portion of the 89 m and 95 m are
concrete box girder and the rest for steel box girder of main span, as a whole, this
programme in terms of design and construction is a traditional beam.
Scheme judges voted the Championship programme as the number three,
Championship consists of the Halcrow Group Ltd (United Kingdom), Flint and neill
Partnership (United Kingdom), Dissing + Weitling (Denmark) and the Shanghai municipal
engineering design and Research Institute (China), consisting of design team submissions.
Second place for plan v, third place for scenario four, while option one and option two is
named honorable mention.
6. The closure measures: end bolting an end weld, closure temperature of 20C, cooling
closure supplemented with small amounts of incremental launching method of
external forces. Fig. 4.50 shows the hanging and closing main arch bridge
construction photos.
Fig. 4.48 Triangular systems and installing main arch construction photos.
Fig. 4.49 Installing the horizontal rope and arch crane construction photos.
Fig. 4.50 Shows the hanging and closing main arch bridge construction photos.
yuzhong and South Bank. Bridge is a two-tier structure, upper deck has 6 traffic lanes and
two-sided sidewalk, the lower level consists of a two-line light rail lanes. In order to
satisfy clearance requirements of light rail track, height of the beam 11 m. Due to the
requirements for navigation on the Yangtze river, the span of the bridge was identified as
420 m.
First of all, designers think girder truss structure should be to make light rail
passengers can enjoy the scenery of Yangtze river. While if the box girder of 11 m, that
appears to be very bulky, and the use of truss structures do not need to think about the
ventilation of the lower deck design.
Arch bridges can be divided into thrust and thrust two. True arch was thrust, caiyuanba
bridge location, geology condition good, can withstand greater thrust. But if directly by
the foundation under horizontal thrust arch had to be very low, unable to meet the
requirements of navigation.
Thrust free arch bridge is a tied arch. It could be a deck, middle deck and lower deck.
Navigation requirements are met before side note, deck-type arch of the bridge will be
squished, force structure requirements are not met. Through-arch bridge, since all deck
arch it looks so heavy, unable to meet aesthetic requirements. So choose a deck arch
bridge. In this place, the main span southern tip of home bias, high and low water levels
vary greatly. In order to avoid rib struck by ships, designers had to arch slightly improved
on, using pre-stressed concrete sub-structure, to achieve high impact resistant capacity.
Arch is the main backbone of arch, arch main is the bar, must take into account the
vertical and lateral stability.
In terms of vertical, due to lower deformation of light rail has more stringent
requirements on bridge structure must be very strong, as limits distortion. Fortunately,
light rail length is shorter, only partially affected. Girder is a 11 m high trusses, stiffness,
this arch stiffness requirements can be reduced. In bridge design, because the hangers at
different elongation under load is limited, and inspection when you calculate the stability
of arch bridge with vertical, can broadly be superimposing the rigidity of beam and arch
stiffness. So, if the beam stiffness large arch stiffness can be small.
Because the arch is mainly influenced by pressure bars, box-section truss work. In
terms of appearance, if the main beams and arches are truss bridge shape look too heavy,
not enough light, Chongqing Yangtze river scenery and pretty disturbed. Chongqing is a
city beautiful mountain city, her beauty lies in her pretty face. So, between the steel box
arch and steel pipe truss arch, chose the more slender, 2 m wide and 4 m high steel box
arch (Figs. 4.51 and 4.52).
Lateral stability of arch must rely on horizontal poles to ensure its stability. However,
for aesthetic reasons, struts must be slender, passers-by looked without any sense of clutter
and closed, according to the local stability of arch rib request, decided to use 6 transverse
bracing and for overall coordination, these transverse braces are box section.
Eventually introduced the steel-concrete composite rigid frame structure and tied-arch
bridge, a new bridge structure of main bridge of Chongqing caiyuanba Yangtze river
Bridge structural system. Bridge across 420 m and 112 m and 88 m in a symmetrical
distribution of side span and side spans. The main bridge with a total length 800 m (Fig.
4.53).
In the main bearing structure design of prestressed concrete Y shaped steel box tied
arch bridge of rigid frame with basket combinations to improve the main structure
spanning ability. On this basis, additional vertical side pier bowstring-cable, main body of
the bridge (rigid frames and the main arch) forces and lines adjustment and control of
configuration space (Fig. 4.54).
Fig. 4.54 A symmetrical pair of pre-stressed concrete continuous rigid frame + tie bar
arch.
Orthotropic deck truss beam integral node of the design has evolved and matured, the
basis of high-strength bolts and thick plate welding technique above, in the first
manufactured using festive design, large, hanging festive carriage, large sections of the
design idea, aimed at quality and construction units to provide more space for duration of
protection (Fig. 4.55).
Fig. 4.55 Segmentation and segment plates hanging on the deck gestured.
Orthotropic bridge decks in combination with steel truss beam efficiency of increasing
combination truss suare, hang the level of increased fertiliser speed, better ensuring the
construction quality. But also design, manufacture, construction, poses new challenges and
problems. At the level of designing new issues need to be addressed include: orthotropic
bridge deck joint role with the truss top chord; truss top chord decking and decking
construction details of the connection of the primary and secondary beams; derrickcomposite-bottom chord truss beam-tilt hanging rod-lower design and construction of
track beam design.
Making programmatic and technological design problems more, which mainly
include: modular truss beams cross-decking of the opposite sex basic unit of blockmaking; composite truss beams decking manufacturing base unit connection types of the
opposite sex; composite truss beams deck deformation control technique of the opposite
sex; composite truss beam monolithic gusset for a variety of manufacturing processes
combined large segments of truss beam overall assembly solutions and precision control
technology.
Of course, competition is that people are born with the designed bridge record warmth
is not declining. However, in our efforts to before you record, be sure to carefully consider
the cost of the project and the resulting value. We must also take into account that records
will be maintained how long. Today, due to the bridge span records regularly being
broken, so its best to spend our energies and creativity on the construction quality better
rather than bigger bridges with long span. Though several years after the Golden Gate
bridge would lose record-holder status, but there is still like to visit it because it is the rare
beauty of the structure.
this suspension bridge and the rest of the incongruous contrast to the slender member. So
in the design of this bridge anchorage, after careful research and decided to anchor is
designed by concrete spandrel frame of main cable in anchorage and a bearing vertical
piers of the bridge (Fig. 4.57).
Fig. 4.57 Big bear special triangles anchorage of suspension bridge (size: m).
Bridges in anchorage and 2 parallel hydraulic buffers installed between beam limiting
device, as shown in Fig. 4.58, which is the driving force locked and static limit of two
functional combination of devices. Power lock function Master Liang Zongqiao by car,
wind-induced vibration the impact movement, adjust lock speed control value at 0.01~2
mm/s range, power lock power 5 mn of each device; static limit functionality limits the
main beam does not meet the temperature slowly displacement displacement occurs,
whose value is controlled within 900 mm and regulation section 200 mm, satisfy the
range of 1 000 mm expansion joints, 15 mm static limit, if there is no vertical limit
device, beam displacement will be 1800 mm.
The buffer by Italy FIP Industriale s.p. In 1995~1997 year for design and production,
in autumn 1997 to install.
1. Selection of Bridge
In 1967, Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) featured vertical rock-water line as the
choice of Honshu-Shikoku bridges route. In this design, was selected as the piers two
shallow: one extending from the side of Kobes Takaiso another is 40 m depth of ocean
elevations Gazitajo, as shown in Fig. 4.59. Distance between the two sides since this
line exceeds 5 km, so the main span of the bridge will be set upto 1500 m in both sides of
the main span and two side spans of about 700 m.
In 1970, Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority (HSBA) was established, found that
before the two main Pier Takaiso and Gazitajo the geographical condition is flawed.
In addition, including wind tunnel testing of a large number of studies have confirmed that
suspension limitation span of the bridge is about 1800 m. Study Maiko-Matsuho these
facts led directly to the start line in this scenario, the main bridge across 4 km apart on
both sides of the Akashi Straits narrowest width. Proposed road-rail combined bridge
span arrangement for 890 m + 1780 m + 890 m, it sets the main pier at the depth of 40~50
m on the ground.
2. Highway Bridge
In June 1981, due to the deterioration of financial and political influence on Japan national
railways re-structuring impact HSBA bridge study programme in place of a highwayrailway dual-purpose bridge. HSBA conducted a number of studies, including design,
construction, price estimates, the construction period and the feasibility of collecting tolls
and so on. Raised road bridge (890 m + 1780 m + 890 m) combined bridge the economic
feasibility of the same. Programme of highway-railway dual-purpose bridge construction
costs are relatively high, although the railway bridge section to only 41% of the cost, on
the other hand, its bridge section has to bear the full cost (Fig. 4.60).
In August 1985, the building and land Bureau, Transport Department has concluded
from the report: Akashi Kaikyo Bridge Highway should be used.
Fig. 4.60 Planning and development programmes overall layout (size: m).
1A: If the bridge is not set up on the shore, the depth will increase sharply after the
more than 7 m, so changes of the mooring dolphins will be subject to limit. If 1 A
fallback, its range at best no more than 110 m, so as not to affect the 2nd route and
Maiko Park.
2P: the original terrain is perfectly flat, Akashi strata of geographical conditions and
no significant change. But beyond this point. In the Harbour a sudden drop observed.
If the superstructure of 2 P backward will be increase the cost of 2 P in both
directions therefore changes are unfavourable. Back through the coast of Awaji side
if location, depth and tidal flow rates will be eased, and bearing layer, stratum in
Kobe become slightly lighter. In addition, piers and navigation the hole edge distance
would increase, this will be increase navigation safety at construction and
completion. Thus to proper conclusion can be drawn: 3 P position back.
4A: because more close to the coast of Awaji, 4 A supporting layer of granite to go
lighter, 4 As design and construction Much easier, especially when 280 m is moved
from a previous location. However, moving above 300 m would be undesirable,
because the Mainland would be affected. So, in conclusion: upto 4 a backward 300
m.
2000 m.
4. Final Scheme
Side span to main span ratio of 1 : 2, primarily on the basis: (a) by comparing different
span Division, when the ratio was used, the package, (b) includes upper and lower total
project cost structure, the most economic and second least impact on navigation, (c) for
the design and construction of large-span cantilever bridges has accumulated sufficient
technique.
The Main Cable: Allowable stress of previous suspension bridge cable 1600 MPa tensile
strength divided by 2.5, a safety factor equal to 640 MPa newly developed 1800 MPa
strength of steel wire cable tension due to live load is only quarter of cable tension 8%, the
safety factor is 2.2, the allowable stress of upto 820 MPa. Due to the improvement of
strength of steel cables, towers, making out stone bridge tower height reduced to 30 m.
The Steel Pylon and Foundation: Tower high above the sea level is about 300 m, given
the tower during construction or during operation due to wind effects may cause vibration,
wind tunnel tests were carried out. After wind tunnel testing by selected section shape of
the tower. In addition, by at the top sets the attenuation of vibration damping device, tower
wind stability is greatly improved.
Pylon foundations of circular caisson of diameter of 80 m, high 65 m. Choose the
caisson is mainly adapted to ocean climate conditions under, But also can be prevent the
current impacts and erosion. First in a factory making steel caisson foundation, launched
by a shipyard, and shipped to the construction site, and then anchor position, sink, pouring
concrete. From the tower to the base of the largest vertical force to 125000t (Fig. 4.61).
Fig. 4.61 Pylon foundations (left), and the tower of general plan (right) (size: m) Note: the
3P in the underlying data.
Stiffened Truss: The choice of stiffening truss section to, respectively, of the modern
United Kingdom genre of box a streamlined cross-section and classical truss sections are
analyzed and compared. Design standards, self-excited vibration critical wind speed for 73
m/s above. Wind tunnel test knowledge box girder section self-excited vibration critical
wind speed of about 60 m/s. In the other hand, the select the main beam as shown in Fig.
4.62 section wind-resistant stability to meet the above conditions, trussed girder is
economical, convenient construction and so on.
Schema
Island
side
2-0
1-1
2-1
1-2
2-2
Schema
Fig. 4.68 Construction photos (a) Talianglian; (b) Using fixed jib type cranes in the tower
to install pylons; (c) Balancing assemble the main beam; (d) Through a direct method of
the girder for the increase Extension Assembly.
ship bi-directional navigation and overlay thickness 300 m condition research on cablestayed bridge, suspension bridges and cable-stayed suspension system and other
programmes, finalization of the main span is 1088 m cable-stayed bridge. Study on design
of bridge pile foundation stability, nonlinear effects, for large span cable-stayed bridge
cable vibration, wind-resistant stability and taliang connected system and a series of
technical problems.
Control of Su Tong Changjiang bridge and the main factors affecting the main channel
bridge of long-span has the following several points.
1. The Su Tong bridge navigable river and seagoing vessels, vessel density, is the
busiest waterway of Yangtze river. Navigation of the Khumbu reset should be deep
water, shallow water shallow and porous navigation principle, setting up a two side
navigation, main navigation span, a special pass air holes and a flood channel. Main
navigation channel press the single-hole bi-directional navigation standard for design,
navigation the clearance width of not less than 891 m main navigation span both side
edges of holes according to the single-hole single navigation standard for design,
navigation the clearance width of not less than 220 m.
2. According to the evolution of river bed and river regime analysis reports, deep main
channel at the location of the bridge is 300~350 m the swing range and cross-path
selection and arrangement should take into account the deep history and possible
future of the varied sites to fit the bridge waterways may have been a fan wall swing
needs, provide greater adjustment for the channel space.
3. By 2~3 km formed in the upper reaches of the Yangtze river on a bridge axis curve,
the channel also set it, so span should be selected to navigation there is a course
adjustment of surplus, for the safe navigation of ships, piers, collision avoidance
benefit.
4. Bridge site at 20 m isobath width 1000 m, 10 m isobath width 2000 m, the main
channel of the bridge should be covered by deep water, provide better conditions for
navigation, and to minimise the number of deep water pier, in order to reduce the
difficulty of construction.
5. Structure from the channel farther collision probability is small, the ship impact force
is smaller. Therefore, there is a navigation NET paused in order to reduce the
probability of main structure of ship impact to ensure structural safety.
6. The main tower base side must exist within the flow area, range about 50~70 m and
flow velocity variations in the district difference gradient is large, once the ship
enters orbit around the flow velocity, hit the pier accident-prone, for navigation and
the safety of navigation is not lee and the voyage should be avoided. Therefore, the
main span of the selection should ensure clear width than unilateral navigable surplus
of about 50~70 m, in order to avoid the area around the stream.
Under the control and influence factors of main channel bridge of Su Tong
bridge main span should at least meet the following requirements:
(a) Navigation clear width requirements: not less than 891 m;
(b) The tower base and facilities against dash size: according to the design plan,
flanked by a total of 55~85 m;
(c) Navigation clear width Fully considered of main importance, in order to ensure
its better navigation conditions under any circumstances, taking into account the
cable tower foundation flow around a sphere of influence on the side size:
unilateral 50~70 m gauge, flanked by a total of 100~140 m.
Comprehensive consideration of, main span of span fetch 1088 m.
For construction of Su Tong Yangtze River Bridge conditions, combined with the
current level of actual bridge construction at home and abroad, research and proposes four
main bridge type scheme (Fig. 4.69).
itself. Meanwhile, tourists arriving through the railway or highway, the bridge for their
show should be bridge technology with unique architectural landscape.
In view of the aesthetic design of the bridge was unusual, so select a cable-stayed
bridge design (Fig. 4.70). The programmes that bridge has four towers, three-span larger
main span and side spans of two smaller spans (Fig. 4.71). Considering this bridge is flat
curved bridge, at both ends of the main beam not set abutment and main beam joints but
overall continuous structure.
Fig. 4.71 Facade layout (size: mm) (a) Elevations; (b) Plans; (c) Cuts; (d) P2 Pier.
Such structure allows the main beam in longitudinal and lateral movement of the piers
is constrained, and by acting on the main beam in bridge piers load bending moment
caused by decreased from pier to pier bottom line.
Pier sizes reflect the variation of the bending moment in the pier. Taking into account
the bending sections of bridge deck clearance requirements, bridge tower slightly outward
tilt. Due to the continuous change of vehicles crossing a bridge on both sides of the
landscape, the cable is vertical routing style choices as simple as possible harp
arrangement. Deck consists of a panel, on both sides of the plate edges have a relatively
long rigid components design schemes. Cost about 14% higher than traditional cantilevers
programme costing at least. But considering the plan design enable this striking bridges
located in the sensitive landscapes of unusual beauty, is well worth the additional
investment was considered.
(a) Pier
Along the vertical piers of the bridge showed a parabolic cone, its width is also changed.
The horizontal width of the pier the bottom 8.8 m to the main beam at the 13.4 m.
Therefore a solid cup-shaped piers of the silhouette. Towers, were like partitions and high
deck 15 m. Along the bridge longitudinal plate on the main girder of bridge tower from
the local effect of vehicle load caused by the bending moment. Because the line is curved
in the horizontal plane, on both sides of the cable forces of cable-stayed in different.
Horizontally, the towers on both sides due to large transverse bending moment of tension
arising from the different. Anchorage in built-in central pylon of cable-stayed steel plate.
Bridge tower tighten to get main beam set a huge beam on the lower surface, passing on
two great transverse bending moments in the tower, making the two pillars of the pier
shaft different pillars bear some 60% on the inside of the curve, approximately the outer
side of the pillars bear the 40%.
(d) Process
The bridges construction started in July 1996, to the end of October 1998. Nearly 2.5-year
construction period need to fine planning of the construction process. Using the balanced
cantilever construction method of bridge, the first phase of the No. 0 block, 13 m, after
continuous construction of beam length is 6 m, use a pair of specially constructed traveler
for main girder erection. At every stage of construction only current segmental beams of
concrete and pouring of concrete on the veneer of a segment. Hanging basket prior to the
move, cable-stayed cable-hanging cable and anchoring. Construction of four main towers
on both sides of the suspension arms are made of 7~9.6 m length of main girder segment
composition.
between tubes and tube connections. Bridge cover, flange bolting method suitable for site
consolidation.
order to balance live loads on the bridge. Post tension jacks when only in deck anchor
homework and arch and the anchor end of the tunnel. Another set of cable systems and
steel truss girder beam set attached to the pillars of the free ones (Fig. 4.76). These posttensioned cable-provided upward force and deflection control of both functions and
arrangement of curved pre-stressed reinforcement in post-tensioned beams are alike. Beam
setting you can adjust the screw fittings of the pillars in order to increase its length,
vertical jacks mounted on pillars of cables can be done later. Backbone cables and two sets
of cable-arch of the bridge-tunnel cable reduces the bending moment of steel beams
together, making the bridge with the same compared to the non-prestressed bridge span,
you can use smaller height of the girder and pipe diameters.
Space of cable wound on the surface of galvanised spiral, diameter 22.4~60 mm a total
of 6 different diameter steel wire rope structure composition. From arch-to-arch cable
diameter, wire diameter also increased, resulting in a very high structural efficiency and
beautiful style. In addition to these aesthetic considerations, wire diameter is not
controlled by the structural strength, stiffness and more by can control.
Fig. 4.78 Open schematic drawing (a) Vertical rotation; (b) Horizontal rotation; (c) Move
horizontally; (d) The vertical Ascension; (e) Fifth-dimensional rotation.
(b) Deck
Deck elevation for parabolic, plane is curved, it illustrates one of the most complex
geometric shapes. Steel box junction frame is the main unit from the graphic point of
view, from the quayside to the river center, steel box gradually narrowed. Box profile for
anchorage of cable-stayed for space and anchor bolt from the bottom surface of the arch
into the oval concave interior, steel box the size of the cable from its current location to
restore the complex stress. Steel box on the surface to be coated non-slip epoxy coat.
Horizontal steel beams suspended from a steel box about 3 m pitch and along a curve
outward, which supports lightweight aluminum deck plate as bike lanes. Along the long
bridge to the bike path constant width and 300 mm lower than the nearby sidewalk, which
has different demands a high level of pedestrian fence and guardrail adjustment of a
(c) Machinery
The bridge needs a system that can be open the bridge, which could push pull, because in
the process of opening the main center will be through fulcrum. Sufficient to operate the
wind conditions, the process engine loads from 10000 kN thrust into 4500 kN pull of the
bridge which set out clearly in the system fails to run or, conversely, under the condition
of different emergency response procedures and requirements. River bank mechanical
systems with synchronisation to ensure the structure is reversed reversing and control
equipment to maintain distance between the two sites do not exceed 25 mm is extremely
important.
(d) Decoration
Aside from the strong visual impact of the bridge outside the general form, become
bridges decorated with most direct contact part. Bike path is a series of connections of
aluminium alloy section bars. Aluminum has excellent service diagram surface provides
bike good grip, but it is also a light structure, which as the main cantilever part of its
outermost is very important. With its lightness, a bridge deck also has a certain degree of
transparency, when bridge tilt opening, soffit when fully opened, the bridge is particularly
spectacular. Sidewalk bridge formed by the epoxy aggregate paving.
At different heights one-by-one between sidewalks and bike paths and benches of
metal barriers. Benches are available for people to stop down to rest and finish the bridge,
enjoy the surrounding scenery than internally by the welding on the frame consisting of
perforated stainless steel sheet fence in windy environments, can provide some degree of
protection designer. Set up a series of doors on both ends of the bridge in order to ship
crowd control when ship navigation. Two stretch into the river next to the bridge flow,
concrete structure with a glass shell, one is charged room, and another prepared as
favourites in the future exhibition purposes.
The bridge won the 2005, international bridge and structural engineering drive
association outstanding structure award, considered to be a two arch ribs using a unique
way connecting footbridge in a graceful curve and by rotating the opening to be able to
satisfy the navigation requirements (Fig. 4.82).
(b) Pier
Pier design must be take into account cross-asymmetric live loads caused by the
longitudinal unbalanced forces and temperature at different heights on the box influence of
cross section. In order to resist the bending moment due to extreme high, piers on the
broad power of box-section, but on the most ends vertically into two forks in the 90 m
range (Fig. 4.89). Vertical pre-stressing of the deck using two pinned to the pier on fork
bearings, then tack down the inverted v-shaped tower. Under extreme asymmetric live
loads, each bearing can withstand 100 MN vertical loads.
Two top high piers of 245 m and 223 m respectively, with tower cranes, you can reach
275 m heights. Because this is necessary for construction of tower cranes in every step,
fixed to the piers. Each bridge pier foundation consists of four 4 in diameter consisting of
open caisson of the deep ~5 m, 9~16 m.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Taking into account the bridges you listed the main factors taken into consideration
when planning, and one to two factors to explain illustrate?
2. Invite you to four selection scheme of Hong Kong Ting Kau Bridge and the final
programme review them one by one.
3. Please you the five finalists in the first round of Stonecutters Bridge in Hong Kong
voted for the one you think is the first name in the programme, and from bridges and
the beautiful point of reason.
4. Amount of force structure, materials, construction methods and beautiful, whats your
view of box arch bridge and truss arch bridge.
5. Please talk about characteristics of bridge foundation construction conditions, these
conditions are combine, bridge foundations designed should have philosophy.
REFERENCES
[1] The sea-sails. Conceptual Design of Large-span Bridge Problems//proceedings of
the 16th National Conference on Bridges. Beijing: China Communications Press,
2004.
[2] Ocean Sail. Chinese and Foreign Comparison of Technological Innovation in the
New Bridges//proceedings of the 17th National Conference on Bridges. Beijing:
People China Communications Press, 2006.
[3] Yan Guomin. The Modern Cable-stayed Bridge. Chengdu: Southwest Jiaotong
University Press, 1996.
[4] Lin Yuanpei. Cable-stayed Bridge. Beijing: Peoples Communications Press, 2004.
[5] Shao Changyu. Domestic and International Development Prospect of Composite
Structure Bridges. The Bridge, 2009 (3).
[6] Shao Changyu.Hangzhou Jiubao Bridge Composite Bridge Concept, Technology
and Innovation. The Bridge, 2009 (4).
[7] Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority. The Akashi-Kaikyo bridgeDesign and
Construction of the Worlds Longest Bridge. October,1998, Japan.
[8] Man-Chung Tang,Dr. Record Spans. Civil Engineering, March 2010.
[9] Aude Petel, Eng. ,etc. Design of an Innovative Road Bridge with Advanced Steel
and Concrete. Structural Engineering International, 2010,20(2).
[10] Jose M Simon-Talero,etc. Launching the Vicario Viaduct: Andalucia, Spain.
Structural Engineering International,2009,19(4).
[11] Yan Guomin. Bid on Design and Construction of the Oresund Bridge. Bridges
Abroad, 1999 (3).
[12] Yang Yidong, Hu Dingcheng. The Detailed Design of the Oresund Bridge. Bridges
Abroad, 1999 (3).
[13] Lin Yuanpei. Cable-stayed Bridge. Beijing: Peoples Communications Press, 2002.
[14] The Lei Junqing, Zheng Mingzhu, Xu Gongyi. Suspension Bridge Design. Beijing:
Peoples Communications Press, 2002.
[15] Dr Lau Ching-kwong, et al. Hong Kong Bridge Design and Project Management.
Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2008.
[16] Wu Guoji, Huang Heng Zhi, Xu Zhihao, Huang Jianbo. Route Nineth Stonecutters
Bridge Design Competition//14th National Bridge Beam Academic Conference
Proceedings, 2000.
[17] Wang Yingliang, Gao Zongyu. Bridge Design in Europe and America. Beijing:
China Railway Publishing House, 2008.
[18] Yin Delan. Deng, and bridgeChina article. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press,
2006.
[19] The Yellow Melt.Design and Construction of the Cross-Sea Bridge Donghai
Bridge. Beijing: Peoples Communications Press, 2009.
[20] In highway planning and Design Institute, et al. Preliminary Design of Suzhou
Nantong Yangtze River Bridge Project Across the River. 2002.11.
[21] In Highway Planning and Design Institute, et al. Preliminary Design of SuzhouNantong Yangtze River Bridge Project Across the River. 2007-3).
The design of concept is the early stage of project design, relying on the thorough study of
the natural conditions of the bridge site, bridge function and the surrounding landscape
and a series of basic data, concept creation and selection of work reflect the designers
unique understanding of design objects, design tasks, the specific control and overall grasp
of design goals. Meanwhile, conceptual design must be follow a few basic principles, such
as early 3E principles abroad, namely, efficiency, economy and elegance, the early utility,
economy, where possible care for beauty construction principles, Chinas current safe,
suitable, economical, beautiful principle, the 21st century international bridge safe,
suitable, economical, beautiful, durable and environmentally friendly six principles.
With the rapid economic development of society, the bridge built by ever-larger,
systems become more complex with more and more functions, internationally known as
superstructure (super infrastructure). Common characteristics of these projects are: huge
investment, technologically complicated, severe environmental impacts, with increased
probability of disaster (including heavy winds, earthquakes, tsunami, boat crash, terrorist
attacks, etc.), and maintenance, repair and reinforcement are very difficult. Being confined
to structural features, single level seeking structural safety, as used to be, is not enough, it
must also be aimed at disaster prevention design of bridge structure and durability design
set. From the 1970s, on the basis of lessons learned at home and abroad, in addition to
continued emphasis on the structural design and construction safety durability, reliability,
component interchangeability of different bridges structure and analysis of the disaster
grade, level of risk, proposed the prevention design and durability design of new concepts.
In real terms, disaster prevention design of structures and structural durability design to
solve the problem is the economy, reasonable working life issues, namely, structural
lifetime issue.
Bridge structural durability and disaster prevention design in conceptual design has
three main objectives: first, to learn about damages disasters may impose on the bridge, as
well as the durability of bridge structures shown on the main issues so that at conceptual
design stage fully estimate the severity of these disasters and problems; secondly, master
the design of bridge structures to resist various disasters and durability basic principles of
design, methods and effective means in conceptual design phase has prepared structural
disaster prevention and durable plan and measures; third, to introduce the bridge structural
durability design of prevention and advanced concepts, practices, and successful
experience of pioneering economic, rational, comprehensive and innovative prevention
and durability of design ideas.
This chapters bridge structure disaster prevention focused mainly on wind-resistant,
anti-ship collision with bridge and bridge aspect, coupled with resistance of bridges
durability, and consists of four parts, focusing on bridge conceptual design stage of design
concepts and methods in these four areas, in hope that bridge engineers can, from concept
design, fully and seriously deal with prevention and durability problems bridge structure
design.
hot layer, a middle layer, the stratosphere and the troposphere. Among them, the
troposphere is about 10 km above Earths surface, within the atmosphere that human
activities carried out mainly in the troposphere, such as airline flight in nearly 10,000
metres up in the sky, the Earths tallest mountainthe height of Mount Everest is 8848 m.
Due to the uneven distribution of solar radiation at the Earths surface and the Earth
inhomogeneity of the surface land and water distribution, the level of distribution as well
as the rotation of the Earth result in the Suns uneven heating of the surface of the Earth,
both temporal and spacial and the uniformity of tropospheric air temperature distribution
in space and time, resulting in horizontal and vertical convection of air flow and thus the
wind. Simply put, the wind is the movement of air relative to the Earths surface, mostly
because of the spatio-temporal heterogeneity of heating of air by the Sun. When the air
cools, its weight will be increase to sink when air gets hot its weight is reduced, it moves
up. Hot air rises, cold air flows around to fill vacancies and thus forms wind.
Air flow forms wind, due to the Earths surface topography and the impact of various
obstacles, the flow of wind near the surface of the Earth (referred to as close to the wind)
dislays disorders. From the anemometer records it has been found that wind velocity timehistory curve in the package contains two components: one is the period is greater than 10
min the long-period average wind components, general description in terms of random
variables; the other is a period of only a few seconds or less short-period pulsating wind
component, in accordance with the general stochastic processes to deal with them. The
average size of the wind is usually divided into 0~12 or a total of 13 grades according to
the English Beaufort grading, it is based on objects on land, sea and fishing boats and
wind speed the height of 10 m above the sea level, wind detailed registration is seen in
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Beaufort scale of wind.
At a considerable Land surface Sea and fishing Probably sea
height from the
features
features
wave height (m)
Wind Name ground 10 m wind characteristic
rating
speed (m/s)
English
Range Median
General Highest
0
Calm
0.0~0.2
0
Quiet, smoke Calm sea
straight
1
Light air
0.3~1.5
Cigarette can
show the wind
direction, wind
tale-tell does
not turn
Mini-waves as
scaly, no surf, on
fishing ship on
feels subtle
movement, and
can actually use
the rudder
0.1
0.1
Light
breeze
1.6~3.3
People feel
there is wind,
wind tale-tell
Wavelets, short
wavelength, but
shows clear
0.2
0.3
rotates
shape of wave;
fishing boat can
sail 1~2n mile
with sails raised
Gentle
breeze
3.4~5.4
Leaves and
twigs are
moved flags
open up
Wavelets
increases, crests
begin to rupture;
fishing boat can
sail 3~4n mile
with sails raised
0.6
1.0
Moderate
breeze
5.5~7.9
Small waves,
white waves
appear; fishing
boat can make
the hull sideways
with full sail
raised
1.0
1.5
Fresh
breeze
8.0~10.7
Small trees
with leaves
sway inland
water shows
small waves
Medium waves,
with more
significant wave
shape; fishing
vessels have to
reef part of sail
2.0
2.5
Strong
breeze
10.8~13.8
12
Mild waves
begin to form;
fishing boats reef
most of the sail
3.0
4.0
Near
Gale
13.9~17.1
16
Entire tree
shakes, headwind prevents
walking feel
the
inconvenience
4.0
5.5
Gale
17.2~20.7
18
Twigs
snapped, one
feels strong
resistance
facing the
wind
Moderate big
waves, longer
wavelengths and
all sea fishing
boat stay in port
5.5
7.5
Strong
gale
20.8~24.4
23
Buildings
suffer small
Wild waves,
along wind strips
7.0
10.0
damage, roof
tiles being
lifted, big
branches
broken
of foam is thick
difficult to sail
10
Storm
24.5~28.4
26
Trees blow
down, ordinary
buildings
destroyed
9.0
12.5
11
Violent
storm
28.5~32.6
31
Trees blown
over, ordinary
buildings
seriously
damaged
Abnormal
waves; visibility
affected motor
junks in extreme
danger
11.5
16.0
12
Hurricane
Hurricane rare
on land,
destruction
power is
tremendous
Slaughtering
waves, the sea
has turned
completely
white, visibility
severely affected
14.0
>32.6
causing a direct economic loss of 55.1 billion Yuan, accounting for about ten two-thirds
total losses from natural disasters. According to the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), the Typhoon Committee 1985~1997 annual report, Chinas average economic
loss caused by a hurricane is 7.3 times that of Japan, 10.2 times of Philippines, 12.3 times
Korea, 22.3 times Viet Nam; the average total number of casualties and missing due to the
Typhoon is 7.6 times that of the Philippines 19.3 times of Vietnam, 42 times of Japan.
On 7 November, 1940, the United States main span of 853 m completed in just over 4
months, Washington (then the worlds second largest span) the Tacoma Narrow Bridge
was vibrated in gale with wind speed less than 20 m/s wind-induced vibration, the bridge
has experienced increasing amplitude 70 min of torsional vibration, and ultimately result
in broken bridge structure fell into the Gorge frame as shown in Fig. 5.1. The terrible
accident of winds destroying the bridge of Tacoma strongly shocked bridge engineering
and air mechanical industry, and opened a comprehensive study on wind-induced
vibration of long span bridge and Aero-elastic theoretical exercise. However, accident
investigation gather historical information about bridge wind destroyed for reasons, people
are surprised to find, from 1818 onwards, there have been at least 11 bridges destroyed by
strong winds, and witnesses described scenes of wind damage can be clearly felt that
much of the cause of the accident was caused by a wind strong vibration, although the
mechanism of wind-induced vibration was unknown.
Fig. 5.1 Tacoma Narrow Bridge destroyed by strong winds (a) Wind induced torsion
vibration; (b) Deck break fall.
3. Wind-resistance Principles
When the wind encounters structures it converts some of its kinetic energy to external
forces acting on the structures of power, this force is so-called wind loads. When the wind
around generally non-streamlined (bluff) section of the bridge structure, generates vortices
and flow separation, forming the complex of the air force. When the bridge span is small
(200 m), when the stiffness, the structure is insured stationary, air acts as only the force of
static, or static wind load, which includes average wind and pulsing wind load; and when
the larger span of bridge structures (200 m), the less the stiffness makes it easier for
structural vibration excited, this static characteristics of species not only has the effect of
wind and dynamic characteristics, or dynamic wind loads.
Wind dynamics inspires bridge vibration, the vibration of the bridge, in turn, affect the
flow of air, change air force formation of wind-structure interaction mechanism. When the
vibration caused by air force small, air force as a force, leading to finite amplitude forced
Fig. 5.2 Effects of wind loads of bridge structure and its classification.
According to the code for wind-resistant design of highway bridge (JTG/T D60012004), and wind-resistant design of bridge structure compliance with the following
principles: may be appear in the bridges design life of maximum wind speed, structure
should not ruin a divergent self-excited vibration in the most adverse design wind load
combinations together with the other functions, should have the required strength and
stiffness of structures and static instability should not occur; non-destructive wind-induced
vibration of amplitude of the structure should meet safely, driving comfort and fatigue
strength requirements of structural wind-resistance by aerodynamic measures, structural
measures and measures to improve it.
Wind-resistant design principles in order to carry out, in conceptual design of bridge
structure while there is no need for a wind tunnel test method or simulation evaluation of
wind-resistance performance test results and overall, but still can be arranged through the
structure and components of fully embody the idea of wind-resistant design, chief among
them included decrease static wind loads and wind-induced vibration and additional
control measures.
In the formula:
= air mass density, 1.225 kg/m3;
u = design wind speed (m/s) average wind load average wind speed, gust
loads calculated using gusts;
B, H = vertical and lateral projection width (m);
CL, CD = lift and drag co-efficients in the axial direction;
CN, CH = lift and drag co-efficients body in the axial direction;
CM = lift moment co-efficient.
Structure defined by the above three formulas three components of the static wind
load, and design wind speed, cross-sections and dimensions of the three factors. Design
basic wind speed, wind speed is determined by site conditions such as roughness and the
height from the ground. In order to reduce the static wind load, bridge site should be an
area with small base wind speed; under the same basic wind speed, the greater the surface
roughness, smaller average wind speed, wind speed/gusts greater average wind speed
increases with height above ground, but wind speed decrease with increasing height off
the ground. Section types and dimensions of static wind loads according to the main
beams and arches ribs, piers and towers, main cables and cables and other components
were also be discussed.
Fig. 5.3 Wind and body axes coordinates under static wind load.
t/b
10
20
40
*1/4
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.9
2.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.0
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.3
1. 4
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
When piers or height of the bridge towers static, wind load will be very large,
sometimes you have to take into account the pier or pylon section of buildings-shape and
static wind load. Chinas largest suspension bridge spansShanxi Hou men bridge main
span of 1650 m boat, bridge tower section once several rounds of selection of pneumatic,
which on commonly used pair of rectangular cross-section in the first round, compared the
three chamfer forms that is, outside the circle, concave circle and rectangle, as shown in
Fig. 5.7. Four different forms of chamfers of tower column cross-section of transverse
wind resistance co-efficient static wind resistance co-efficient Cy, Cx and obey directions
as shown in Table 5.3, the maximum transverse direction to the outside wind resistance
co-efficient cabochon heshun bridge angle less chamfer of about one-fourth; concave
circular and concave rectangle two chamfers differ can also reduce some 30% of wind
drag co-efficient. Therefore, on the premise of meeting the structural requirements, should
be combined with building design, consider a rectangle chamfer cross-section as
appropriate to reduce the static wind load.
Fig. 5.7 Four different forms of chamfers of Tower column cross-section (size: m).
Table 5.3 Towers column section four different Chamfer wind drag co-efficient of static
forms.
Coefficient Angle Simple rectangle Convex round Concave circular
Concave
()
rectangular
Anterior Posterior Anterior Posterior Anterior Posterior Anterior Posterior
column column column column column column column column
0
1.45
1.88
0.37
0.34
1.06
0.49
1.03
0.50
Cross the
45
1.19
1.65
0.98
0.79
1.27
1.28
1.23
1.34
bridge
90
0.10
0.11
0.04
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.10
0.08
Along the
bridge
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.03
45
1.49
1.71
1.21
0.95
1.49
1.36
1.58
1.41
90
1.95
1.91
0.54
0.54
1.40
1.38
1.36
1.37
The largest span in the world1088 m Suzhou-Nantong Yangtze River Bridge main
span cable-stayed bridges, bridge tower section has also be conducted the aerodynamic
shape comparison, Fig. 5.8 shows the cross-section of the four forms. Table 5.4 shows the
different sections of the static wind resistance co-efficient, cut surface form and section IV
is wind resistance co-efficient 20% per cent difference in the transverse direction, along
the bridge over 30% the difference, which is 300 m high bridge towers, the static wind
load is considerable.
Table 5.4 Four different forms of Chamfers of Tower column cross-section of transverse
wind resistance co-efficient.
Transverse direction
1.449
1.491
1.511
1.789
Along direction
1.125
1.160
1.197
1.504
Fig. 5.8 Four types of tower column cross-section form (a) sections I and (b) section II (c)
section III (d) section IV.
Fig. 5.9 The main types of cable-stayed bridge (a) steel cable; (b) parallel wire strands; (c)
strand clue; (d) single strand.
Is used in cable-stayed bridge cable general cables must be made with high strength
reinforcing bars, steel wire or strand. Main cable type high-strength steel cables, parallel
wire rope, PC strand thread, single strand, as shown in Fig. 5.9. At present, in large-span
cable-stayed bridge parallel wire strands, and are most commonly used in steel strand
leads two parallel wire strands of smaller voids, so the outer diameter of the same intensity
less wind-resistance is relatively small; conversely, strand leads voids larger, so the large
outer diameter, wind resistance is relatively large. Due to the influence of Reynolds
number effect and cable than static wind-resistance co-efficient of main cables of
suspension bridges, and general range of 0.8~1.0.
In the formula:
b = half-bridge width, b = B/2;
ft = bridge torsional vibration frequency (Hz);
m, Im = bridge of equivalent mass (kg/m) and the mass moment of inertia (kg
m2/m);
s, = section shape co-efficient, effect co-efficient and angle of attack, and
can refer to the values in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Girder shape coefficient and angle of attack effect co-efficient.
Section types
Shape co-efficients
Angle co-efficient a
Tablet
Damping ratio
0.005 0.01
0.02
1
1
1
Blunt-shaped
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.80
With cantilever
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.70
With cantilever
0.60
0.70
0.90
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.35
0.40
0.50
0.85
Estimation formula of critical wind speed of flutter (5-4) showed that flutter critical
wind speed effect of section shape factors (including the damping ratio), angle of effect
factor, main beam and mass moment of inertia and torsional frequency, and so on. Among
them, the damping is relatively large, streamlined good section, has a higher flutter critical
wind speed; 3 or +3 attack angle flutter critical wind speed of less than 0 angle of
attack increases main beam equivalent mass or mass moment of inertia can be help
improve flutter critical wind speed, but the effect is limited, just a relationship of onefourth power increase reversed the fundamental frequency of bridge, flutter critical wind
speed can improve.
Bridge conceptual design phase, in addition to judging by these four factors or
improving flutter stability of bridges, you can also use bridge has been completed and the
performance of dynamic characteristics and chatter, a simple comparison to design bridges
or contrast. Tables 5.6 and 5.7 respectively 10 has built structural properties of a typical
cable-stayed and suspension bridge the natural frequency and vibration critical wind speed
of flutter, concept design for long-span bridges.
Table 5.6 Typical characteristics of cable-stayed bridge structure and fundamental
frequency of vibration and flutter critical wind speed
No.
Bridge name
Span Girder
(m) material
Girder
section
332 Composite II
beam
Fundamental
The critical
frequency (Hz)
wind speed
(m/s)
Vertical Reverse
curve
0.3381 0.5287
95.0
II
0.2728
0.6248
138.0
3. Shanghai nanpu
bridge
423 Concrete
beams
II
0.3518
0.4498
66.4
4. Jingzhou Changjiang
bridge
500 Concrete
beams
II
0.1987
0.3983
101.0
5. Shanghai nanpu
bridge
602 Composite II
beam
0.2733
0.5093
81.0
6. Minjiang bridge in
Fuzhou
605 Composite II
beam
0.2075
0.5346
74.06
7. Nanjing Yangtze
628 Steel
beam
Single
girder
0.2426
0.7275
130.0
8. Nanjing Yangtze
River third Bridge
648 Steel
beam
Single
girder
9. Shanghai Yangtze
River Bridge
730 Steel
beam
Single
girder
0.2315
0.6175
> 100.0
1088 Steel
beam
Single
girder
0.1754
0.5321
88.4
Bridge name
380 Steel
Steel II
Fundamental
The critical
frequency (Hz)
wind speed
(m/s)
Vertical Reverse
curve
0.1915 0.3591
60.0
beam
2. Xiamen haicang
bridge
3. Humen bridge in
Guangdong Province
4. Xiling Changjiang
bridge
5. Yichang in Hubei
bridge
95.0
0.1117
0.4260
88. 0
>85.0
0.1050
0.4260
80.4
>95.0
8. Jiangyin Changjiang
bridge
0.0890
0.2581
74.0
9. Runyang bridge
0.1245
0.2249
56.4
0.0999
0.2323
95.0
Evaluation of vortex-excited resonance occurs there are three main indicators: first, the
vortex-induced vibration lock the wind speed, the vortex-induced vibration velocity only
if vortex-induced vibration lock the wind speed is less than the required design wind speed
into account vortex-induced vibration problem for large-span cable-supported bridges,
vortex-induced vibration locked wind speeds generally between 5~20 m/s; maximum
amplitude of vortex vibration, which corresponds to a maximum amplitude of first order
modal, highway wind-resistant design code of bridge (JTG/T D60-01-2004), vortexexcited resonance amplitude estimation formula is given, but it is recommended to
segment model wind tunnel test as the standard, specification of vortex-excited resonance
amplitudes are presented simultaneously allowed values, must-ensure that the maximum
amplitude is less than the acceptable third, vortex-induced vibration frequency, which is
associated with the economic indicators, theoretically speaking, if the vortex-induced
vibration lock the wind speed less than design basic wind speed, and vortex-induced
vibration of maximum amplitude is greater than the allowed value, it is necessary to
consider the vortex-induced vibration control measures, but considering use of vortexinduced vibration control measures have to pay the economic price, recent advances show
that can happen based on the vortex-induced vibration frequency analysis on bridge design
reference period first vortex-induced vibration frequency and the cumulative time in
vortex-induced vibration of two indicators to determine the need for vortex-induced
vibration of control measures.
According to the main girder of cable-supported bridges and latest progress of the
study on vortex-induced vibration of long-span arch, based on theoretical analysis and
model test and field measurements have been found to have varying degrees of vortexinduced vibration of famous bridges: Denmark Sea Bridge suspension bridge, Stonecutters
Bridge in Hong Kong stayed Shanxi Hou bridge suspension bridge, boat, Shanghai Lupu
arch bridge, and so on.
m/s and 5~60 mm/h caused by rain-wind induced vibration of cables, the wind speed and
rainfall intensities are also often occur in the majority of rainfall. Therefore, large long
rain-wind induced vibration of cables of long-span cable-stayed bridges problem is a
common bridge designers have to face wind resistance performance problems conceptual
design phase should be considered as early as possible counter measures.
Bridge name
Main Girder
span forms
Windinduced
Control
Country Year
built
(m)
1991
Truss
Japans Akashi
Bridge
1650
Denmark Sea
Bridge
vibration
Chatter
Slotted/
stabilizer
plate
Japan
1998
Girder Chatter
Slotted
China
2008
1624
Girder Vortex
vibration
Spoiler
Denmark 1998
Runyang
Yangtze River
Bridge
1490
Girder Chatter
Stabilizer
plate
China
The Humber
bridge
1410
Girder No
No
United
1981
Kingdom
Jiangyin
Changjiang
bridge
1385
Girder No
No
China
1999
Hong Kong
Tsing Ma Bridge
1377
Girder Chatter
Slotted
Hong
Kong,
China
1997
Weilunzuonuo
bridge
1298
Truss
No
No
USA
1964
1280
Truss
No
No
USA
1937
10
Yangluo Yangtze
River Bridge
1280
Girder No
No
China
2007
2005
Figure 5.10 depicts the central stabilising plate application in runyang Yangtze River
Bridge, split in Shanxi Hou men bridge box-girder in a boat application, Italy Messina
Strait Bridge to be used is split three-box girder scheme and 5000 m the stability of
suspension bridges and open web portfolio.
Fig. 5.10 Flutter control of main girder efficient aerodynamic measures (size: m) (a)
Stable Central Board application in runyang bridge; (b) Split in Shanxi Hou men bridge
box-girder in a boat; (c) Three box girder bridge over the Strait of Messina split plan; (d)
5000 m stability of the suspension plate and slot combinations.
Fig. 5.11 Flutter control of main girder efficient aerodynamic measures (size: m) (a)
Denmark sea bridge plate; (b) of Stonecutters Bridge in Hong Kong guide plate (c) Shanxi
Hou men bridge deck boat windbreaks; d) isolation of Shanghai Lupu bridge plate.
Fig. 5.12 Vibration control of aerodynamic measures. (a) Winding spiral; (b) Engraving
irregular pits.
In addition to rain-wind induced vibration of cables using aerodynamic measures of
control, auxiliary cable for cable measures can effectively reduce rain-induced vibration
and other vibrations, such as the Normandy bridge, but the measures are rarely used,
mainly because the secondary cables and cable connections difficulties. In addition, if you
can improve the cable damping can achieve the purpose of vibration control, increase the
lasuozu can be used based on different mechanisms for damper, oil damper and viscous
shear damper and friction damper, high damping rubber damper and electricity, magnetic
dampers.
1. Earthquake
Earthquakes are a natural phenomenon caused by the Earths internal structure movement.
In strata movement, more dramatic break bad sport, can cause tremors, on above-ground
or underground buildings in different levels of earthquake damage, and led to loss of life
and damage to property.
Size of seismic vibration can be described by two indicators, namely, their magnitude
and intensity. The former is a measure of earthquake size indicators, usually with the
maximum amplitude (Table 5.9) or source release of strain energy (Table 5.10) to
represent, whereas the latter is used to indicate seismic degree of impact on surface and
building, it not only with the release of seismic energy, depth and distance from the
epicentre, and engineering geological condition and seismic wave propagation
characteristics of a building and so on, the rules of the seismic design of highway bridges
(JTG/TB02-01-2008) provides seismic fortification intensity of relations and horizontal
design Basic acceleration of ground motion as shown in Table 5.11.
Table 5.9 Earthquake magnitude according to the defined maximum amplitude (m = 1gA).
Category
Large earthquakes
Shock level M
Category
M 7
Tiny earthquakes
Shock Level M
3 > M 1
Medium Earthquakes
7 > M 5
1 > M
Small earthquakes
5 > M 3
Ultra-tiny earthquakes
Energy (erg)
Magnitude
Energy (erg)
2.00 1013
6.31 1020
6.31 1014
2.00 1022
2.00 1016
6.31 1023
6.31 1017
3.55 1024
2.00 1019
10
1.41 1025
Acceleration peak
0.05 g
0.10 (0.15)g
0.20 (0.30)g
0.40g
2. Earthquake Disasters
Earthquake disasters have been recorded in history as early as there is a record of strong
earthquakes often cause surface changes, such as topography, and landslides and
liquefaction facility damage and fires, floods, pollution, disease and other secondary
disasters caused by human or animal casualties and socio-economic loss.
Bridges without the reasonable seismic design will be lead to serious damage in the
quake. Turns out, both at home and abroad because of the number of bridge structural
damage caused by the earthquake, far more than by storms, ship collision damage caused
by other reasons such as. For example, in China in the 1975, haicheng earthquake in
China, 618 bridges in earthquake regions in the 193-seat suffered varying degrees of
damage, accounting for about 31% in the 1976 Tangshan earthquake, suffered earthquake
damage of railway bridges accounted for 39%, Tangshan earthquake disaster of highway
bridge 62%, earthquake damage to highway bridge in Tianjin 21%; in the 2008 Wenchuan
earthquake, there are 6 different types of bridge-more than 6000 square beam structure
subjected to earthquake disaster, about 10% of them were badly damaged or collapsed,
needs to rebuild after demolition. According to bridges disaster investigation, seismic
damage of main bridge structure is reflected in various parts of the structure, and can
follow the structure from top to bottom is divided into earthquake damage to structures,
support and ancillary facilities such as earthquake damage and earthquake damage to
structures in the lower part. Earthquake damage to superstructure, bridge or arch bridge
upper structure subjected to earthquake damage and destroyed rare, often by other parts of
the bridge structure damage caused by breakage of the girder and arch, such as caused by
adjacent girders colliding beam end and deck structural damage in the vicinity of the
department, and so on. When sliding displacement of earthquake damage beyond the pier
when the bearing surface, it would have been serious the falling beams (Fig. 5.13).
The earthquake, bearing of Bridge Seismic damage is extremely popular and has long
been considered a weakness on the seismic performance of bridge. Damage was mainly
for pot bearing anchoring bolts were pulled out, cut or shear failure of the bearing itself,
plate bearing is pushed out, cut or cut-out damage (Fig. 5.14). In addition, bridge ancillary
facilities block masonry shear or cut-tension-bending damage joints horizontal shear
failure occurs, vertical or horizontal tension and compression shear failure damaged
railings can also occur lateral deformation, deformation and failure of the vertical or
horizontal tensile failure, and so on.
Substructure or the serious damage of bridge pier and abutment is mainly due to soil
liquefaction, ground subsidence and slope slip or break causing, the main earthquake
damage included bridge abutment pier cracks, cracks, joints cracked, serious results in pier
collapse (Fig. 5.15).
Fig. 5.13 Miao Zi ping whole spans of minjiang River Bridge in Wenchuan earthquake in
Wenchuan earthquake, Luo Liang Tu.
Class C
Without damage or
repair, can continue to
use
Class D
Without damage or
repair may continue to
use
Set forth in the rules for the seismic design of highway bridges using the principle of
two levels of fortification, two-stage design. The first phase anti-seismic designs, the
elastic seismic design; the second phase of the seismic design ductility seismic design
methods, and capable of protecting designs principle. Through the first phase of the
seismic design, which correspond to E1 earthquake seismic design can achieve similar
levels and original specifications earthquake fortification level. Through the second phase
of the earthquake-resistant design of the corresponding E2 earthquake seismic design to
ensure the structure adequate ductility capacity, by checking to ensure structural ductility
capacity is greater than the ductility demand. Design by introducing the ability to protect
the original then, ensure that the plastic hinge in the selected location appear, and there is
no shear damage failure modes. By aseismic measures set meter, ensure that the
displacement of the structure with sufficient capacity.
The seismic design of highway bridges rules according to the complexity of dynamic
response under earthquake excitation, bridge structural dynamic response calculation of
bridge structures subjected to earthquake-resistant design and verification will be divided
into two broad categories, namely, rules bridge rules and non-bridge. Among them, the
rules of bridge beam is the largest single span is less than or equal to 90 m, and Pier height
is less than or equal to 30 m bridge, bridge seismic rules must in strict accordance with the
rules in addition to all the other bridges, including do not satisfy the conditions of beam
bridges, arch bridges, cable-stayed bridges, hanging bridges and other bridges are nonrules, rules only irregular bridge seismic design principles are given, including seismic
concept design provisions.
2. Arch Bridge
Arch bridge is a compression arch rib of componentas a major component of the bridge,
and so determine the span cannot be very large, structure stiffness is very small. Structure
dynamic characteristics and seismic responses in the light of the rules for the seismic
design of highway bridges are analysed. The most important anti-seismic design principles
are important: built in areas of seismic fortification intensity 8 or 9 degrees of long-span
arch bridge, the torsional strength of main arch ring should be used good stiffness, the
overall cross-section; when using reinforced concrete arch, and must strengthen horizontal
links in the lower deck and arch wind support should be set, and the beam rigidity should
be strengthened.
3. Cable-stayed Bridge
Frequency and vibration mode characteristics of cable-stayed bridge and its rigidity and
quality-related, such as closed-box girder with vertical deflection frequency of open crosssection height. The others under the same conditions, of harp-type cable arrangement of
vertical deflection frequency will be lower for radial arrangement. Large span cable-stayed
bridge is a long-period structure, its first modefloating vertical vibration on seismic
response of main tower along the bridge to the tribute offering an absolute advantage.
Floating structural system of cable-stayed bridge in the largest contribution to the
transverse seismic response of the tower is the main tower vibration modes (transverse
vibrations of transverse vibration of symmetric and anti-symmetric).
From the seismic requirements, wish to structure flexible. Vibration of flexible
structures because long seismic response of a smaller, but the displacement reactions great
and should be attract attention. Built on the seismic fortification intensity 8 or 9 degrees of
cable-stayed bridge should be a priority in the area of floating system; floating system
resulted in large beam the nodal displacements, we should use the tower, elastic or
damping constraint system.
4. Suspension Bridge
Due to the suspension, bridge is a flexible structure, with floating structural system of
cable-stayed bridge as the basic cycle is very long and is thus subject to earthquake load
control can be small. However, the vertical earthquake component on stiffening girder,
effects of bending moment of beam main tower, tower, the effects of axial force of piles
shall be pay attention to. Relative displacements between the girders and beams is another
characteristic of flexible structures. Ensure the role of expansion joints, located reset the
block, damping bearing, are better measures for reducing relative displacement, to prevent
falling beams. Main load-bearing structure, the towers should be choices helps to improve
the structure and volume of ductile deformation capacity and avoid the occurrence of
brittle failure.
design of the structure, so, in concept design, the overall vision of the structure, structural
system, forms the basis of planning must take into account its seismic behaviour and
seismic system, easy access to good structural performance; on the contrary, is not
conducive to seismic system, in order to meet the seismic loading carrying capacity,
sometimes takes a huge price. Therefore, the conceptual design is of course due to the
earthquake on seismic performance of structures needed innovation plays an important
role in the concept.
constraint. Usually, side-wind effects, insurance limit device to ensure that horizontal and
pylon of the bridge-solid will be connected together (similar to the wind resistant
bearings), guarantee that no master Liang Hengqiao rock. Beam installed adaptive main
beam vertical limit of displacement, lateral damping devices installation schematic in Fig.
5.17.
Example 5.2 Main channel bridge of Su Tong bridge.
Design: integrated static, wind and seismic analysis results, eventually adopted dampers
(wind time) connection.
Su Tong bridge on the damping limit restriction system, a hydraulic buffer (power
locked) limiting constraint system and the elastic system static and seismic response
analysis of results, and compare responses of floating system, as shown in Table 5.13
below. Table of seismic response of two number values are: North beam (Tower)/ Liang
Dynasty (Tower). Can be obtained from Table 5.13 to the following conclusions:
longitudinal seismic damping constrained systems reaction is slightly larger than the lock
binding system, much less than the float system, floating system of 40%; in the system of
four structural damping constraint system of longitudinal shear force and bending moment
at the end of minimum locking restraint system the largest damping constrained system of
vertical bottom shear is a floating system of 86%, locking constraint 68%; damping
constrained system of longitudinal tadi moments is a floating system of 76%, lock 66%
restraint system (average of the North and South towers).
Damp limit
constraints
Lock limiting
constraint
Flexible
constraint
Dynamic
locking 750
mm limited
Elastic
stiffness 50
MN/m
Floating
structural
system
Horizontal
0.285/0.272
displacement of
beam (m)
0.190/0.170
0.483/0.470 0.690/0.673
The top
horizontal
0.237/0.227
0.637/0.625 0.820/0.818
0.371/0.368
displacement
(m)
Earthquake
Tugend shear
reaction
(MN)
31.7/34.3
46.9/50.4
35.6/39.6
36.8/39.6
3160/2950
2740/2500 2790/2490
0.293/0.271
0.421/0.439 0.683/0.673
Device binding
(MN)
12.1/11.6
64.2/76.2
21.0/22.0
continuous bridge full of floating structural system of cable-stayed bridge and high 65 m,
Pier and base diameter upto 90 m at the end of circular bridge piers in f 2 m diameter,
depth 25~30 m steel pipe piles with solid and topped with 3 m thick mat composed of
sand, gravel and crushed stone layer, formed relative sliding of reinforced earth base
isolation (reinforced soil Foundation), which is the Foundation of an innovative form,
which is based on isolation as shown in Fig. 5.20.
Fig. 5.22 Dampers and locking device output response curves in.
Fig. 5.26 Energy of C-shaped steel supports connection (size unit: mm).
link to the equilibrium position of the restoring force, while controlling oversized on the
displacement and friction between layers of rubber and PTFE sheet Chrome plated steel
spherical to burn off energy. Adjustment between PTFE the co-efficient of friction the
diameter of the central rubber nucleus can be achieve good isolation properties. But this
isolation bearing structure is more complex, because of its reasons for using rubber, there
are aging, poor durability.
Fig. 5.28 Sketch of structure of double spherical aseismic bearing under 1seat board; 2
guide plate; 3shear pin 4security screw; 5seat plate; 6dust seal unit 7sphere
stainless steel skate board; 8PTFE skateboards; 9seat board.
Bridge state
Consequence
of failure
L1
L2
II
L1
L2
II
L1
L2
II
Moderate
Moderate
Note: The ship hits the fortification level L1 is a 100-year return period, L2 1000 return
periods.
facilities and substructure of ship collision force) construction investment and long-span
relation, curve i is included in ship collision proof requirements for facilities and
infrastructure effect of ship collision with bridge investment. It can be seen that for most
of the big long-span bridges, AB intervals span substructure design included influence of
ship collision force and rarely hardly increased lower investments, also may be subject to
large ships impact the pier, according to piers own ability to withstand impact, the
location and appearance of the pier, flow rate, water level and speed of navigation
collision of ship types, and factors for bridge crash (energy) infrastructure design.
Therefore, the collision idea, its structural safety, crash risk and Economics is acceptable
impact. Therefore, increasing general bridges (such as non-navigable spans of the bridge
beam) span, increasing the impact resistance of the structure itself, can achieve good
economic efficiency, and reduce the risk of ship collision accidents.
In general, appropriate to increase the span to make the piers on shore or away from
the Sham Shui Po District are a more economical option, which is the concept of
avoidance. In contrast, to make the piers out of the water and multiplied spans is not
desirable.
When there are no conditions across the river, for high level route, ship impact force is
huge, bridge structures and separation of ship method is also commonly used and
available, which is the concept of isolation. Isolation concept common measures through
the artificial islands and independent impact structure to stop the ship from the force of the
impact to the bridge structure.
Example 5.5 Denmark Sea Bridge.
Design: Select the bridge span by shipping studies, on the channel axis alignment
adjustment, the structure of the selected ship can withstand impact anchorages and piers
used artificial islands protected, establishing vessel traffic management system.
The bridge a total length of 6.8 km, across the sea strait between Zealand and
sibolaogendao to the East. During the initial design phase, had considered the channel
span down to 780 m, which according to the results of study of ship collision, and the
bridge program and comprehensive study on span, coupled with adjustments to channel
axis alignment finally chosen as the main span 1624 m. This alignment adjustment the
sailing angle relative to the axis of the bridge changed from 68 to 78, so that the axis of
the bridge on both sides of the fairway bending distance of 2300 m. Fairway center line
vertical clearance of 65 m width of the channel is 750 m, all structures that are struck by
ships in accordance with established collision avoidance model designed to withstand the
impact of the selected ship, ship chosen by 2000 DWT 250000 DWT, which collided with
a pier of the maximum impact force of 673 MN. Anchorage and some foundations are
made of artificial islands protection, and establishing vessel traffic management system.
Example 5.6. France Normandy bridge.
Design idea: The South Tower Pier was built on the land and, after pier at about 25 m, the
north side of the pier was built in the North of the low embankment outside set and bull
island.
Normandy bridge is used to create a world record of 856 m long-span cable-stayed
bridge, in 1995, opened to traffic, the bridge with four lane, across the river Seine in the
Bay area, the navigation clearance of 50 m, the original design of the bridge span as a 510
m, the north side of the pier close to the fairway, and there are four piers in the river. In the
early 1980, reports about ship collisions and related damage of many bridges, Influenced
the decision of adopting from the left bank of the river to the end of the North breakwater
of the pier are not required in programmes across the Nar, R., thus separating the north
side of the river and the marshes, on the South Tower Pier was built-in the land, at the
dock behind 25 m office, which would not have been in actual navigable ship collision,
the north side of the pier was built-in the North of the low embankment outside nearby,
this keeps the span without adding too much. However, the pier was built at this location
will be the basis of deadweight tonnage upto 130000 DWT ship slammed, so they decided
on this basis built around a special type of protection structure. The bridges main span
spans end up 856 m than in the design of cable-stayed bridge, whether its design or span
in January 1981, the thousands of tons of the Netherlands Freighter collision steel pipe
Arch of bridge base, resulting in steel tubular arch collapsed, collapse of the superstructure
in the sunken ship, killing more than 10 people, Fig. 5.33 new bridge design drawings,
Fig. 5.34 for ship collision accident photos, Fig. 5.35 for the new cable-stayed bridge.
Fig. 5.33 Sweden new Tjrn Bridge design drawings (size: m).
DUN ship quarantined (artificial island or independent impact structure) programme, pier
must be able to resist the ship collision with power, and the use of ship collision with
energy dissipation devices, to protect bridges and ships, reducing the role of ship impact
force.
Due to the bridge span and resistance to impact, waterways and ships there is some
inherent relationship between impact force and channel high level of ship impact force and
large-span bridges, pier and tower structure, and strong horizontal impact performance,
and vice-versa. This collision idea has economic rationality. Of course, it should be
removed from the two special cases: one is the huge ship, bridges difficult or costly to
bear; the other is due to various reasons the owner cannot accept any ship collision risk, to
be adopted take DUN ship quarantined.
Example 5.9. Ship collision prevention design of Su Tong bridge.
Su Tong bridge design-time consideration of ship impact force as shown in Table 5.15,
and energy dissipation were specially designed protective devices.
Table 5.15 The ship collision design with bridge piers foundation
Bridge pier
Direction
Transverse
Main bridge main pylon pier
Along the
bridge to
65
Transverse
40.6
Along the
bridge to
20.3
Transverse
direction
14.5
Transverse
direction
14.8
Transverse
direction
14.5
Transverse
direction
14.8
Transverse
60
55
navigation
Crashworthy Structure Features:
1. The anti-collision facilities main function is, when designing a ship collision, to
facilities damage amount of dissipation; avoid ship protrusive parts direct impact
drilling pile and pier, tower structures reduce the damage length.
2. When serious collision occur, the anti-collision facilities through its own kinetic
energy of deformation and failure to fully absorb the shipping to reduce pier the force
of the collision, when relatively minor collision, the anti-collision facilities of
sufficient strength and resistance to deformation, use of facilities around the baffle
box energy absorber to protect the overall integrity of the structure of facilities
subject, while reducing the impact the ships damage.
3. Under normal conditions, the anti-collision facilities with full-floating ability,
flexible, easy to use water ballast makes the anti-collision facilities keep good
floatation; after being damaged due to collision, and can limit the extent of damage to
certain areas within the buoyancy of the anticollision facilities remains must be and
the necessary buoyancy without sinking, easy fix.
The anti-collision facilities primarily: facilities dimension is based on the actual
possibility of impact conditions, calculate the length of the damaged facilities, determine
the facility should have a width. Vulnerable to collisions between facilities on the side
width: 12 m, determined by the 50,000t 4 m/s was hit. Facilities side and rear width: 6 m,
determined by the 50,000t 3 m/s was hit. 50,000t ships draught depth 12.5 m, the first
vertex distance balls contains watermark, 7 m, in order to avoid the anti-collision facilities
was lifted by ball, facility draft is 8.2 m. Freeboard is 4.3 m making facilities have plenty
of buoyancy reserve, the anti-collision facilities were first ships pressed into the surface of
the ball, while facilities damaged cases have a reserve of buoyancy.
Fig. 5.36 The floating protective system (a) The bulbous bow cross brake system (b) The
bulbous bow may not cross brake system; (c) Tilt the bow may over braking system; (d)
Flat end of the bow may become more brake systems (e) Floating protective system
photos.
Another floating energy dissipating the anti-collision facilities by installed around the
main pier cofferdam or pontoon, using materials such as steel and rubber to achieve the
goal of energy dissipation. Energy dissipation steel structure main body of the
anticollision facilities of floating deck structure, platform, structure, floor structure,
vertical and horizontal bulkheads, inner walls, perimeter wall, horizontal truss elements,
such as, at the same time external wall form multiple watertight compartments and ballast
tanks, on the inner wall set the rubber parts of the anti-collision facilities can be improved
contact with the pier bearing platform can. Floating the anti-collision facilities under the
advantages of buoyancy along the pier move up and down so that it can adapt to the
change of water level, range of the protection pier; disadvantage is that complex, Pier and
pile cap shape required. Yellowstone bridge of floating the anti-collision facilities as
shown in Fig. 5.37.
Fig. 5.37 Floating energy dissipating the anticollision facilities in Huangshi Yangtze River
Bridge main piers.
Fig. 5.38 United States gravity Sunshine Skyway Bridge protection system.
5.41). The main advantages of this system are: (a) shield configuration or to help
navigation of ships through the narrow route, thus helping to avoid collisions; (b) in the
construction of bridges, this system takes the proportioned cost; (c) piers supporting grid
configurations, it can float the boats go stray; (d) fire proof take friction surface. The main
disadvantage of this system are: (a) is not valid for medium or high energy collisions; (b)
after major crash repair costs are quite high; (c) aim at long-term maintenance costs, and
even very small ships bump after its logs should also be replaced.
webs and there has been a lot of cracks, the useful life of these bridges from 11 to 27
years, the average life span of 19 years, far less than the life expectancy of 100 years of
bridge structures.
Durability of concrete cable-stayed bridge cracking causes of problem generally boils
down to two major reasons: including design, construction, materials and subjective error
factors of cracks caused by construction and by including overload, temperature load,
shrinkage and creep of concrete and objective contact factors causing cracks. Although a
large number of field surveys and case studies, also used to explain the individual bridge
crack specific reasons, but still it is difficult to draw general conclusions of the crack of
concrete cable-stayed bridge. In the Jinan Yellow River Bridge cracks motor as an
example, longitudinal cracks in roof and partition of vertical cracks due to the absence of
transverse pre-stressing force and thermal stresses in roof and floor plate distribution
caused by cracks in a plate and webs due largely to frequent overloads and shrinkage and
creep of concrete.
Table 5.16 Part of cracking concrete cable-stayed bridge
S.No.
Name of
bridge
Location
1.
Jinan Yellow
River Bridge
Shandong
2.
Shanghai
Maogang
Bridge
Shanghai
3.
Tianjin
Tianjin
Yonghe Bridge
1982
Many
120 + 260
+ 120
1987
4.
Shimen
Chongqing 200 + 230
Yangtze River
Bridge
1988
33
5.
Ningbo
Yongjiang
Bridge
Zhejiang
105 + 97
1992
147
6.
Qiantang
River Bridge
Zhejiang
72 + 80 +
168 2 +
80 + 72
1996
7.
Lijiatuo
Bridge
1997
8.
Guangdong
Panyu Bridge
Guangdong 70 + 91 +
380 + 91 +
70
1998
Many
2
84
78
164
Many 148
Many
Bridge
Country
s =
span
(m)
1. Stolma
Norway
301
1998
92
2001
2. Humen
Bridge
270
1997
223
2004
3. Yellowstone Bridge
245
1995
305
2002
4. KororBabeldaob
United
States
241
1978
1200
1990
12
5. Stolma
Norway
220
1993
200
2001
6. Parrotts
United
States
195
1978
635
1990
12
7. Grand-Mere Canada
181
1977
300
1986
8. Kingston
143
1970
300
1998
28
United
Kingdom
Construction Deflection
Time of
Duration
time (years)
(mm)
measurement (years)
(years)
9. Sanmenxia
River
Bridge
140
1992
220
2002
10
the trucks are overloaded and traffic density is high, steel deck plate with thin, after the
destruction caused by pavement roughness of asphalt paving, increasing impact, precisely
because of these combined factors led to the opening of the orthotropic steel bridge deck
in less than 12 hours because of repeated overload and produce severe fatigue cracks.
Fig. 5.43 Composite beam segment technique of casting concrete (a) steel box beams of
Donghai bridge; (b) Greece combination girder of Rion-Antirion bridge.
Fig. 5.45 Donghai bridge installation of prefabricated bridge pier (a) venture floating
crane; (b) erecting one barge Pier installation vessels.
bridge deck slabs for the roof though may crack, but it can be replaced in the future, this
greatly improves the durability of the structure.
Fig. 5.46 Ningbo Yongjiang Main beam cross-section (size: m) (a) originally concrete
bilateral main rib section; (b) eventually steel box girder and concrete composite beams.
2. Design Details
Design details include:
1. high durability concrete, reinforced concrete compaction, increase their ability to
resist breakage;
2. strengthen the bridge surface drainage and waterproofing layer design, improving the
environmental condition of the bridge;
3. improvement design of bridge structures, including increasing the thickness of
concrete cover; strengthened structural reinforcement to prevent cracks;
4. corrosion protection of steel; black surface coating for steel structures have to be
reasonable, combining bridge environment suitable corrosion protection methods; 5.
for important structures with multi anti-corrosion measures and check them regularly,
as well as corrosion protection measures be adopted, surface anti-corrosion coating of
epoxy-coated reinforcing steel, concrete, corrosion-inhibiting admixtures, infiltration
of surface layer template, cathodic protection (corrosion protection of steel pipe piles
corrosion protection), etc.;
5. strictly for design and control of stress, cracks and other details.
3. Replacement Measures
Not every bridge structural unit of life and as long as the bridges design life. If we gave
every structural unit life expectancy and the bridges design life of the same, costs may be
very high. Design in general, as a matter of routine, in certain structural elements can be
replaced after a certain time. Supports, expansion joints and wearing course fall into this
category structure. It can be seen that structural unit of easy substitution becomes very
important. Any traffic would increase maintenance costs, although the costs and life-cycle
costs are not an order of magnitude. One takes far too long to maintain nearby commercial
projects often troubled by serious damage.
In order to facilitate the operational phase of the bridge maintenance and construction
of steel box girder of steel box girder of circular seam welding, large steel box girder
bridge beams are required to set the maintenance vehicle. Maintenance vehicle based on
the main girder structure, are commonly used as cantilever-mounted crane programme,
namely, driving through steel wheel poured into I-steel track, trusses are connected by a
door frame and drive mechanisms. Driving mechanism of general electric and manual.
Electric one requires sliding transmission line , its price is higher than a manual one.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Cross-channel titled construction of super long span cable-stayed bridge, suspension
bridge, proposed to deal with technologies such as wind, seismic and anti-ship
collision-resistant collar concept of the design field, through investigation both at
home and abroad have put forward new ideas, in relation to a concept of a field of
ones own design.
2. Aiming at the vessel bump bridge accident, from analysis of bridge engineering and
marine technology, how to prevent this type of accident and reduce the losses caused
by the accident.
3. Examples of bridge engineering in disaster prevention and new concepts in
durability, wind and earthquake-resistant, anti-ship separately and durability cited an
example in the field of technology.
4. Please give examples at present, China has built bridges in the durability
inadequacies, and problem-solving approaches.
REFERENCES
[1] Xiang Haifan. Chinese and Foreign Comparison of Technological Innovation in the
New Bridges//proceedings of the 17th National Conference on Bridges. Beijing:
People China Communications Press, 2006.
[2] Xiang Haifan. The Durability of Bridges in China. The Bridge, 2009 (4).
[3] Deng Wenzhong. Observation of Bridge Durability. The Bridge, 2009 (4).
[4] Xiang Haifan, et al. Modern Bridge Theory and Practice of Wind Resistance.
Beijing: Peoples Communications Press, 2005.
[5] Fan Lichu, et al. Seismic Design of Long-span Bridges. Beijing: Peoples
Communications Press, 2001.
[6] Fan Lichu. Safety and Durability of Bridge EngineeringLooking into the Progress
of Design Concept. Shanghai Road, 2004 (1).
[7] Xu Zhihao, Huang Jianbo. Stonecutters Bridge, Durability, Maintenance, and
Safety//17th National Bridge Conference Papers, China Communications Press,
2006.
[8] Hu Renli. Seismic Design of Bridges. Beijing: China Railway Publishing House,
1984.
[9] Wang Junjie and Geng Bo. BridgeVessle Bumping Risk Assessment and
Measures. Beijing: Peoples Communications Press, 2010.
[10] Institute for Marine Steel Structure in Shanghai. Ship Collision with Bridge
Selected Papers. China Shipbuilding, 2000. 5.
[11] Chen Zhengqing. Bridge Wind Engineering. Beijing: Peoples Communications
Press, 2005.
[12] Ye Wenya, Li Guoping, Fan Lichu. Preliminary Analysis of Bridge Whole Life
Costs. Highway, 2006 (6).
[13] Xu Guoping, Liu Minghu, Geng Shuang. Method of Bridge Whole Life Design.
Highways, 2007 (10).
[14] Wang Rengui. Hangzhou Bay Cross-sea Bridge Structure Durability//proceedings
of the 2004 National Conference on Bridges. Beijing: People China
Communications Press, 2004.
[15] Zhang Jinping. Denmark Bridge Maintenance Philosophy. Bridges, 2008 (3).
[16] Huang Qiao. Study on Durability of Bridge Structures and Life-cycle Design.
Bridges, 2008 (3).
[17] The Peoples Republic of China Industry Standards. JTG/T B07-01-2006 Road
Engineering Technical Code for Anti-corrosion of Concrete Structures. China
Communications Press, 2006.
[18] The Peoples Republic of China Industry Standards. JTG D60-2004 General
Specification for Design of Highway Bridges and Culverts. Beijing: Peoples
Second level
Third level
Bridge
Beam
Bridge
A threespan
continuous
beam
A multiplespan
continuous
beam
Arch
Bridge
Deck
bearing
Middle
bearing
Bottom
bearing
Single loadbearing
surface
Leaning
arch
Continuous
arch
Stayed
Bridge
Cablestayed bridge
Singletower cablestayed bridge
Dual-tower
cable-stayed
bridge
Multi-tower
cable-stayed
bridge
Single-pole
cable-stayed
bridge
Twin-pole
cable-stayed
bridge
Three-pole
cable-stayed
bridge
Single
tower
suspension
bridge
Twin tower
suspension
bridge
Multitower
Suspension suspension
Bridge
bridge
Single pole
suspension
bridge
Twin pole
suspension
bridge
Three- pole
suspension
bridge
Continuous
rigid frame
bridge
Girder and
arch
Combined combination
system
Cablestayed
suspension
Collaboration
system
Study of bridge structure system is to find out its mechanical properties in order to
carry out system of bridge structure and apply to practical engineering according to local
conditions.
Fig. 6.3 Sketch of girder and arch combination structure system with three-span non thrust
design (unit: mm).
1. modification became hinged arch at the foot of solid, release the horizontal
constraint, based only on vertical and horizontal girders bear;
2. structures freely in the horizontal direction, so annual range of temperature has less
influence, arch-beam used in consolidation, deck without increasing expansion joints;
3. the bridgehead building separate from the main structure, landscape and ballast only,
system performance is much improved.
Two structure such as shown in Table 6.2, after optimisation, mechanical performance
will be significantly improved not only the structure and make the whole engineering cost
reduced.
Table 6.2 Structure system comparison.
Comparison project
combination system
Hinged arch, no thrust
Force base
Rib
Horizontal thrust
balanced approach
Basic level of cable and tie beam in Tie beam itself bear
set
Deck system
Bridge construction
Technical difficulty
Great
Small
Security
Okay
Better
system of complex stress states shall take special countermeasures in the design.
calculation, 330 m adopt steel box girder for main span of one-third makes the top of pile
under negative bending moment decrease about one-third, which is about the domestic
implemented 270 m pier of long span concrete beam bridge bending moment, so at the
current level is suitable under some conditions for this scenario.
Fig. 6.8 Bridge diagrams (a) thrust system; (b) part of the thrust system; (c), three-span
continuous lift system; (d) simple support without thrust system.
difference larger in terms of construction, hoping to integral lifting of steel box beam
segment, both in weight and has some limitations. After overall consideration, determine
cross-beams in a length of 103 m, plus the ends of the steel-concrete combined sections,
the whole cross-beams length is 108 m, weighs 1400t.
In addition, double-line bridge of Shibanpo Changjiang River Bridge a total length of
1103.5 m, as shown in Fig. 6.10. With Master Liang Gu knots side Pier will be bear too
much horizontal force for this system as middle using a combination of rigid frame, side
pier of continuous girder system.
Fig. 6.10 Double-line bridge of Shibanpo Changjiang River Bridge in general layout (size:
m).
Double-line bridge of Shibanpo Changjiang River Bridge in the main span without use
of lightweight concrete, but breaking with steel beams instead a concrete beam, through
material changes in the composition of main girders, to vary the winner Liang Heng load
distribution, thus opening up the steel-pre-stressed concrete continuous rigid-frame bridge
this bridge, on economy, safety, durability and so on to meet the premise, solution
summary of continuous rigid frame bridge of long-span 300 m problems.
Example 6.2. Arch bridge system of Chongqing Caiyuanba Yangtze River Bridge.
Chongqing Caiyuanba Yangtze River Bridge is the first orbital dual-use of King Road,
city of steel and concrete composite rigid frame structure and tied-arch bridge (Figs. 6.11
& 6.12 ).
span all columns to support the weight of the beam [Fig. 6.13(b)]). But in the vegetable
garden dam bridge, rigidity and side spans only 102 m, so the primary beam can span the
entire side without column support, side span became very open, light weight of the bridge
presents its elegance.
Fig. 6.13 Comparison of supporting tied side arch span with or without pole sets (a)
Caiyuanba bridge across no pole; (b) common bridges across any vertical poles.
After removing the post, side spans of arch ribs no longer subjected to vertical loads,
and can be made into a straight bar, arch bridge structure can be used at the lower portion
of the Y-shaped the concrete structure, under the continual fluctuations in water level do
not require special conservation as well as steel. Three pole pieces large y-shaped structure
seems solid, steady, and increase impact resistance capacity.
In this way, in terms of structure, caiyuanba bridge consists of three elements: a Yshaped pre-stressed concrete rigid frame on each side and the steel box tied arch bridge in
the middle (Fig. 6.14), the calculation so as to allow the centre of bowstring arch span is
reduced from 420 m to 320 m and improves overall efficiency while reducing a key
substructure design more difficult.
Fig. 6.14 Y-shaped rigid-frame structure and tied-arch load path diagram.
Compatible with the three independent units, this bridge has also been used in the
design of vertical isolation system tie rod, vertical tie bar divided into cross-tie bar and
side span bow string, and anchor its independence. On this basis, and additional vertical
tie bar at side pier. Three sets of independent tie rod systems are available in the
implementation process of the main body of the bridge (rigid frames and the main arch)
force and the adjustment of the linear space control: under constant load by adjusting the
frame on each side of the tie rod and the tail end of the vertical cable, rigid rod bending
torque to reduce and regulate the bowstring cable force of arch in the middle, perfectly
balanced horizontal thrust, only vertical forces on both sides of the Y-shaped rigid
structure. At constant load under three separate, and consider this to achieve an optimal
stress. Since then, under the live load action, tied with other the longitudinal member
according to the level of stiffness distribution of force. But due to live load accounts for
only a fraction of the total load, there would be no essential impact on the system as a
whole.
In short, Caiyuanba bridge through structural innovation in the system, separate tie rod
using active control technology enhanced material efficiency rate, saving a lot of
permanent structural steel.
Example 6.3. Cable-stayed bridge systemGreece Rion-Antirion Bridge.
Rion-Antirion Bridge (Fig. 6.15) across Greece Corinth isthmus, composite girder
cable-stayed bridge of main bridge for more tower bridge continuous, using floating fivespan structure, span consists of 286 m + 3 560 m + 286 m (Fig. 6.16).
soil, took 25~30 m, diameter 2 m steel pipe based on 7~8 m spacing, soil reinforcement,
each under a pier, there are about 250 steel piles. To allow sliding between the foundation
and the foundation laying on the pole 50 cm with filter sand, laying on the thick and 2 m
in diameter for 10~80 cm pebble layer, the top lay thick gravel layer 50 cm. In this way,
bridge foundations are put gravel on the total thickness of 3 m above, connections between
the foundation and the gravel is weak, may be produced when the earthquake up left and
right to move (But in the operational phase and small earthquakes without sliding), plays
the role of isolation, which formed the basis of an innovative for the sliding of the
reinforced earth base isolation (reinforced soil foundation).
rigidly connected in transverse. Additional 4 sets of viscous damper, each allowing for
3,500 kN adaptable beam tower 1.3 m addendum modification. When the intermediate
connection piece under the action of earthquakes or storms after the failure, the main beam
in viscous resistance free swing under control, as shown in Fig. 6.18.
Rion-Antirion Bridge features a reinforced earth base isolation and transverse
dampers, couplings, has created for cable-stayed bridge a new system.
Example 6.4. Suspension bridges systemUnited States New San Francisco Oakland Bay
Bridge).
San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge is located in the United States in San Francisco,
East of main bridge for steel cantilever truss bridge in 1989, San Francisco decided to rebuild after the earthquake.
San Francisco Bay areas, poor geological conditions in the Bay area, the ground
surface with a soft, sticky thick layer of soil covering layer, the seismic stability of bridge
when you become the controlling factor of bridge design.
Under the current common sense, in the earthquake zone construction of suspension
bridge tower gantry structure should be. When the earthquake came, at Tower cross can
form a plastic hinge at the beam to change lateral stiffness of the structure, reducing the
seismic responses.
But over the Oakland Bay Bridge project discussions, bay area residents do not want
to build another bridge, the gate tower, and fond of single-column pylon of the
programme. Meanwhile, the owners also demand that the bridge could resume traffic
immediately after an earthquake, requiring bridge due quake damage at repair can go
without disrupting traffic. In the form of the then existing structure, this basic is unlikely
to meet requirements.
Engineers are under study, breaking the existing concepts, the concept of developing a
shear key. In fact, this idea is a variant of gantry tower. The principle was to have the
tower columns of two in a gate-tower closely placed together (Fig. 6.19). On the tower
beam is very short, becameunder the shear yield shear keys, instead of the usual tower
beams in bending yield. And because the two tower is placed within only a short distance,
shear key and doesnt have a problem with a few more, increase the redundancy of the
Tower, strengthening the security of bridges, and instead added more beauty.
center and tower-solid beam end , Wd weight of main girder of, ld the distance between
gravity and the end of tower-solid beam.
Fig. 6.25 Conventional cable-stayed bridge without backstays and sketch of loading at
non-backstay section.
Driving medium within the span of the bridge through the river in summer to adjust
the component of force distribution within the structure, using the pre-mix concrete
girders, with a leaning tower of auxiliary forces, while ensuring economic performance
good aesthetic effect is obtained.
Example 6.6. System of the new structure of super long span cable-supported bridges.
Traditional super long span cable-supported bridgesa cable-stayed bridge [Fig.
6.26(a)] and suspension bridge [Fig. 6.26(b)] two systems have emerged in recent years
cable-stayed-suspension system [Fig. 6.26(c)] and partly anchored cable-stayed bridge
[Fig. 6.26(d)]. By studying the above systems, one may conceive partly anchored cablestayed suspension system [Fig. 6.26(e)]. It is not difficult to imagine, the system will both
parts of main girder of cable-stayed bridge with reduced axial force and anchored cablestayed-suspension advantages of cooperative system spanning large and become a more
long-span van restricted bridge could be considered.
Fig. 6.26 Idea of cable-supported bridges system Tower system (a) cable-stayed bridge;
(b) suspension bridges; (c) cable-stayed-suspension system; (d) partially anchored cablestayed bridges; (e) partially anchored cable-stayed-suspension system.
Separately, there is already a multi-tower cable-stayed bridge [Fig. 6.27(a)] and
multiple-tower suspension bridge [Fig. 6.27(b)], can be conceived multi-tower cablestayed-suspension system [Fig. 6.27 (c)] based on total anchored suspension bridge [Fig.
6.28(a)] idea, conceived two series of common anchor system, one for combo system, as
shown in Fig. 6.28(b)and (d) shown in second for mutual combination system, as shown
in Fig. 6.29(a) and (c) as shown, and continues to expand. This structure for super long
span cable-supported bridge offers a variety of options and new ideas.
Fig. 6.27 Idea of cable-supported bridges system Multi-tower system (a) cable-stayed
bridge; (b) suspension bridges; (c) cable-stayed-suspension system.
Fig. 6.28 Of cable-supported bridges system ideasa anchorage-sharing system (a) winanchored suspension bridge; (b) a total of anchored cable-stayed bridge anchor in part; (c)
a total of anchored cable-stayed-suspension system; (d) total bolt partially anchored cablestayed-suspension system.
Fig. 6.29 Cable Supported Bridges mutual combination system conceivedTotal anchor
system (a) Total anchored suspension bridgepartly anchored cable-stayed bridge; b)
Total anchored suspension bridgestayedsuspension; (c) Co-anchored suspension
bridgepartly anchored cablestayed suspension system.
Through the above described can be seen: clear structures and contents, and lay the
foundations for bridge structural system; analysis of bridge structural system of force,
force transmission route, can be provide clear direction for rational selection of bridge
structure system, may also be looking for method of bridge structural system innovation;
system for optimising the force structure, reduction of construction investment,
construction convenient, reduced maintenance costs, and meet the needs of engineering,
extending the applicable conditions is very important meaning for the construction of the
bridge. And bridge system space is vast, systems change can bring new life into this
ancient engineering of the bridge.
System
parameters
Beam bridge
Arch bridge
Cable-stayed
bridge
Cross-over the Span ratio
Cross-over the
edge
Arch axis
edge
Compared with coefficient
Tower height
the midspan
Rib (circle)
and mid-span
girder
high span ratio ratio
Pier high and Rib (circle)
Compared with
mid-span ratio wide span ratio the mid-span
Continuous
Boom or
girder
rigid frame
column spacing Lasso dip
bridge
Component
Wide span ratio
Component
form
Cable distance
form
Component
form
Suspension bridge
Boundary
constraints
Beams, pier
connection form
Main cable
anchorage
Tower, beams,
piers connection
Boundary
constraints
Arch their
connection
Boundary
constraints
Tower, beams,
piers connection
Beams, pier
stiffness ratio
conditions
Arch ,
connecting
beams form
Arch , beam
stiffness
distribution
form
Tower beam
stiffness
distribution
form
Pylons stiffness
Fig. 6.30 General layout scheme of cable stayed bridge with a main span of 1400 m (size:
m).
Constant load
Elastic buckling
simulation
Bridge tower vertical
buckling
Tower span
ratio = 0.21
4.509
Tower span
ratio = 0.16
5.948
4.474
2.694
4.714
3.456
4.168
5.353
4.117
2.416
4.26
3.098
4.143
5.313
4.094
2.397
4.229
3.074
This shows that the towers and the cross-ratio is one of the most important parameters of
cable-stayed bridge in cable-stayed bridge design should take a reasonable height ratio.
these three aspects of the mechanical effect of system parameters on the structure.
Technical
difficulty and
countermeasures
Conclusion
1. Large support
has been used at
home and abroad
and existing
technological
ability is
sufficient;
2. The relevant
authorities of the
mainland has
heavy support
research, design
ability and
technical
assurance;
3. Capacity of
domestically
designed heavyload jack has
reached 4,000t,
providing a
bearing
replacement
technical
assurance.
1. Large support
has been used at
home and abroad
and existing
technological
ability is
Both sides
of main
span arch
uses fixed
hinge
bearing
construction structures
may be subject to
displacement adjustment
does not affect the force,
but was unable to make
structural displacement
adjustment, effects of
construction error and
temperature on closure
are great;
4. Effects of temperature
stress on bearing
substructure are big;
5. Does not form force
on the foundation thrust;
6. Maximum main truss
rod force is stronger;
7. The need to set up
heavy support base.
sufficient;
cables have high tonnage and
2. The lower
large number, anchor
structure and
placement difficulties.
Foundation design
requires
considerations of
live Load and
temperatureinduced force;
3. Constant load
thrust requires the
use of largetonnage level
cable for
balancing, anchor
placement
difficulties;
4. The structural
closure is very
difficult, the need
reaming and hole
drilling of
components for
closure, bridging
shape is affected
by construction,
the precision of
the closure.
1. The lower
structure and
foundation design
requires
considerations of
live load and
temperatureinduced force;
2. Constant load
thrust requires the
use of largetonnage level
cable for
balancing, anchor
placement
difficulties;
3. Construction
process full of
The construction
requirement high
implementation difficult
cables have high tonnage and
large number, anchor
placement difficulties.
(52000 kN.m);
5. No need to set up
heavy support base.
Fig. 6.32 Large-span cable-stayed bridge with different forms of connection diagram.
The Su Tong Bridge main span of 1088 m, in the design process, the first four
talianglian forms are compared. and their stress response. Results are shown in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6 Results comparison between different structures under static conditions.
Calculation
condition
Structure response
Live loads
bending moment
(kN.m)
4.3E4
Bottom bending
moments (kN.m)
1.0E6/
2.9E5
2190
/145
2190/
145
139/168
75/508
66/502
188/603 188/602
Bottom bending
moments (kNm)
Automobile
braking force
3772
3.89E5
6805
4.89E5
366
249
363
203
147
202
980
1.69E3
3 991
203
2170 /135
Horizontal displacement
9/46
of beam end (m)
366/395 367/394
2190
/146
Bottom bending
moments (kN.m)
4.61E5
8.62E5 8.62E5
6.28E5
268
9.5
116
296
296
29
139
1 499
875E4
3963
Bottom bending
moments (kN.m)
1.16E5
5.58E5 5.58E5
2.99E5
287
2.1
120
298
3.0
124
298
Comparison results can be seen from the Table 6.6: compared with float system, Ta
Liang Gu pairing in the primary beam vertical stiffness effect is large, but significantly
increased the longitudinal stiffness of the structure. Floating system frees up horizontal
forces caused by temperature, but longitudinal wind and steam tower of the vehicle
braking force bending moment at the end is 1.9 times and 4.8 times larger than the
consolidation system. Set a certain bridge tower vertical elastic constraints with certain
rigidity, on the one hand by live loads can be reduced, and vertical wind turbine and tower
of automobile braking force taliang and bending moment at the end of the horizontal
displacement. The other hand, compared with the consolidation system, released system
significantly effect of temperature stress on bottom bending moment.
Some of the more typical engineering tower cable-stayed bridge, the beam pattern is
shown in Table 6.7.
Arch system, connections within the structure of influence of loading form is very
obvious. Fig. 6.33 shows the same arch of reamless arch and single arch, two-hinged arch,
three-hinged arch under the same load bearing forms.
Fig. 6.33 Envelope diagrams of Arch structure bending moment: (a) hingeless arch; (b)
single hinged arched; (c) of two-hinged arch; (d) three-hinged arch.
Japan
1998
890
Normandy
bridge
France
1998
856
The second
bridge
Nanjing 2000
China
628
Steel
beam
Qingzhou
minjiang
bridge
China
2001
605
Yangpu
bridge
China
1993
602
Meiko in
bridge
Japan
1996
590
Steel
beam
Tsurumi
channel
bridge
Japan
1995
510
Steel
beam
decreases, can basically be ignored. When hanging EAhang , and trans-axial force
at max, arch and bending moments to a minimum. Local increases the side hangers
axial stiffness, can significantly improve the inhomogeneity of suspender force.
Therefore, a reasonable percentage change major component stiffness of structural
system and structural performance can be optimised.
1. Experience Method
Experience is established on the basis of experience in the design, use sum engineering
statistics, identify design parameters of a reasonable range of values to guide the design of
the new bridge. This method of bridge structures with regular system is the most
convenient way.
For example, we design high beam, girder how big is it? Experience has shown that its
height-span ratio in the range 1/15~1/30 are feasible, but often controlled within
1/18~1/20 to the design, which is proven by the reasonable, economic height-span ratio.
In Article 6.4.2, the reasonable scale of conventional bridges described is the value of
experience in conceptual design of the structure parameters. Because this approach is
based on completed projects, and new complex structures and bridges are not necessarily
effective.
2. Analytical Method
Analytical method is through theoretical mechanics obtain design parameters and
mechanical values of relationships, a methods used to make adjustments to the design
parameters. This method requires designers have good mechanical skills and deep
understanding of the structural system.
For example, we want to improve radial load lower sectional arch (Fig. 6.36) of the inplane buckling factor analytical method can be used to export its critical load
Expression:
Hingeless arch K1
Three-hinged arch K3
0.1
58.9
28.4
22.2
0.2
90.4
39.3
33.5
0.3
93.4
40.9
34.9
0.4
86.7
32.8
30.2
0.5
64.0
24.0
24.0
Table 6.8 data indicated that decreased with increased number of hinge the stability of
arch; various arches of critical loads in is 0.3, maximum, this is because the -hour arc
length is short but high pressure, pressure at large is small but the arc length is longer.
Therefore, the formula derived by analytical method, methods of improving qcr
increasing EIx, strengthen internal and border around harness changing the ratio of height
to span. What specific measures can be determined according to the actual situation.
parameters, and each parameter and structure the numerical relations of the response,
which can curve a graphical representation or expression values.
Example 6.9. In designing some of the anchored cable-stayed bridge with a main span of
1400 m (Fig. 6.37) the time required to find the ground anchor main beam length range.
To main beam length of anchoring segment for parameters, analysing the impact of
changes to the force structure. The length at 0~1400 m changes between (0, 200 m, 400 m,
600 m, 800 m, 1 100 m, 1400 m), end span also makes a corresponding adjustment. To
main beam length of anchoring segment for different computational models can carry out
a detailed analysis of live load effects, results are shown in Fig. 6.38.
Fig. 6.37 General layout scheme of cable stayed bridge with a main span of 1400 m (size:
m).
Results showed that anchor main beam length is increased, the principal bending
moment decrease, main beam length of anchoring segment for more than 400 m changes
flattens; main beam stress in axial force decreases tension increases; bending moment
decrease main tower, main beam length of anchoring segment for more than 600 m
changes flattens; main column axial force changes little; main pylon of main beam
displacement and displacement, main beam length of anchoring segment for more than
600 m changes slowly. Therefore, a main span of 1400 m partially anchored cable-stayed
bridge anchor section main beam length in the 400~600 m is reasonable.
If you want to further optimise the mechanical indices, you can refer to the trends of
the curve obtained, the main beam length of anchoring segment for minor adjustment.
Fig. 6.38 Comparison of live load effects (a) bending moment extreme value; (b) main
beam axis force; (c) beam displacement extremum; (d), main tower of moment extreme
value; (e) main column axial force; (f) extreme value of main tower of displacement.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Pre-casting
and
installation
application
method
Use mounting
methods beam
installation,
connection,
complete the
construction of
bridge
structures
Hole-byhole
construction
method
Using a device
from a bridgeend-by-span
construction
until the other
side
Investment in
equipment and
construction preparation
and complicated
operation
production; degree of
mechanisation and automation
high, labour-saving, reduce
labour intensity
Cantilever From piers to
construction span
method
continuous
extending beam
components
(including
assembling and
in situ casting)
Poring
method
Stress changes,
designed to satisfy both
the construction and
operation needs high
steel consumption; does
not apply to variable
slope, variable height of
multi-span continuous
girder bridges and
bridge with plane curve
or a longer vertical
curves
The bridge
component precasted at bridge
site (or
roadsides or
appropriate
location), when
the concrete
reaches design
strength the
components are
spun back in
place
Jacking
Pre-cast girder
construction is pushed by
method
incremental
launching
device towards
the designated
position
Traverse
Next to the fold Do not change the structure of
construction structure of the the bridge system
method
position the
structure and
lateral moves to
gauge fixed
position
Lateral movement
during the temporary
supports required to
supporting the
construction of the
structure weight,
support requirements
Traverse
Placement of
Increase tonnage
construction structures in the
future premethod
fabricated
structure on the
ground and lift
in place.
20~50
Span-byspan
construction
method
20~60
Cantilever
construction
method for
50~320
Poring
method
20~140
Incremental
launching
construction
of
20~70
Traverse
construction
method
30~100
Lifting
10~80
construction
method
Fig. 6.39 Full scaffold construction of continuous Liang Heng contains internal force
diagram.
Fig. 6.42 Cantilever construction of continuous beam constant load internal forces
diagram.
Fig. 6.43 Incremental launching construction continuous beam ridge pivot bending
moment diagram.
Creep effects after the bridge, re-distribution associated with construction methods and
duration, and live load stress condition and construction of structures has nothing to do.
The construction and design of bridge structure has a very close relationship, on the
different structures used in construction of bridge structures methods can be different, the
same structural form may use different construction methods. During the conceptual
design phase, must take full account of construction methods, through proper construction
techniques ensure that the design is achieved. Meanwhile, development of construction
technology of the bridge, in order to achieve bridge design, offers a flexible and powerful
tool, as well as increased span, improved structure and the use of new materials, provided
the necessary conditions. Therefore, the design and construction are complementary,
mutually binding.
Fig. 6.44 Cantilever construction of continuous beam constant load internal forces
diagram.
Fig. 6.45 Incremental launching construction continuous beam ridge pivot bending
moment diagram.
Bridge system is complex, and often fail to press the picture and complete the
construction, and need to go through a number of structural system of transfer change.
Therefore, when considering design, taking into account the possibility of construction,
economics and rationality.
With vertical pre-stressed reinforcement of continuous beam configuration below to
1. Continuously Reinforcement
Construction of cast in situ continuous beam, longitudinal pre stressing tendons in
accordance with distribution in all parts of the force requirements of the bridge beams.
Usually quantity in the line up of the parabolic trajectory. As Fig. 6.46(a), as l1 l2 l3 l4
shown in the side across and are made up (a) of multi-section parabola, and anti-between
inflection points of the curve. Reinforced concrete according to figure 6 layout can be
considered as in Fig. 6.46(b)) shows, which close to the fulcrum by negative bending
moment area turned to positive bending moment areas, while the bending point of view
slightly (b) weakened, but near the fulcrum cross-section shear resistance is greatly
improved.
2. Fragmented Reinforcement
Piecewise is cantilevered construction of reinforcement and construction of simply
supported-continuous continuous most commonly used reinforced concrete beams.
Cantilever construction of continuous girder bridge, is starting from the pier to the
symmetrical cantilever construction, in order to support girders and construction of selfweight load set out in cantilever construction of pre-stressing requirements. System when
tensioning forces reinforced and complemented other positive moment required to use
phase quantity, this quantity is also called secondary tensioning bars or late bar. Fig. 6.47
shows the cantilever construction continuous beam bridge reinforcement general
construction, where solid gluten is tensioned reinforced during the construction process,
dashed line is reinforced later in the system conversion stretching tendons.
Fig. 6.51 In the process of pushing the front beam installed pylons and cables.
Fig. 6.54 Scheme of steel box girder suspension bridge with main span of 1000 m.
The main component of this bridge are: main cables, slings, main tower, steel box
girder, after determination of main cable of anchorage design loads can also be also be
determined.
1. Loading
(a) Constant Load
According to the established six-lane suspension bridge with steel box girder, assume that
the width of the bridge is 34 m (taking into account the reserve and emergency parking
lane), beam height 3.5 m. Steel box girder and suspenders weight is assumed to be 500
kg/m2, which can be used to estimate their weight load is: 500 34 100 = 170 kN/m. Set
weight of bridge deck pavement and crash bars around 50 kN/m.
2. Estimation Analysis
(a) Estimation of Main Cables
The main cable is the main load-bearing components of the bridge, dead load borne by the
main cables of the construction phase, bridge with stiffening beam to share, but in longspan bridges, the stiffening girder of sharing part is negligible.
Main cable curve approximation for the parabolic line cable horizontal force (two
cables together, the same below) as follows:
In the formula: l =
main span;
gd =
gc =
q =
P =
f =
Stress capacity of cable material is c is located = 78.5 kN/m3, cable material design
strength s = 1670 MPa, factor of safety 0 = 2.0 (project value at 2.0~2.5), the gc to cAc
= c 0 Tm/s in place, can be found across primary horizontal force of the cable as
follows:
In accordance with the principles across the horizontal force of the main cable of the
same approximate, using Ta = Hm/cos a side span cables can be further evaluated the
great pulling, where a is the saddles edge across the angle and the horizontal line of the
main cable. Across the main cable curve is a catenary, estimates still put aside curve
approximation. Side span of la = 300 m, loose saddle point to control point of the main
cable saddles of a vertical distance h = 140 m, side spans rise fa 5.152 m, then:
the spacing range with length of , stiffening and weight gd paving, uniformly distributed
live load q and concentrated live loads such as
and each sling consists of 2 cables, so the load value is one-fourth of full-bridge load.
Maximum internal force of Th is:
under rigidity, this tension increment will be determined by cross the elastic elongation of
the main cable to the resistance, as shown in Fig. 6.56.
Set top displacement as
Aa is the area of side span of cable from the side maximum force Ta to get
504571 mm2. From thin one can work out tower top displacement:
If tower vertical cross section moment of inertia It =300 m4, total height of the tower
from the bottom surface of the ht = 180 m, C50, concrete is used, main tower of bottom
bending moment weight is negligible, the bending moment at the end of may, according to
calculation mode of a cantilever beam subjected to forced displacement as:
derives, which ignores the load cable tension on vertical load provided by the resistance.
= 322012kN.
And Hl is unknown here, cannot be solved by equivalent beam method, therefore needs to
be supplemented by a main cable compatibility equations.
Since the horizontal projection of the total length of the main cable is constant, it is
easy to deduct cable compatible equations as follows:
Deflection ()
Angle ()
Bending moment
Note:
Combining Table 6.11 and main cable compatibility equation, after a simple iteration
Hl and can be obtained, resulting in stiffening beam bending moment. The steps are as
follows:
1. Assumed that the initial value of Hl, according to precision requirements step Hl.
2. To determine the value of Hl, is given in Table 6.11 (), () formula and .
f(Hl, i)
f(Hl, i + Hl)
Hl, i + 1(kN)
10000.0
30.27
5.980128
5.980111
44354.3
2. 44354.3
2.78
8.933259E02
8. 931536E02
44873.0
3. 44873.0
2.37
2.505165E05
4. 228345E05
44872. 9
Min (kN.m)
4421.8
The iterative process can be seen is Table 6.12, convergence is very fast. Finally
stiffening beams bending moment is calculated as 4421.8 kNm.
Final estimates of this bridge is shown in Table 6.13.
Table 6.13 Component dimensions and load.
Components
The main
cable
Main
span
area
(mm2)
Dimension
Side span area
(mm2)
Load
Main span
pulling force
(kN)
Side span
pulling force
(kN)
479102
504571
479102
504571
Area
Pulling force
(kN)
Hanger rod
Cable tower
Stiffening
beam
(mm2)
1813
1813
Total
height
(m)
Corss-section
moment of
inertia (m4)
Tower top
displacement
(mm)
Tower bottom
bending
moments
(kN.m)
180
300
180
300
Beam
height
(m)
Area (m2)
Corss-section
moment of
inertia (m4)
Main span
bending
moments
(kNm)
3.5
3.5
, common
Height or slab
thickness (cm)
60
Note
h/L
Pre-stressed
1/17
slab
Highway-grade-II
concrete plate
13
Hollow
slab
Highway-grade-I,
Highway-grade-II
70
Pre-stressed
concrete plate
1/19
16
Hollow
slab
Highway-grade-I,
Highway-grade-II
80
Pre-stressed
concrete plate
1/20
20
Hollow
slab
Highway-grade-I,
Highway-grade-II
95
Pre-stressed
concrete plate
1/21
20
T-beam Highway-grade-I,
Highway-grade-II
150
Pre-stressed
concrete plate
1/13
25
T-beam Highway-grade-I,
Highway-grade-II
170
Pre-stressed
concrete plate
1/15
30
T-beam Highway-grade-I,
Highway-grade-II
200
Pre-stressed
concrete plate
1/15
35
T-beam Highway-grade-I,
Highway-grade-II
230
Pre-stressed
concrete plate
1/15
40
T-beam Highway-grade-I,
Highway-grade-II
250
Pre-stressed
concrete plate
1/16
Table 6.15 Beam height in variable cross-section continuous beam and continuous rigid
frame bridge.
Span (m)
Section form
30 + 50 + Single-box dual30
Chamber
Bridge
Beam height
width
(m)
Notes
(m) Fulcrum Across
8.50
2.80
1.50 1982,
continuous
beam
h/L
Fulcrum Across
1/18
1/34
47 + 3
70 + 47
Double-box
dual-Chamber
21.0
4.00
2.00 1979,
continuous
beam
1/18
1/35
59 + 7
90 + 59
Double-box
sibgle-Chamber
24.0
5.40
3.00 1983,
continuous
beam
1/17
1/30
70 + 94 + Single-box
70
single-Chamber
12.0
5.00
2.00 1985,
continuous
beam
1/19
1/47
70 + 4 Single-box
100 + 70 single-Chamber
13.0
5.50
2.20 1995,
continuous
beam
1/18
1/46
24.0
5.50
2.70 1983,
continuous
beam
1/20
1/41
75 + 7 Single-box
120 + 75 sibgleChamber
18.5
6.50
2.60 1993,
continuous
beam
1/19
1/46
70 + 2 Double-box
125 + 70 sibgle-Chamber
31.0
6.80
2.50 1993,
continuous
beam
1/18
1/50
85 + 154 + Single-box
85
single-Chamber
11.0
8.50
2.80 1991,
continuous
beam
1/18
1/55
65 + 125 + Single-box
180 + 110 single-Chamber
15.0
10.00
3.00 1988,
continuous
rigid frame
1/18
1/60
162.5 + 3 Single-box
245 + single-Chamber
162.5
19.5
13.0
4.10 1995,
continuous
rigid frame
1/19
1/60
31.0
14.8
5.0
1/18
1/54
2000,
continuous
rigid frame
2. Arch Bridge
Listed in Tables 6.16 and 6.17 are rib arch height and height-span ratio in rib arch and box
arch.
Table 6.16 Arch cross-section area in reinforced concrete arch bridge.
Span Arch cross-section
Notes
(m)
(cm)
30
Height 90, width 85 H-shaped double-rib, rib spacing 4.95 m
(1/8)
40
50
60
65
Notes
60
130 (1/7)
92
160 (1/10)
100
160 (1/6)
146
250 (1/4)
3. Cable-stayed Bridge
As for two-span cable-stayed bridge with single tower, side-to-across ratio is usually
0.5~0.8, with the majority being 0.6~0.7. For twin towers three-span cable-stayed bridge,
side-across ratio is 0.3~0.5, with the majority being 0.4. Tower height above the deck and
the cross-length ratio is typically between 1/4~1/7, mostly about 0.25. Beam height and
main span-length ratio in early thin cable systems is generally 1/5~1/70, in dense cable
system generally 1/70~1/200.
Table 6.18 lists some of the main dimensions of cable-stayed bridges.
Table 6.18 Dimensions of cable-stayed bridge.
Span Tower
(m) height
(m)
Beam
height
(m)
Sidecross
tatio
Bridge type
230
113
4.0
0.870
288
56.4
2.4
(boxes)
0.474
400
91
2.78
0.450
450
78.3
4.0
0.368
465
94.3
2.315
0.393
510
131
4.0
0.498
590
136
3.5
0.492
602
144
856
152
890
175
2.96
3.00
(steel)
3.05
(concrete)
2.7
0.404
0.417
0.360,
0.303
4. Suspension Bridge
Completed suspension bridges, side-span ratio is mostly between 0.2~0.3, United States
George Washington Bridge has the smallest side to span ratio of 0.174, whereas the largest
side-span ratio is the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge of 0.482. The vertical cross-ratio of
suspension bridges is 1/9~1/12, heavier suspension bridges adapt bigger vertical cross
ratio in order to limit the increase of forces, such as the great belt East bridge, vertical
cross-ratio is 1/9; box lighter beam may have small vertical cross-ratio to increase the
stiffness of suspension bridge. Bosphorus bridge vertical cross-ratio is 1/12; self-anchored
suspension bridge has greater vertical cross-ratio than ground-Anchored suspension
bridge, generally about 1/5.
Table 6.19 lists some of the main dimensions of cable-stayed bridges.
Table 6.19 Major dimensions of cable-stayed bridge.
Span Tower Beam Side- Main
Main
(m) height height cross- beam
beam
(m)
(m) ratio diameter vertical(mm) cross ratio
300 104.6
300
94.4
12
0.417
467
3.17 0.468
119.0
570 and 8.90
117.37
Bridge type
1/5
1/6
0.20
762
1/9.85
626
1/10.14
about
876
136
12.5 0.377
840
1/10.68
888 147.55
3.0
0.340,
0.392
687
1/10.5
900
3.0
0.25,
0.283
560
1/10.5
924
1/8.94
1100
1/ 11.0
0.223,
0.243
864
1/10.5
1120
1/10.0
128
1385
3.02
1. Beam Bridge
Table 6.20 Simply-supported girder bridge materials index.
Span
(m)
13
Cross-section
Hole-shaped hollow
plate
89. 4
20
Hollow plate
0.738
25.6
21.5
16
T-shaped
0.29
82
20
T-shaped
0.34
84
Table 6.21 Pre-stressed concrete T-shaped beam materials indicator (1983 final drawings).
Span
(m)
Crosssection
25
T-shaped
30
T-shaped
0.41
15.7
50. 7
35
T-shaped
0.46
19.1
52.3
40
T-shaped
0.49
22.4
53.4
50
T-shaped
0.4
28.7
49.4
62
T-shaped
0.56
44.6
72.4
Note: The table does not include decks, the number of crash barrier or railing and
walkways. The 50 m and 62 m span data are from individual bridge, not blueprint.
Table 6.22 Girder bridge upper part structures materials index.
Materials index per square metre
of deck
Built year and construction
Span (m) Cross-section Concrete
PreOrdinary
methods
steel
(m3/m2) stressing
steel (kg/m2) (kg/m2)
11.5 + 30 Single-box
0.38
17.7
66
1975, bracket assembly
+ 11.5
multiChamber
41 + 2 Multiple T40 + 41 shaped beam
19 40
30 + 50 + Single-box
30
dual-chamber
0.5
20
75
0.564
19
58.9
1998, simply-supported
girder precasting and
installation
0.59
24
57.2
1982 cantilever
42.5 + 3
54 +
42.5
0.53
30.5
64.6
48 + 3 Double-box
60 + 48 singlechamber
0.58
35.9
44.2
1983, cantilever
9 60
Double-box
singlechamber
0.72
29.2
61.9
1983, pusher
47 + 3 Double-box
70 + 47 doublechamber
0.63
24.7
70
1979, cantilever
73.3 + 3
90 +
73.3
Double-box
singlechamber
0.58
33
118
59 + 7 Double-box
90 + 59 singlechamber
0.83
49.3
92.6
36 + 58 + Single-box
90 + 58 singlechamber
0.87
30.7
94.7
2003, cantilever,
continuous rigid frame
2. Arch Bridge
Table 6.23 Reinforced concrete arch bridge superstructure materials index.
Clear span (m)
40
Bars (kg/m2)
113.3
Concrete (m3/m2)
0.76
50
181.2
0.85
60
152
Note: This table is converted from The highway bridge and culvert/m clear span of the
arch bridge design manual, calculate area is the arch area of the ventral surface of the
horizontal projection, so the indicators are greater that the results of full-bridge-area
calculations.
Table 6.24 Box arch bridge upper part structures materials index.
Clear span (m)
Concrete (m3/m2)
30
8.1
0.31
60
19.4
0.65
66
19.8
0.45
92
30
0.63
100
30.6
0.53
Note: This table is converted from The highway bridge and culvert/m clear span of the
arch bridge design manual, calculate area is the arch area of the ventral surface of the
horizontal projection, so the indicators are greater that the results of full-bridge-area
calculations.
3. Cable-stayed Bridge
Table 6.25 Cable-stayed bridge superstructure materials index.
Main
span
(m)
Main structure,
materials
Concrete box
230 girders, concrete
single tower
Double-box steel
288 girders, concrete
dual-towers
Steel-concrete
composite beam,
465
concrete dualtower
Flat steel box
girders, steel twin
510
towers
Notes
Built in 1988
0.98
0.19
20.5
Note: The construction volume of main tower is part of the lower part construction. All
bridges not specified otherwise are cable-stayed bridges in China.
4. Suspension bridge
Main
span
(m)
Main
structure,
materials
Three-span,
steel truss,
570 steel tower
Three-span,
steel truss,
770 steel tower
Three-span,
steel truss,
570 steel tower
Single-span
steel box
900 girder,
concrete
tower
Three-span,
1280 steel truss,
steel tower
Three-span,
steel truss,
1991 steel tower
Notes
495.7
4.83
412.7
171
Note: The construction volume of main tower and anchorage is part of the lower part
construction. All bridges not specified otherwise are cable-stayed bridges in China.
Fig. 6.58 Facade layout of three arch bridges (size: mm) (a) Thrust steel arch bridge (b)
Dead load thrust-free prestressed concrete arch bridge, (c) Thrust of reinforced concrete
arch bridge.
Economy is a relative concept, economy at stake of security, be could not attend. In
the mid-1990s, many bridges are built very economical, but these bridges low safety
factor, ability to withstand overload is also low, cannot be said to be advanced. Similarly,
materials indications listed in the previous section lists reflect bridge economic
performance from a certain angle.
A bridge with real advances in the economy can be reflected in the land system,
material, functional structures, construction and other aspects.
In downtown Kunshan Lou Jiang adjacent three newly built arch bridges, main span is
around 40 m, as shown in Fig. 6.58. Fig. 6.58(a) is a thrust steel arch bridge, the ratio of
height to span 1/10.3, the main bridge span 44.87 m; Fig. 6.58(b) is a bridge of constant
load without thrust pre-stress concrete arch bridge with a main span 36 m; Fig. 6.58(c) is
thrust of reinforced concrete arch bridge, with a height-span ratio of 1/9.
Kunshan is a soft soil area, bridge programme is not economical. But in order to
beautify the city bridges, arch bridges is also an option. On soft ground, in order to
overcome the horizontal thrust base will take a large economic cost. And horizontal thrust
and structures are related. Fig. 6.58(a) thrust for the bridge arch, using steel arch bridge,
light weight, relatively small horizontal thrust. Fig. 6.58(b) bridge constant load without
thrust, only horizontal force live load and temperature. Fig. 6.58(c) bridge with large
weight has the largest basic horizontal thrust. Therefore, from conceptual design stage we
can decide which economic b > a > c of three bridges, three economic indicators listed in
Table 6.27 illustrates the point.
Table 6.27 Construction cost comparison of three arch bridges.
Economic efficiency
0.602
Superior
1.111
Poor
Programme
Average
Improving and beautifying the structure can also reflect the bridges advance. In the
concept of the United States Oakland Bay Bridge, in order to satisfy residents taste for
single-column pylon and the demand that the bridge can immediately restore traffic
functionality after the quake, structure of multi-column shear tower was proposed. The
Tower look like a single tower structure Fig. 6.59 is a single-column and portal bridge
tower scheme selection.
Fig. 6.60 Durability of stonecutters bridge maintenance facility (a) main column bottom
detection platform; (b) main welded connection shuttle repair; (c) maintenance under the
main beam hangers; (d) cables repair vehicle.
Stiffness is the objects ability to resist deformation under force. Stiffness calculation
corresponds to specification in the serviceability limit state requirements for the deflection
under load and span ratio.
During the conceptual design phase checking stiffness is very important. Calculation
by finite element method, you can easily structural deformation curve and find the
maximum structural displacement value. Some basic structure can also be based on the
simple theory of deformation and calculation formula estimation of maximum
displacement structure. For example, the simple architecture of several sections such as
maximum displacement calculated as follows.
2. Cantilever Beam
Mid-span deflection under a concentrated force:
Full uniform mid-span deflection under load:
end 0.422l).
Comparing with control code for modification one can determine whether the
structural rigidity of the structure meet the requirements. For example, the highway
reinforced concrete and pre-stressed concrete bridge design code (JTG D622004)
provides as follows: reinforced and pre-stressed concrete long-term deflection of the
flexural members, after long-term deflection of eliminating structural weight, warping the
maximum deflection of primary beam should not be more than 1/600 of calculating span,
cantilever length not exceeding 1/300. The highway cable stayed bridge design rules
(JTG/TD65-01-2007) states: main beam lane loading (no impact) under maximum vertical
deflection of concrete beam bridge shall not be more than l/500, steel beams and
composite beams in the main hole using steel beams shall not be more than l/400. The
highway cable bridge design code (approval) in the provision of: stiffening girder of
suspension bridge by vehicle load (regardless of the impact) of the maximum vertical
deflection should not be greater than the span of the 1/250 and fiftieth ~ 1/300; in high
winds (deck car-free) maximum lateral displacement should not be greater than the span
under the influence of 1/150.
Stability includes two aspects: static stability, including stability and regional stability
as a whole; wind-induced stability, including flutter instability and static wind instability
and so on.
Static forc, structural stability of cable-stayed bridges, arch bridges and other issues
are more prominent, thin-walled structures such as thin-walled steel box girder, bridge
tower local stability is more prominent. During the conceptual design phase primarily
concerned with the overall stability of finite element method can be easier to first class
stability analysis of structures and stability safety factor meets the requirements for
testing. Local stability in terms of rods stability ensured by limiting slenderness ratio,
stability of stiffened plate structure measures adopted as assurance.
On mechanics, for large-span bridge at conceptual design stage only preliminary
estimates according to the formula, the highway bridge specification for design of wind
resistance (JTG/T D60-01-2004) are detailed in the static wind stability, galloping, flutter
stability test calculation formulas and specific requirements.
1. Beam bridge
(a) Simply Supported Beam
When calculating the impact of continuous beam caused when the positive bending
moment and shear effects by f1; negative effect is calculated using f2.
2. Arch Bridge
When the main arches for such section or other arch bridges (such as truss arch and
rigid frame arch, and so on):
1
3.7
2
34.3
3
16.3
4
364
5
1955
Ti
1.7
15.7
0.15
30
88
3. Cable-stayed Bridge
Inclined plane
Half-open
12
12
Closed
17
14
Open
12
11
Half-Open
14
12
Closed
21
17
4. Suspension Bridge
(a) The Anti-symmetric Vertical Bending Frequency in Single Span Simple
Supported Suspension Bridge
mc =
(b) When the main span more than 500 m, the suspension of the antisymmetric vertical bending frequency
In the formula: Ec, Ac = the main cable of the elastic modulus (MPa), crosssectional area (m2).
In the formula: EI, and GId = restrained torsional stiffness (N.m4) and free
torsional stiffness (N.m2) of closed box beam
restrained torsional stiffness can be ignored;
r = stiffening girder section radius (m);
Bc = centre distance of the main cable (m).
than 15 times of section feature dimensions, commonly known as slender beams, one can
ignore the effect of shear deformation.
With the upgrading of computer processing speeds, at the concept design stage, for
geometry more complex structures one can also consider adopting shell or solid elements
to build more elaborate finite element model. It must be noted that inside is a truss element
model results from the shell or solid models can be the result of stress and strain, such as
demand forces more difficult.
Fig. 6.61 Space truss calculation model (a) girder bridge (b) cable-stayed bridge.
For framed structures, a unit corresponds to two end nodes, of nodes and cells boils
down to determine node location, in general the following principles should be followed:
1. the structural anchor should set the node;
2. in order to deal with the relationship between structure and discrete model, in
accordance with the construction process, phasing in natural settings node;
3. longer natural block should be appropriately sub-divided;
4. the pre-stressed cable-endpoint sections should generally set the node;
5. section should set the node where the focus on internal forces and displacements;
6. at supporting parts node should be set.
exist, under bridges practical constraints can easily determine its finite element model
type of boundary conditions.
When determining the boundary conditions certain construction assumptions are
usually needed. For example, in static force Analysis boundary conditions are often
described using simple supported rigid (fixed, hinged, rolling moving or sliding), without
consideration of deformation sub-structure and foundations. However, for the need to take
into account certain static analysis of ground displacement (such as considering the slow
displacement of suspension bridge anchorage) and dynamic analysis (such as seismic
response analysis), describing the deformation is very heavy, Non-linear spring/ damper
model can be established at this time (Fig. 6.62). Structural engineer and geological
engineers can work closely together correctly determining the nature of soil spring and
sometimes need to pass set up a small model or manual checking of the required
parameters is acceptable.
6.6.5 Quality
When calculating the dynamic characteristics of structure should be given quality, mainly
refers to the components of the translational mass and moment of inertia. Translation
quality of centralised or distributed approach, and the moment of inertia is way depending
on the simulation of the floor system is different and can be automatically form or
according to the actual sections of the mass distribution calculations input.
6.6.6 Loads
Bridge structures need to withstand various loads, such as temporary loads, dead loads,
live loads, wind, any temperature and load. These loads consist of a series of load exerted
on the structure model of express or analog, each load included a series of concentrated
loads (section point loading) or distributed load. Range relative to the extension unit can
use smaller loads concentrated loads simulation, and vice versa with a distributed load
simulation.
Dead load refers to the weight of the structure, the size according to the size and
density of the material and the acceleration of gravity is calculated. General description
the distributed load, but sometimes also attach some concentrated loads, such as truss
continuous girder beam weight is concentrated in the model force simulation.
Temporary construction loads on the structure has been built mainly of temporary
stacking loads, and hanging baskets, and so on. Interim stacking load can be simulated
based on equivalent in the form of concentrated or distributed load. Simulation of hanging
basket is relatively complex. General cantilever hanging baskets can be fixed with a
virtual rod unit and structure has been built-in several equivalent concentration on
simulated basket moves, you can fold the unit at this stage and concentrated force
dismounted to move before the next stage of the unit and focus. Fore-cable-stayed bridge
basket required to simulate the tension in its construction and process value calculation
method can be used to simulate.
Live load can be directly illustrated using the standard load calculation, and record
transverse, longitudinal reduction factor.
Static wind load on a structure shapes, wind speed and the Pontic of bridge site
structure related to the height of the load. When calculate one can refer to code for design
of highway bridge wind (JTG/T D60-01-2004), the estimation formula of critical wind
speed of flutter. For important large-span structures, first through wind tunnel tests to
determine its major components of the three-factor (curve), then calculate the
corresponding equivalent static wind loads on structures. Flexible structures and
sometimes even structural posture change causes changes in angle of attack of the wind
effect of static wind loading.
Other static loads, such as ship and ice loads, and also calculate the equivalent load
applied to the corresponding position in the model.
In some cases, especially in high seismic intensity area, many dynamic load-controlled
bridge design parameters. At this point, understanding dynamic loads of the nature of the
responses of bridges under such loads is very important. In the districts of high intensity,
Thong common multi-modal response spectrum analysis to calculate the dynamic
response of bridges. In this case, usually with a given structural damping periods and
under acceleration, velocity and displacement relationship between response spectrum
load. In some cases, especially for complex bridge structures, and time history analysis
method is usually used when needed at the border when applying a group ride on the
nodes load (usually expressed as time or time-acceleration-displacement curve).
Example 6.12. According to the conceptual design, shown in Fig. 6.63, and full-bridge
(156 + 180 + 300) m + 1400 m + (300 + 180 + 156) m of 7-span continuous structures.
main beam is made of flat steel box girder, beam height 4.5 m, the full width 41 m
(including wind mouth). Pylons uses A shaped concrete towers, set the beam at the
bottom anchor, set the lower beam girder. Tower height is 357 m deck above 287 m, the
tower is a hollow rectangular section. Cable total 38 4 2 = 304, specifications for
PES7-211~313(1770 MPa), single cable maximum length of about 750 m. Floating
structural system for the whole system, and try to model this structure.
Fig. 6.63 General layout scheme of cable-stayed bridge with a main span of 1400 m (size:
m) (a) programme general arrangement; (b) pylon arrangement; (c) girder sections.
According to this knowledge, can be modeled according to the following steps for this
solution:
1. The choice of plane and spatial model: Conceptual design for similar
configurations of cable-stayed bridge in Planar structures, but large-span bridge, in
transverse direction (lateral) loads of established controls, so using spatial models.
2. Unit type selection: Using truss structures, and the selection of tower column of
main girder beam elements, cable select space beam element.
3. Description: Main beam and column have access to all the nodes in the
corresponding section of the tower at the centroid of the girder set the principles of
the nodes is: beams, on end, cable cranes, tower junction set node, insert a niche
between adjacent points; the main tower sets the nodes principles that is: Tower,
bottom set, beams, cables anchoring points are the endpoints node, the tower columns
and beams a long rod is properly sub-divided so that the unit length has differ; cable
setting the nodes principles are: both ends of the cable are set the node and with
segmented rods method test taking into account non-linear effects of cables SAG, so
each of these cables are inserted at the dividing point 7 nodes. Full bridge element
and node the connection information is as follows: along its axis of beam, towers,
cable connection between adjacent nodes as a unit, cable section corresponds to the
lower point and main beam increased rigidity beam element, namely the main girder
of single-beam mode fish bone beams model.
4. And section properties of the material: The main girders, cables for steel
components, pylon for the concrete components, elastic modulus of the material is
already known. Geometry calculation of sectional properties according to the
corresponding section. Beam elements needed to calculate the area and around three
axes: Moment of inertia, the main beam, the main tower in the typical cross-section is
shown in Table 6.30, typical between each cross-section curve can be approximated
by a straight line interpolation; Element need only enter the cross-sectional area, area
corresponding to each cable as shown in Fig. 6.64.
Area
(m2)
Main girder
section A
1.7029
In-plane bending
moment of inertia
(m4)
5.8241
Torsional
moment of
inertia (m4)
21.8092
Main girder
section B
1.9817
7.0609
248.0076
25.4121
Main girder
section C
2.4034
8.3907
318.8833
31.2312
Main girder
section D
2.9100
10.2898
392.9832
38.20563
Tower top
85.512
528.403
902.353
1 090.466
Bifurcation of 25.458
the main tower
68.340
400.500
212.310
Beams in the
main tower
35.575
133.444
669.258
395.867
Pylon beams
under
57.343
664.348
2515.169
1774.659
Bottom of
main tower
66.300
1155.722
3579.702
2892.310
Fig. 6.64 General layout scheme of cable-stayed bridge with a main span of 1400 m (size:
m)
5. The boundary conditions: Combined effects of ignoring upper and lower parts of
the structure, nodes at the bottom of Tower column for consolidation of constraint;
main girder for floating junction structure constraint only two end nodes and the
auxiliary piers at the vertical displacement of the node.
6. Quality: All elements can be directly determined by the area and density. But
beams, floor system of main beams and cables sheath does not participate in force,
such as quality of components with specific quality elements.
7. Loads: In addition to deadweight, a cable-stayed bridge under live load and static
wind load, thermal load and bearing modification and so on. Functions that can be
provided in accordance with the procedures directly imported or calculate the
equivalent load according to specification, separately as multiple load simulation.
Finally, the numerical model is shown in Fig. 6.65. After description of the model
Data based on analysis program numerical formatting, analysis will be carried out through
computers.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. For the selected type of bridge structures based on design conditions in order to
determine a reasonable system?
2. Why during the conceptual design phase to construction problems? Determining
bridge construction program and what are the main factors to consider?
3. Where several advantages determined the bridge program?
4. In a 180 m design is a three-span beam bridge on the river, the conceptual design
process of determining design parameter of continuous beam.
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and solutions also provide ideas for similar bridges construction in the future. Successful
solutions will have an impact bridge construction technology in the future development of
new constructs described earlier in detail, construction methods and materials is via., a
bridge, the engineers creative daring the attempt, but proved to be more social and
economic benefit, and become a bridge technical safeguards.
In order to meet the bearing and deformation under different loading conditions, supports
and telescopic component needs to be set. The most common such component are the
bridge bearings and expansion joints. In addition, in order to achieve some special support
structure and deformation, depending on construction of reality for innovative design.
Equivalent bearing, meet special activity direction of deformation, in different operating
conditions can be adjusted boundary condition is one of several ways.
Fig. 7.1 KRK bridge (a) KRK bridge layout; (b) KRK-1 bridge arch.
stayed bridge, or Span cable-stayed bridge, hoping to improve the stiffness of structures
under live loads or wind, which want the main girder and pylon hinge, in small
earthquakes loads of girder and tower column of main girder on seismic force evenly
spread over several towers. However, upon articulation, the main beam under the longterm temperature effects of lengthening and shortening will make the towers bear a great
deal of bending moments, so using a floating system is more reasonable. This requires
under different conditions different boundary conditions in order to achieve better loading
state. According to the above request, the lock is set in between the tower and the main
beam damping device of the ideas put forward. Fig. 7.5 is the principle of viscous
damping devices.
Viscous damper works with a small hole in piston moving within a viscous liquidfilled pipes. When the piston movement speed, there is resistance andslow movement
offers very little resistance. Application of this principle can be implemented in different
conditions requirements of different boundary conditions. Live load or deformation under
wind action is faster transient deformation of damper produces a great deal of resistance of
main girder and the tower is similar to the hinge between the columns or piers, year-round
temperature disparity effect distortion were slow, so resistance is very small, its like
sliding between the main beams and columns or piers.
cable-stayed bridge of four towers (Fig. 7.7), the main beam length of 2252 m, is the
worlds longest main girder of cable-stayed bridge, completed in 2004. Sensitivity, and
building on the strong seismic belt, in order to accommodate the live load, temperature,
wind loads and degeneration under seismic effects, floating in the whole system of main
girders with tower, girder and pier between cleverly arranged joining condition. In design,
pier and beam, beam locally increased small stringer, to decorate the connection of pierbeam damping device. In order to ensure stability against wind and reduce operations due
to live load and temperature in vertical and horizontal displacements, each tower is
equipped with a four linkage between dampers allow for it about 1000 kN, along the
bridge to the limit 1.6 m, transverse nearly motionless. When strong earthquake occurs,
damp damage beam movement can be connected to the tower of four damper under the
influence have been greatly eased, displacement up to 1.3 m. Both ends of the main
beam and bridge junction, under the live loads, vertical displacement can be up to 2.5 m,
beam supports with high 14 m, can withstand the vertical load and longitudinal
displacement of the beam of steel frame, between steel frame and main girder dynamic
dampers were installed. Fig. 7.8 illustrates the damper of the bridge signalled.
Above are specifically designed according to the specific requirements for bridge
border some examples of components, these components have in common point is, by
means of special construction, makes the overall structure of the force status more
reasonable and reliable, in design played a key role.
Fig. 7.7 Rion-antirion bridge base deflection (a) Rion-antirion Bridge shape (b) Seismic
changes front and rear axle position within possible terrain.
Application of composite bridge there are still some hurdles to jump, mainly the
following issues:
1. concrete creep and shrinkage strain led to stress between steel and concrete in large
weight distribution;
2. need a reliable connection between steel and concrete;
3. complicated technology and high cost, we must fully cost competitive advantage.
In Europe, America and Japan for many years efforts have been made, composite
structure in bridges already have a wide range of applications, while also the
corresponding industry standards and specifications. In contrast, composite structure
bridges in China has just started, there is no industry chain, currently do not have design
specification.
horizontal linkages, while the beam section directly by steel rolling shape, which greatly
reduce the workload of bridge construction site, although the steel consuming, but overall
effectiveness is still high. A narrower bridges (10~12 m wide) may use either a larger Ibeams, only a small number of horizontal linkages. Fig. 7.12 shows the composite section
beams, two steel girders formed by large I-steel from a split in the middle of the web,
carefully designed cutting line connection between steel beam and concrete, and
significant cost savings.
Fig. 7.9 Reinforced concrete hollow slab beam shape and internal reinforcement.
Over a wide bridge, in order to increase the torsional stiffness of the bridge, there has
been a combination of box-section beams, usually composed of groove consisting of steel
beams and concrete roof. Bridge of Donghai bridge over main navigation 420 m for longspan cable-stayed bridge, in order to resist the dominated by container truck load of
eccentric loads, using channel section of main girder box beams (see as shown in Fig.
7.13).
If it is a continuous beam, in order to resist the pivot plate pressure caused by negative
bending moment stresses at the pier near the base plate can be poured concrete in order to
improve the stiffness of composite beam smaller, roof and floor beams can also be built
with concrete, webs of steel structures, steel webs can effectively avoid webs easy to crack
under tensile stress of concrete problems. Top and bottom setting can be the same as in
concrete beam in the concrete pre-stressing tendons, to resist bending tensile stress. If you
need to layout curved pre-stressing, can take the form of externally pre-stressed. Fig. 7.14
is Frances La Ferte Saint-Aubin bridge, Web is made of 12 mm thick steel plate.
In addition to simple-supported beam, beam in the other bridge types is likely to take
different directions in different sectors of the moment, such as continuous beam across
sectors bear the positive moment, while the middle pier near Liang Duancheng charged
moment, which made it possible for both upper and lower beam flange pulling force.
Prevention of crack in the tension zone of the concrete in tension becomes the key to the
design. Solution to this problem is in the concrete pre-stressed plate. Pre-stressing in
several different ways, direct approach within the board or boards by pre-stressed
reinforced, after bent steel beams can also be poured concrete slab and then release the
Pre-flex pre-stressed indirect approaches.
Fig. 7.10 Reinforcements in reinforced glass works only after cracks have occurred.
Fig. 7.11 The serious corrosion of concrete has lost it protection of steel bars.
Fig. 7.13 Donghai cable-stayed bridge main girder cross section at main navigation span
(unit: cm).
Reduce the shrinkage and creep of concrete is one way to solve this problem. Thus,
compression zone of concrete slabs, pre-fabricated stored for more than 6 months after,
then erected on a steel beam, after watering or watering hole after using shear studs and
beams connected. During storage the shrinkage of concrete have completed most,
meanwhile, loaded due to age-long concrete total SEO variables will also be reduced
(smaller values of the creep coefficient). Fig. 7.15 shows a composite girder cable-stayed
bridge of main girder erection process. Concrete bridge decks was built on top of main
beam, connecting with steel beam through post-casting gap.
In addition, erecting steel girders of steel beams can also take advantage of
characteristics of light weight and easy to set up, bridge erection is relatively easy to set up
steel beam erection of concrete plate bracket, saves the construction cost. Fig. 7.16 shows
a Switzerland composite continuous beam bridge (Vaux Viaduct) construction process,
ranging through the valleys of the bridge part is 62 m + 130 m + 16 m + 130 m + 62 m +
45 m un-uniformed span continuous beam, light variable-height steel girders set to the
bridge using incremental launching method , on top of which pre-fabricated concrete
bridge deck pavement was then installed. Because it is a continuous beam, stretching in
the middle pier top of concrete has longitudinal pre-stressing to resist the negative
moments pre-stressed concrete slabs and steel beams stretching before you connect.
Between steel and less concrete due to shrinkage and creep of concrete stress redistribution is the another way, through the gauge steel can withstand shear and
longitudinal freely, without impeding the shrinkage and creep of concrete, eliminating
stress distributions. Corrugated webs of beams under this is the design of the product.
Fig. 7.15 Composite girder cable-stayed bridge main girder erection process.
Figure 7.17 is the France Cognac bridge. It is a continuous box girder bridge, the top
and bottom was pre-stressed concrete, and webs were converted wave shape steel web
plate. Because quality steel hummocky, with almost no longitudinal stiffness, but can take
on shear, it exerted on the beam all by in vivo and in vitro on pre-stressed concrete, and
long-term creep will not be cause between steel and concrete, should re-distribution of
gravity. In addition, the transverse stiffness of corrugated webs than steel, so it can be
without stiffener, drastically reduces the effect work intensity.
Fig. 7.16 Switzerland Vaux Viaduct (size: m) (a) General arrangement; (b) Steel beam
push process; (c) Cross-section.
concrete filled steel tube to form a triangle box girder. Waveform similar constraints on
the concrete roof of the web role is very small, while steel tube on the bottom plate can
take triangle box girder torsional capacity enhancement, as shown in Fig. 7.18.
continuous girder of approach spans are all used steel trusses concrete slab composite
section.
Steel industry is one of the major forces driving the development of composite
structure, together with engineers, they produce suitable for shaped steel beams of
composite section beams and accessories, thus greatly lowering the cost of steel parts
manufacturing. For example, the wave plates, large beams and so on. As shown in Fig.
7.21 Japans engineers worked with Mills to develop specialised in the production of
composite beams of steel, such as steel pipe, grooved girder. By contrast, there are no steel
mills in China to develop such product.
Fig. 7.21 Composite beams of steel (a) pipe; (b) u-channel steel.
In addition to the composite section beam, pillar can also be use the composite section.
Main steel casing filled with concrete piers cross-section. The advantages are: on the one
hand, column surface plate can effectively resist tensile stress to prevent cracking of
concrete on the other, steel housings can be used as scaffolds and templates, save on
construction costs. Fig. 7.22 is the towers of the Akashi bridge and selection programme,
which section is divided into many compartments of the steel casing filled with concrete
to form a composite section.
Most of cable-stayed bridge tower for eccentric compression member, can be built
with concrete, but at the top of the tower cable anchorage area, in addition to vertical
under the pressure, but also bear the main span and side spans of cable horizontal force on
the pull. This concrete tower columns, use negative, there are two ways to take the level of
tension. One is the main span and side spans of cable pylon cross, horizontal tension
transformed into compression, the benefits of doing so are tower anchorage zone of
volume can be reduced, unfavourable place is the primary span and side spans of cable
transverse does not meet at a single point, towers assumed local torque and bolt-head is
exposed. Another way of dealing with is the use of hollow towers, inclined cable
anchorage in the transverse direction of towers and walls. Advantage to this is the main
side spans of cable anchor fixed on the same plane, bridge overall reasonable strength,
disadvantage is, ask for installed in the tower stayed, poor construction, the Tower post
jamb to bear pulling force. Resist the pull of the tower within the walls, there are two
methods: one is the tower walls arranged in circumferential pre-stressed, the parties law
pre-stressing loss in the tower there is the risk of cracking and another method is the use of
steel and concrete composite sections, borne by the concrete vertical pressure, inflict
horizontal force on steel.
Fig. 7.22 Towers of the Akashi bridge and selection programme (size: mm) (a)
Combination of tower column cross-section formed schematics; (b) Akashi bridge tower
selection scheme details.
Fig. 7.23 Nromandie bridge, France pylon anchorage zone of tectonic (elevation units: m;
dimensions unit: mm).
Figure 7.23 shows the Nromandie bridge, France pylon anchorage zone structure. The
main span of the bridge is 856 m, embedded in the concrete wall undertake longitudinal
tension of steel anchor box, the vertical force passing through shear studs to tower on a
concrete, towers and concrete in the transverse direction is divided into two pieces of steel
anchor box and tower configurations within circumferential pre-stressing of concrete to
cover of steel anchor box passed over by shear studs vertical pull.
Figure 7.24 is Rion-Antirion Bridge bridge pylon anchorage zone structure, its
construction principle are the same as Nromandie bridge.
Figure 7.25 shows Chinas Su Tong bridge constructed of steel anchor box, full of
steel anchor box embedded in a closed hollow concrete towers columns, analysis showed
that, due to the rigidity of steel anchor box is not infinite, under the action of horizontal
forces of cable-stayed, transverse to the tower wall side will produce a horizontal force,
under the most unfavourable conditions reach the level of concrete cracking, for
overcoming the cracking of concrete failure profit impact tower configuration with more
conventional bars in concrete walls to spread the crack, crack width control in a certain
fan within the surrounding.
Fig. 7.26 The Hong Kong Ting Kau Bridge pylon anchorage zone of tectonic (size: m) (a)
Pylon anchorage zone profile; (b) Pylon anchorage zone of cross-sectional; (c) Pylon
anchorage zone of longitudinal and transverse section; (d) Steel-anchor-box.
In addition to forming of steel and concrete composite section outside and other tensile
properties of materials can also be combined with a concrete section. Fig. 7.27 shows the
Brazil of a form of composite section beams and concrete log bridge, bridge of long-span
12 m. Fig. 7.28 shows the connection structure of wood and concrete. As Brazil is rich in
wood, it is a bold attempt.
Fig. 7.27 Timber-concrete composite beam (unit: m) (a) Bridge deck cross-section; (b)
Deck top.
2. Combination of Architecture
Structure of the different sections with different materials, can achieve weight reduction,
cost savings, speed of construction purposes.
Figure 7.29 is the layout of vertical and cross-section of the bridge of France
Normandy bridge. Main span 856 m span of was the worlds large cable-stayed bridge
across the Seine river, straddling the river, a condition of small-span bridge, so the side
span of cable-stayed bridge and the main from the towers out of 116 m concrete span
section, middle main span of steel box girder. This reduces cross-main beam weight (beam
9 t/m, if we adopt the concrete beam 45 t/m), save cable costs, while reducing the side
span length, not only saves the cost side, more auxiliary supporting piers also greatly
increases the stiffness of the main span. To section integration one side span concrete
beam and steel box girder of main span is selected the same shape.
Fig. 7.29 The layout of vertical and cross-section of Normandy bridge, France.
Chongqing shibanpo Yangtze river double-line bridge of shibanpo Changjiang River
Bridge in old in order to coordinate needs to build 330 m of main span continuous rigid
frame bridge. Large-span pre-stressed concrete continuous rigid-frame bridge, due to the
weight of main girder set degree, will produce a great deal of bending moments and shear
forces, previous bridge built, there have been many cracks. In order to avoid these
problems, Mr Man-Chung Tang in the cross-section of steel beam scheme span weight
sets in due to the decrease of 330 m master looked back only the equivalent of 270 m of
long span continuous rigid-frame span bending moment of pre-stressed concrete
continuous rigid frame and the 270 m long-span pre-stressed concrete continuous rigid
frame is built of precedents, so programme set up as shown in Fig. 7.30.
Chongqing caiyuanba Yangtze River Bridge Is a span of 88 m + 102 m + 420 m + 102
m + 88 m supporting system arch bridge, due to terrain features, has selected a span across
the main channel of the programme. Side span on river banks and in shallow water area,
reducing the span can reduce costs, and eliminates side pillars, aesthetic values. In order to
balance the weight of the main span of the bridge above the main arch with steel box
section, below the side spans and bridge main span arch using concrete cross-section, as
shown in Fig. 7.31.
Fig. 7.30 Changjiang Shibanpo River Bridge double-line bridge (a) Main spans 330 m; (b)
Of steel beams and reinforced concrete beams load distribution map; (c) The cross beam
lifting system schematics; (d) Across the beam of the lifting process.
Fig. 7.31 Caiyuanba Yangtze River Bridge (a) general arrangement; (b) rendering.
Rebar connecting through steel plates welded bent into various shapes of reinforcing
steel bar and concrete form of connection, when steel-tired gauge length is long enough,
the bond between reinforcing steel bar and concrete enough to make steel and concrete
work. The strength of the connection depends on in between steel and steel plate welding
strength and yield strength of rebar. Reinforced connections are well suited to bridge
construction site operations steel bending in the form of a ring, spiral-shaped, as in Fig.
7.32(c) shown below.
Steel connection in steel channels and angles, such as welding on steel and concrete
with the connection, it works with the same principle as that of shear studs. Due to steel
and steel plate stiffness of connection, even in the absence of bond between steel and
concrete, steel plate and mix slip between the concrete is very small, so called rigid
connection, as shown in Fig. 7.32(b) shown below.
Fig. 7.32 Connector structure (a) Cylinder head Stud connectors (b) Grooved steel
connectors (c) bent steel connectors.
Perforated plate is the use of steel concrete between steel and concrete in the hole
forces a new connection forms along the steel beam vertical connecting plates can be set
through holes on steel, can also do not set through steel bars. This connection is first
proposed by Leonhardt and others in 1987, Japan got a lot of research and applications.
Study shows that holes in the mix concrete has great dowel action and its ultimate
destruction is the hole in the shear failure of reinforced concrete, and are not subject to the
effects of fatigue. At present, specification is basically not open cell provide for the shear
capacity of steel plate calculated basically based on test an empirical formula.
Fig. 7.33 Shows the shear plate and concrete bolted connections with perforated sheet.
transfer request is complicated, passing some major moments, some to transfer of shear to
be passing moments. Connections between different components the construction
convenience is a major factor must be taken into account in the design of these factors.
Resistance of shear connections can still use the above forms, bridge of steel-concrete
composite joints many openings plate form, in addition to passing moments, to be
configured in the concrete and steel members connections pre or pre stressed bars.
Fig. 7.34 Shibanpo bridge of steel-concrete composite connection point (size unit: mm)
(a) steel and concrete connecting structures; (b) in the connection section of perforated
steel plate (c) connect steel beams install.
Chongqing Shibanpo bridge of steel-concrete composite joints made of perforated
steel plate connections structure with pre-stressed joint. Because in the middle-section of
steel beam from a major, if the steel beams cantilevered cast-suspended in the air and
concrete connection, a long time, the operation is difficult. Steel beam end connection
section is separate from the main production, fixed on a concrete cantilever and hoisting of
steel girders in place connect directly with welding, so that after hoisting into place the
field connection workload has been greatly reduced, ensuring the safety and quality of
construction. Fig. 7.34 is slate slope construction and connection of steel beams of the
bridge connecting hole on plate. Perforated steel embedded in concrete connections steel
beam connections with perforated steel plate welded and tensioned, main hoisting of steel
girders in place welded to steel beam connections.
Fig. 7.37 Glass City Skyway main Bridge facades (unit: mm).
Fig. 7.38 Glass City Skyway main bridge tower facades and cross-section (unit: m).
Located in the United States city of Toledo, Ohio, Glass across the Maumee river City
Skyway Bridge is a two-span 186.69 m single-cable-plane cable-stayed bridge with single
tower, bridge width reaches 38.814 m, as shown in Fig. 7.37. In order to make the bridge a
new landmark of the city, and aesthetic requirements bridge scheme is one of the main
factors to be considered when, so choose a simple, single-cable multi-tower cable-stayed
bridge. Due to large, cable forces of cable-stayed, the maximum cable required 156 root
75 steel wire Fig. 7.38. If the pylon anchorage cable on both sides, the giant large
horizontal force would make the Tower size increased a lot. To solve this problem, the
design continuously through the pylon of cable-stayed bridge saddles, saddle structure as
in Fig. 7.39. Saddle consists of a series of small diameter 25 mm stainless steel tubes, each
pipe through a steel wire, all the small pipe wrapped in a big stainless steel tube closed at
both ends, filling in the casing strength 34.5 MPa cement slurries, as strand completely in
parallel through the tower, successfully resolved the hawser asks not bending with small
radius problem. Due to this critical structures, towers using solid cross-section tower size
was greatly reduced, and because tower anchorage zone stress is very small, the
reinforcement is greatly simplified. Simple anchoring provides conditions for the area is
decorated with glass towers.
Fig. 7.39 Glass City Skyway main Bridge facades (unit: mm).
Effect of cyclic loads on the bridge is mainly reflected in the vibration caused by
fatigue and dynamic amplification sides. Dynamic role in addition to loads itself with
relations, also associated with the natural frequency of the structure. When the structure of
the natural vibration frequency cyclic loading of frequencies or frequency multiplier with
the outside world came near, the resonance structure occurs, power amplification is more
obvious, and even dynamic instability. Therefore, the reduction of dynamic characteristics
of the destruction of the bridge from the following two aspects: one is to change the
structure of vibration characteristics, so that it is not easy for the outer resonance
excitation effect; the second is increase passivation measures, reduce the destruction of the
dynamic load capacity.
Damping will be eliminate the vibration energy and, therefore, increased damping to
reduce vibrations caused by knots effective measure to frame failure. Increase the
damping is the most direct way to set the dampers, and stayed increased cable damper
design has become a usual cable vibration reduction measures. Simple damping is to fill
rubber damping material between the cable and the girder sleeve through which the cable
runs. Currently focused on the design of hydraulic damper in cable has been widely,
hydraulic damper of damping ratio can be set as desired. Fig. 7.42 is a hydraulic damper
and its installation on the cable.
Fig. 7.42 Hydraulic damper (a) hydraulic dampers; (b) position on damper in cable.
If yield would also eliminate the vibration of structure, in the traditional concept of
structure is not allowed to succumb, even under the earthquake forces as well. But if fruit
intends to make some minor component at design time in the strong earthquake occurred
while yielding to remove earthquake input of energy, you can protect the main structure,
and these secondary structures after earthquake can be replaced. This is a design under the
performance-based seismic design idea.
New East San Francisco Bay Bridge is to replace the existing San Francisco East Bay
Bridge self-anchored suspension bridge, east of the existing bridge is a steel truss bridge,
the 1989, San Francisco earthquake partially damaged it, according to estimates, the
bridge could not meet a future anti-earthquake requirements, and reinforcement of cost is
very high, so to build a new Bay Bridge. East San Francisco Bay Bridge Fig. 7.43 is a
single-tower self-anchored suspension bridges, with the main span of 385 m Bridge is
based on conditions across the deepwater channel decision, due to the aesthetic
requirements of the local population, they do not want portal pylon, but single-column.
Huge deck suspended on a single column, in the earthquake zone pylon seismic
requirements it is difficult to foot, so designer Mr Man-Chung Tang limited destruction
dissipation solution.
The whole tower is divided into four branches, and shear plate connection between
each other. Battened usually tower of limbs even as a whole so that they work together to
resist the live load moments. And under strong earthquake forces, these panels will
surrender, to the Council the role of protecting the main structure of full bridge was
destroyed, as shown in Fig. 7.44.
Fig. 7.43 The new San Francisco Bay Bridge East Facade layout (size: m).
Fig. 7.44 East San Francisco Bay Bridge Tower columns with shear keys (size unit: mm)
(a) Tower column cross-section; (b) Cross-section diagram of bridge; (c) Finite element
simulation of the shear yield.
Canada Confederation Bridge was built-in the North Atlantic Winter sea ice, ice floes
in spring alongwith the currents hit the pier, to prevent crashed ice bridge becomes the key
to bridge design. Resist ice impact directly through strengthening the piers, but it will
greatly increased. Designers through thematic studies and designed the ice structure. Ice
shield is set in sea-level location on the pier slope, when ice floes rammed into a pier at
sheet lifted, under the action of gravity, crushed ice, eliminating the impact of ice energy,
as shown in Fig. 7.45. This is a unique example of a design of energy dissipation.
Table 7.1 Chemical composition and mechanical properties of common stainless steel
reinforcement of the concrete.
Steel
grade
304
304L
Mechanical properties
Cr Ni Mo C
N
(max)
19 9.5
0.08
19 10
0.03
550
296
55
316
17 12 2.5 0.08
584
240
60
316L
17 12 2.5 0.03
536
296
55
2205
22 5
721
508
30
0.03 0.14
2. Ease of Construction
Ultimately to be achieved through the construction of bridge design, construction quality
depends to a large extent on the ease of construction, must fully take into account the
difficulty of construction of complex components to ensure reliable operation.
Construction technology of inclined cable fully reflects the ease of application
development requirements. Early parallel wires of cable-stayed bridges in applying on-site
production, wire wears into the PE sleeve anchor head is installed, completion of cable
tensioning sleeve grouting cement slurry. Because on-site production, pouring cement in
hard dense near the anchor head, causing cable durability is greatly reduced. Some of our
cable-stayed operating for 10 years or so, only had to replace the bridge cables. In order to
solve the problem of construction of cable-stayed, Japan engineers invented the hot
extrusion PE sleeve, semi-parallel wire cables. On the factory floor by hot-extruding PE
sleeve wrap in wire, so quality of wire corrosion greatly improved. In order to facilitate
transport from factory to construction site of cable, parallel wire twisted 7, make cables
in elastic modulus case of not more than the amount, you can pan in the roller. This cable
has become mainstream. After further increases as bridge of long-span, inclined cable
diameter and weight increased significantly, even if it is difficult to transport in the roller.
In order to solve this problem, France freyssinet company has invented a single-unit
parallel tensioning steel strand cables. PE sleeve is first installed in the cable position and
comes with PE wrapping the steel strands one-by-one, into the scene PE sleeve and pull
and then filling in the sleeve preservative, antiseptic liquid can be replaced during
operation. This not only solves the problem of transport and long cable tension, and
improved anti-corrosive measures, than the early filling water mud corrosion reliability is
greatly increased. Fig. 7.46 for the construction of Qingzhou Minjiang bridge in the cable.
Forming technology of post-tensioned, pre-stressed pipe to improve ease of
application examples. Pullout difficult extubation process, and pipe friction losses, and
thus, invented the process of formation of metal corrugated pipe, pre-stressing pipeline
construction difficulty is greatly reduced. Easily leakage of metal corrugated pipe
plugging, to reduce the reliability of pre-stressed and piping grout is not easy compacting.
In order to solve these problems, plastic corrugated pipe was invented. Plastic corrugated
pipe heat welding long pipe except at the ends, completely sealed and this will be greatly
reduce the problem of pipeline leakage, but also makes it possible to vacuum mud.
3. Ease of Inspection
Bridge component is not yet quantified the relationship between influencing factors and
durability, so used to periodically check necessary measures to ensure durable security.
Durability is the main controlling factor for the bridge components, such as steel
components, cable anchor head, base, telescopic devices, must be checked frequently, so
that should be considered when designing the future convenience of checks, reserved
check condition.
For steel girder bridge, in order to facilitate corrosion inspection and using stage
additional coatings, conditions should be set up in the breast can be moved check the
platform.
Figure 7.47 is the Hong Kong Ting Kau Bridge cable connection to the steel-concrete
composite girder structure. Cable through the ear plate of steel and steel beam connections
anchor layout above deck, exposed to make inspection engineers can directly see the
anchor, but also easy to check operation.
Fig. 7.47 Stay cable bridge with steel-concrete composite main Beam coupling
construction.
Early concrete cable-stayed bridge cable, tie-bar arch bridge suspender using
prestressed anchor head first method of protection, anchor embedded in concrete.
However, as some cable-stayed bridge and tie-bar arch bridge suspender rust accident
happened, cables and cranes rod corrosion check of a great importance. Operation found
buried in concrete in the anchor head is difficult to check, thus, the designed cables or
lifting anchor head is exposed and protection sleeve design, protective cover removable
for easy checking.
Figure 7.48 for the Ting Kau Bridge, Tsing Yi Bridge section, beam of cable-stayed
bridge with steel hinge, for ease of maintenance, support week edge design are taken into
account in the operating room.
Fig. 7.48 Ting Kau Bridge, Tsing Yi Bridge side profiles (unit: m).
4. Replacement Measures
Expected component needs to be replaced during use must be set aside for replacement
measures, apart from the detachable component itself, but also to reserve replacement
operation of points and space.
Cables and Suspender cable supported bridges due to fatigue and corrosion problems,
you must in the use of a certain number of years after the replacement, so in addition to
cable replacement must be considered in the design of bringing mechanical problems,
would also like to reserve some operational measures. Fig. 7.49 is Runyang bridge hang
Sola Panel, set on plate for use temporary suspender suspenders bolt holes.
replacement should be reserved to the desired position and space. This requirements are
generally achieved by setting a certain altitude bearing pads stone. Rubber bearing
thickness is generally only a few centimeters to more than 10 cm2, pier capping beam top
surface usually sets the support cushion stone to spread the concentrated force of the
support and levelling supports to the base. Early design bridge beam pads stone height
10~15 cm only, only clearance between the top of piers and abutments and breast 10~20
cm, unable to place jacks, with other temporary support to point beam replacement
bearings must be jacked up. In order to facilitate future replacement bearings should be
top of coping and bottom surface of the beam reservation placed between beams held up
the Jack of the space, which can be easily realised through the raised seat cushion stone
height, usually beams gap bottom top of the coping above 50 cm.
yet before the closure of main girders, to pass all the dead load of the horizontal force to
the main section near Liang Tagen. This makes cross-level recovery is not installed front,
beam is broken. In order to solve this problem, Gimsing in conceiving and devising this
programme, a professor at the same time, proposed in the span middle and around the
pylon-girder construction method for installation at the same time, across horizontal
cables can be installed at the same time, as shown in Fig. 7.51. You can see from this
example, bridge in bridge design and construction technology of relationships.
Fig. 7.50 Partially anchored cable-stayed bridge with intermediate horizontal cables.
shallow water, and limited capacity of lifting equipment, the use of bridge girder erection
machine segmental construction, while 43-hole-by-holes and assembling construction of
cross-sea bridge, the large floating crane Swan, used in the construction of hoisting the
most large lifting quality 7500t.
Construction of the bridge is the main feature of the bridge pier foundation, including
all components are used, including the assembly of pre-fabricated construction
technology, components pre-fabricated in the factory, the west shore of the prefabricated,
pre-cast steam curing, insure uninterrupted during the cold winter. In order to make the
base and piers using the installation process, designed using underwater foundation
programme, is also the basis of pre-fabricated expanded by floating crane floating
transported to the bridge, placed directly on the sea-bed. In order to expand the foundation
level, expanding the bottom surface of the base is set three blocks. Figure 7.52 is disecting
views of bridges pre-cast components. Expansion base was mainly used in the
construction of land bridges, and the bridge because the environment element assembling
process must be used, so the geological conditions of spread foundation under the water, is
a bold idea. In order to piers pre-cast completely, the pier and the base is divided into two
sections of pre-fabricated, using tooth-shaped tenon joints, avoiding the wet joint
assembly, simplifies the assembly process. While the main beam is divided into only two
cantilevers and weigh upto 7,500t 1,200t of hanging two large paragraphs complete set
equipment, greatly simplifies the assembly process. Of course that are inseparable from
the large lifting equipment.
Fig. 7.52 Confederation Bridge (a) lifting of main block division; (b) West approach of
lifting pieces divided; (c) hoisting the east approach spans of segmented.
Fig. 7.53 Rion-antirion Bridge (size: m) (a) river section (b) pylon structure (c)
infrastructure.
Foregoing Greece for 4 towers connected across Rion-Antirion bridge cable-stayed
bridge, bridge is located in water depths of 65 m. In such deep water bridge base is a
technical challenge. Commonly used scheme for large-scale deep water bridge foundation
or the open caisson foundation of pile, but construction works of the foundation in such a
deep sea water is very difficult. Therefore, the foundation uses the innovative design of
this bridge and under the sea construction of large foundation. Undersea site is soft
foundation of bridge site, in order to enhance bearing capacity and to broaden the base of
foundation intensive short break into piles, each base consists of 250, (25~30 m long) steel
pipe piles, within 7~8 m, as shown in Fig. 7.53.
Such a large expansion is located to the bottom of the process is a bold and innovative
ideas. Used floating under water sinking craft. 90 m diameter, expansion chassis is
designed to be separated into many compartments sealed hollow box, box at the coast
stratified placement within the excavation dry dock, dry dock can be poured two base
chassis. When you finish pouring the pier at the bottom of section, bring water in the dry
dock, the chassis can emerge, dragged into the sea. Dry dock once again closed after
pouring two pier foundations chassis. Continue pouring the piers on floating on the sea
bottom, high piers at the same time, the chassis underneath due to the weight of the piers
over the sea floor. When high piers reach to a certain height, floating in the waters of
spread foundation and was towed to pierthe pier continued to pour concrete. When the
pier to board after a pier height, infusion in the chassis and the basis of hollow pier, sea
piers to the effect of gravity located under pile reinforced seabed. At this point, the
foundations and piers built entirely, you can continue up bridge tower in construction. Fig.
7.54 shows in dry dock in the pouring of the foundation and completion of prefabricated
base being dragged out of dry dock.
Fig. 7.54 Rion-Antirion bridge Foundation construction (a) Dry docking base chassis; (b)
Based chassis out of dry dock.
As Chinas economic development and technological progress to build the bridge,
construction of bridge over the sea requirement has become reality. In our country in
recent years building Donghai bridge, Hangzhou Bay Cross-Sea Bridge, the island project
in Zhoushan Jintang bridge, Qingdao haiwan bridge and a number of cross-Sea Bridge.
These bridges across dozens of kilometers of distance on the sea, no land construction,
erection method of bridge beam design of the most important factors to be considered.
These cross-sea bridges across the shallow water or mud flat, little depth, in addition to the
navigation needs set outside the large-span bridge, the remaining bridge were determined
by the economy and duration, economy and duration depends mainly on the erection
process and equipment capacity.
East China Sea Bridge was built-in Chinas first cross-Sea Bridge a total length of 32.5
km. Full bridge in addition to the two main navigation span stayed-cable three auxiliary
navigation opening bridge, using cantilever construction continuous girder bridge with
variable cross-section, but rest all used the height of continuous beam bridge of bridge
spans. Deep sea Part is a 70 m long-span continuous beam using monolithic construction
technology of hoisting, simple support into continuous erection. Shallow Ford parts is a 50
m long-span continuous beam using movable frame hole-by-hole in situ process set up.
Hangzhou Bay Bridge is the worlds longest sea-crossing bridge, full length 36 km, the
two main navigation span cable-stayed bridge, North Channel size 448 m, navigable span
South 318 m, and the remaining 30~80 m span continuous girder of bridge spans. Deep
part with 70 m span sea part is a 70 m long-span continuous beam using monolithic
construction technology of hoisting, simple support into continuous erection. Shallow
sections dominated by 50 m long-span continuous beam using shift formwork lifting holeby-hole (beam girder) in process and beaches part dominated by 30 m long-span
continuous beam.
Island project in Zhoushan Jintang bridge is 26.54 km, 620 m steel girder cable-stayed
bridge of main navigation span for span east navigable Kong Wei 216 m span prestressed
continuous rigid-frame and navigation span 156 m span continuous girders in the west, the
majority of non-navigable spans of 60~70 m continuous beam, using full span pre-cast
hoisting erection process.
In order to guarantee period, several bridges are used in this installation process.
Because the water is not very deep, use of driven pile foundation. Had intended to use pre-
cast pre-stressed concrete pipe piles for Donghai bridge Fig. 7.55(a), but after some time it
was found that prestressed concrete pipe pile head could be easily crushed, thereafter only
steel pipe piles were used. Two other bridge was used to break into steel tube pile bases
Fig. 7.55(c). Steel bottom sealing concrete of pile construction technology, is only one onsite placement of full-bridge construction pieces. Piers precast hoisting technology of
watering down the seam and pile connection Figs. 7.55(b), (d). Superstructure of
continuous beam effects lifting or moving die carrier cast uses technology, to
accommodate construction of water over long distances. The deep water area, you can use
large floating cranes, floating cranes of lifting capacity of 2,500 t, therefore, constructed
using the 60~70 m long-span continuous beam, 70 m lifting the quality of whole hole
2180t Figs. 7.55(e), (f). Inaccessible to large ships in shallow water, we must use the
already built piers erection of main girder. Uses 50 m long-span continuous girder of
Hangzhou Bay Bridge, box girders with large girder transport vehicle has been set up on
the deck of transported to the bridge using erector erection Figs. 7.55(g), (h). 50 m
continuous girders of Donghai bridge using the moving die carrier cast new construction
technology. Due to the number of number of main girders, piers, during the process of prefabricated steel banding used pre-fabricated in the workshop, whole casting process,
makes efficient use of templates is greatly increased.
Fig. 7.55 Donghai bridge and Bay Bridge assembling process. (a) Pre-stressed concrete
pipe piles for Donghai bridge; (b) Donghai bridge precast concrete piers within the field;
(c) Steel pipe piles of Hangzhou Bay sea-crossing bridge; (d) Hangzhou Bay cross-sea
bridge pier and pile Cap docking; (e) Prefabricated at the bar as a whole into the mold of
the Hangzhou Bay Bridge; (f) 70 m spans of Donghai bridge girder integral lifting; (g)
Box girder of Hangzhou Bay Bridge from the ground onto decks; (h) Hangzhou bay
Bridge 1,600t bridge girders.
Massive construction of railway passenger dedicated line, design speed of 200~350
km/h, rail ride quality is very high, when completed should consider not only the situation,
while also taking into account the long-term deformation results. Therefore, requires a
long-term commitment and total not more than 30 mm of deflection, and the 20 m range
of uneven settlement not exceeding 20 mm. Such a high demand for soft soil foundation
and roadbed filling height exceeds the 5 m section is unable to achieve, so these sections
needed to bridge road design, which increase the proportion of railway bridges in
passenger dedicated lines in length, average total route length of bridge 36%. Using bridge
instead of road bridge generally do not require long span, span size depends on the cost of
the superstructure and substructure cost balance, also depend on the time, equipment,
capacity, and other factors. Track extensive use of bridge construction period will become
the main controlling factor for the construction of passenger, fast bridge becomes a
problem that must be solved. Increasing the speed of bridge erection methods there are
several. One is framing a comprehensive workers, this approach requires a lot of support,
templates, and human, and cannot turnover. II is the use of large precast technology this
requires fast and efficient precast plant, as well as large girder erecting equipment. In
order to solve this problem, in railway-related research and after a long exploration in
engineering units, develop criteria for passenger bridges in China were32 m, 24 m, 20
m, span post-tensioning method pre-stressed concrete simply supported box beam Fig.
7.56. Three kinds of standard double-track box beam with long span 899t, 699t, 562t,
respectively, using the whole construction technology of pre-cast hoisting, transport, in
order to achieve the goal of rapid construction. Primarily in pre-cast box beams prefabricated in the factory, through the beam girder approach transport to beam, then
through the erection of bridge girder erection machine. Set of process of pre-fabricated,
transport, installation and operation process as well as the equipment required.
Fig. 7.56 Passenger dedicated line 32 m double line box girder cross-section (unit: cm) (a)
Cross-section; (b) Pivot section.
Fig. 7.57 Segmental assembly (a) MSS segmental process diagram; (b) Assembled in the
box girder segments; (c) Assembled after the completion of box girders; (d) United States
New Roosevelt Bridge section connecting the alveolar.
Viaduct is a form of using bridge instead of road bridge, also built on the land bridge,
but in most cases were of short and medium span bridges. Viaduct on the original roadbuilding, bridges while maintaining traffic flow on existing roads, construction site
became one of the important factors controlling the bridge construction. Pre-fabricated
lifting is one way to solve space problems, on structure in pre-fabricated in the factory on
the outskirts of the city, transport to the night-time traffic in smaller times of bridge crane
loading. Large viaducts have greater width and weight, full span transport is impossible
within the urban area. Early trestle used longitudinally parting methods, such as hollow
slabs or t-beams, a piece on a girder bridge by lateral ties after, if the Shanghai inner ring
viaduct is basically take the form of hollow plate and t-shaped beam. Practice: using
fabricated hollow panels, weak bridge horizontal linkages, prone to bridge longitudinal
crack, instead of t-beams, easy lateral during transport. Box-girder of the landscape as a
whole is good, but the city will not be the whole set up. One approach is the use of full
space supports in situ, doing covers, time consuming and inefficient. Another approach is
to use a horizontal parting of the ways pre-cast segmental. Segmental assembly mounted
on large movable scaffold, pre-cast segmental transportation to the site temporarily
supported on brackets, all sections install in place, with tendons into the whole. As shown
in Fig. 7.57(a), (b), (c). In order to ensure the reliable segment connections, segmental sets
can occlude each other tooth and section after section of the front end with back-end of the
previous segment as a template and even pre-fabricated continued, as in Fig. 7.57(d)
shown below.
Construction technology of large-span cable-stayed cantilever, while its system is also
particularly suitable for cantilever construction, it is a cable-stayed bridge to get an
important factor in promoting. In certain cases, however, erection of other methods, such
as pushing makes it well adapted to land condition.
Completed in 2004, France Millau Viaduct, needs across the Tarn River Valley,
connecting both sides of the highlands, in the valley, for soft soil foundation, basis in order
to reduce the workload, select 8-span cable-stayed bridge scheme, span into 204 m + 6
342 m + 204 m, due to the high bridge pier using taliang DUN consolidation system, as
shown in Fig. 7.58. This bridge with a large span across the Valley, high, very high and
pier (2 pier of 245 m, 3 high pier of bridge deck pavement of bridge deck of high 230 m),
cantilever erection difficulties, you need to set the lifting so much so, boldly using pushinstallation technology of main beam, girder in place before you install pylons and cables.
The main beam, for adapting to the incremental launching construction, used single-cableplane with small base width (only 4 m) inverted trapezoidal cross section, and bridge deck
width of 32.05 m (Including wind up), at the intersection of bottom and inclined plate set
longitudinal clapboard to support push reaction forces in the process, as shown in Fig.
7.59.
Fig. 7.60 Construction of the Millau Viaduct (a) Pushing the Millau Viaduct girder in; (b)
On the tower is straight in the course of construction.
Can be seen from the examples described above, in order to adapt to different
environments to build the bridge, flexible mounting method must be used, not what
approach to what type of bridge is mechanically. In exceptional cases, possible mounting
methods, in turn also affect bridges set design scheme. Therefore, good bridge engineers
must master the technical principles in different contexts in order to work out alone and
practical design and construction program.
accuracy, manual operation is affected by skills, attitudes, and the use of automated
equipment operation ensures that each time the error levels remain stable; and, finally, use
equipment to detect structural parameters that cannot be directly observed by humans, lots
of testing equipment help engineers to check the quality of construction.
Fig. 7.63 Swan at of lifting work (a) Confederation Bridge erection; (b) Cresund in
hoisting Bridge approach bridge.
During the course of construction of Donghai bridge, designed and built the four
airlines to forge ahead and little Swan, and two large floating crane, are dedicated to
marine construction crane.
CCCCs four sail endeavour has jib crane, with lifting capacity of 2,600t, 100 m in
length, width 41 m, 7.6 m in depth, its most prominent feature is the lifting heights of upto
80 m, as shown in Fig. 7.64(b), box girder cable-stayed bridge at main navigation span of
Donghai bridge The four airlines to forge ahead was lifting. The floating crane with
strong number only has a lifting capability, must have a beam barges together.
Iron bridge Engineering Bureau for 70 m box girders of Donghai bridge erection
construction of little Swan crane ship, using a Swan design ideas, you can beam lifted
themselves after, dont need to beam barges together. Disadvantage of doing so is that the
floating crane to transport contains the main beam navigation in bridge longer in length,
floating crane used less efficiently. Little Swan lifting capacity of 2,500t, maximum
lifting height 41 m, wide 7 m, as shown in Fig. 7.65 (a). In order to set up district 70 m of
box girder of Hangzhou Bay Bridge high pier, built iron bridge Engineering Bureau a
floating crane. Day one, also is lifting one floating crane, lifting capacity of 3,000t, the
maximum lifting height upto 53 m. On the bridge erection is complete it can also be
converted into a jib crane for other hydraulic lifting operations. Due to day one
construction, during the construction of the Shanghai Yangtze River tunnel and bridge,
bridge using steel-concrete composite beam of long span 105 m, quality 2350t, saving
foundation price, achieved better economic results, as shown in Fig. 7.65(b).
Fig. 7.64 The large floating cranes strong and four sail endeavour (a) vigorously in
the East China Sea Bridge erection; (b) four airlines to forge ahead in the Jintang bridge
erection.
Fig. 7.65 The large floating cranes little Swan and day one (a) little Swan in lifting
70 m box girders of Donghai bridge; (b) day in the Shanghai Yangtze River tunnel and
bridge erection 105 m box beam.
Long span bridge was built on the water, in order to guarantee period, use of driven
pile foundation. Built-in China in the East China Sea Bridge of Hangzhou Gulf bridge
cross-Sea Bridge, due to the bridges long, tight, in addition to several main navigation
channel bridge piers using basically the basis of a bored pile into steel pipe foundation.
Hangzhou Bay Bridge, a total of 1.5 m, 1.6 m diameter steel 5144 pipe piles, maximum
depth of 88 m, such a large number of large steel pipe pile must have big effective pile
driving equipment to complete. Piling on the water must be done with the pile driver, in
order to build offshore long bridge and coastal Marina, China has built several of the
worlds most advanced driving boats in recent years. Common characteristics of these
floating pile driver is: pile high, 90 m above, can sink into the 80 m the length of the pile
diameter, the biggest pile diameter 2.0~3.0 m, flexible operation, could eat into raking
piles and higher productivity, as a result of automatic hydraulic control device, every boat
sinking 10~15. In the absence of measuring marks to determine where piling on the water,
usually real-time GPS positioning system is equipped. Haili 801 turn pile frame, precision
60 mm, is currently one of the worlds most advanced large pile driver. Table 7.2 is the
largest parameters of the largest pole ship. Fig. 7.66 shows the two different types of
floating pile driver.
Table 7.2 Chinas biggest pile driver parameters (unit: m).
Ship names
Three
navigation pile
15
72.1
27
5.2
93.5
80
2.0
Navigation
bureau three
Three
navigation pile
16
72.1
27
5.2
93.5
80
2.0
Navigation
bureau three
Three
navigation pile
18
72.6
28
5.2
93.5
80
2.0
Navigation
bureau one
Guangdong pile
8
70.5
28
5.2
93.5
80
2.0
Navigation
bureau four
80
30
6.0
95 (Rotary)
80
2.5
Navigation
bureau two
Three
navigation pile
18
71.7
27
5.2
95
80
3.0
Navigation
bureau three
Haiwei 951
66.6
27
5.2
95
82
2.5
Bridge
bureau
Haili 801
span double-line box girders, 900t beam girder approach on transport, saving construction
pavement. This process, when required during the construction of 900 t Erector, 900t
beam carrier, 900t or 450t spar three essential for large equipment.
Fig. 7.66 Large pile driver (a) three air 15th; (b) Hai Li, No. 801.
Beam girder erection of hole-by-hole method is not a new technology, pre-fabricated
bridges have also been used in the past. However, because the primary beam horizontal
slice, the weight of each beam is relatively small, even if 50 m-span T-beams, lifting
weight does not exceed 250t, therefore, bridge girder erection machine lifting capacity
required is small. Meanwhile, pre-cast beam transport in the already-built bridge will not
break through the bridges load, no special treatment in deck paving of temporary rail,
beam carrier formed by several temporary group of railway axles. But for the entire hole
set girder weighs greatly increased, these 32 m long span box girder weighing 900 t. This
lifting capacity requirements for bridge girder erection machine greatly improved,
moreover, beam has been set up on the beam transport, its weight far beyond the future
use of loads must use special transportation beam motor on beam spread over a wider
area. Liang Ti from the pre-fabrication to beam transportation truck also need large
removable hangerThe gantry.
Bridge building machine is a means to expand the already built piers and girders, a
hole-by-hole bridge equipment. In order to be able to set up completed bridge across the
span, generally long main beam of bridge erecting machine must be no more than two
holes. The difference between setting up all full hole and erection of pre-cast beams is that
in order for erection of girder bridge girder erecting machine through the bridge girder
erection machine in the hind legs, the legs must be entirely outside the beam width, or
retractable. Assembled width is much smaller than the width of the beam, it is easy to
cross the bridge girder erection machine and made the design of bridge girder erecting
machine very simple as that. In order to improve the efficiency of bridging, advanced
bridge girder erecting machine using the hydraulic control system. Advanced embodiment
of bridge girder erection machine in terms of its light weight and ease of operation.
Fig. 7.67 Bridge machine structure diagram (a) DF900 non-guiding-beam bridge girder
erecting machine (b) DF900D guiding-beam bridge girder erecting machine (c)
transporting-erecting-in-one bridge girder erecting machine.
Italys Nicola is the worlds leader in the production of bridge girder erecting machine,
after the digestion and absorption of recent years, our country has production and erection
of monolithic erecting machine. According to the characteristics of Chinas construction
of passenger dedicated lines, these erector is also supported to varying degrees
improvement, make the operation more convenient. For example, using beam
transportation truck TRANS-bridge-tunnel machine, Erector, erector bi-directional
bridging technology are manufacturer improvements and inventions in China. Current
monolithic erecting machine comes in three forms, namely without Liang Shi, Liang Shi,
and integrated transportation and erection. Fig. 7.67 are no guiding-beam bridge girder
erecting machine DF900, guiding-beam bridge girder erecting machine DF900D and Italy
nicola-transporting-erecting-in-one bridge machine structure diagram, they are all used in
the Chinese passenger dedicated lines.
Beam carriers main functions are: delivery of prefabricated box girder by bridge
girder erecting machine and is responsible for feeding of pre-fabricated box girder
erecting machine, within the transitions can be checked when erecting machine long
distances. Because of openings since major, currently most advanced beam transportation
truck with rubber-tyred, in order to increase and beam transportation road contact area
increases. In addition, wheel type beam carrier operations greater freedom, without the
preset orbit, as shown in Fig. 7.68.
Fig. 7.68 The box beam operating at prefabrication site (a) Main girders of Donghai
bridge in orbit transfers and (b) Wheeled girder of Hangzhou Bay Bridge.
Full span pre-cast and hoisting construction of porous Longbridge is the duration of
the programme is born out of control factors of condition of building the bridge, although
the full time limit, but the demand for heavy equipment. In the construction of Chinese
passenger dedicated line, through comparative analysis are as follows inspection,
construction of a main beam pre-casting yard complete with girder, bridge equipment,
one-way bridge length of 10 km of the economy. Super pre-fabricated plant can be built in
the middle of line, after finishing erecting a bridge girder the erection machine transport
back to the beam direction to start the opposite direction. The economic length of double
Erection is 20 km.
surface of supporting beam, as shown in Fig. 7.69. Through-type mobile bracket girder
moves along the completed concrete beam, on the bridge to be poured (assembled) , and
through the legs on top of the pier, as shown in Fig. 7.70. Deck bearing stents benefits are
that beam to be poured (assembled) is on the top of mobile frame, with large hands-on
space; on the contrary, benefits of through good mobile stand is that stent placement
(assembled) is on top of beam, not restricted by the clearance under the bridge, bridge
operations are affected by the interference of mobile frame.
Fig. 7.70 Working diagram of Through-type movable form frame (units: m).
The former Transportation Ministry first highway construction company build the 4th
bridge in Mosul, Iraq, with the Federal Republic of Germany PZ companydeveloped
Switzerlandprovided movable form frame. Using this device, in 1990, built the first
bridge in China movable frame construction of pre-stressed concrete continuous beam
bridgegaoji Strait Bridge in Xiamen. Gaoji Strait Bridge full length is 2070 m, made up
of multi-span continuous girder of long span of 45 m. Since then, construction equipment
manufacturers have done a lot of research and development in China, China had to create
all kinds of mobile scaffold and shuttering, but relies on imports of key high-precision
hydraulic equipment.
These MSS are erecting beam bearing units, thus, creating span movable frame girder
of bridge bearing capacity restrictions now, shuttering to construction of main girder of the
largest span is 60 m over this span, movable frame girder sections greatly increased.
Multiple-span beam with large span bridge can take advantage of mobile scaffold to
assemble, but must be combined with other bridge construction technology the role of
Mobile supports is only to transport segment so to reduce the mobile frame weight. Fig.
7.72 is Chinas Zhongtie major research of large-span mobile 96 m long-span continuous
beam bridge adopts cantilever segmental construction technique, remove boot supports
transport of box girder sections.
Fig. 7.71 Deck-type mobile bracket of the Shanghai-Shanghai Min Lu viaduct segmental
box beam.
Fig. 7.72 Chinas zhongtie major research of large-span mobile (unit : m).
Steel high strength, good rigidity and flatness, widely used in engineering. But the
high cost of steel formwork, not easy to change re-used, so in need of mass production of
pre-cast plant to use more. In order to overcome this shortcoming, assembled steel
framework was invented, but the seams of assembled steel framework is difficult to handle
and, therefore, relatively poor surface quality of concrete.
Glulam template is the currently used template, it has hardened layer on the surface,
there is a certain air suction, and seams easy to deal with and therefore produced better
surface quality of concrete structures. Both sides of Glulam templates can be used, and reusedfor upto 30~50 times. In the 1980, of the 20th century the introduction of glued wood
mold production technology, but the relatively poor quality of the domestic bond template,
some re-use can reach no more than 10 times. Bamboo production is large in China, in the
1980, of the 20th century in China invented a glue bamboo template, properties and
glulam is similar to or better than wood-mode, repeat number can be more than 30 times,
and has been widely applied, can now be exported to foreign countries.
Fig. 7.74 Hangzhou bay bridge overall template (a) Outside the box girder of Hangzhou
Bay Cross-Sea Bridge model (b) Hangzhou Bay Bridge shrinkage overall IMC.
In Europe, the bridge with a yield strength of HSS usually between 460~690 MPa.
After heat treatment of 16 mm S960QL steel, nominal yield strength up to 960 MPa.
United States began using HSS and weathering steel in bridge engineering (such as
bridge, completed in 1977, the new river valley). prior to HPS research and development,
there are 4 grades of steel for bridges: 250, 345 (345S, 345W), 485 (485W), 690(690W),
numbers in code represents the minimum yield strength, the unit is MPa,W on behalf of
the types of steel have weather-resistant properties. The most common bridge steel is
345W.
Steel bridges made of high strength low alloy structural steel, mainly 16 Mnq and
Q345q series-steel, in special bridge supplied by agreement. On the Jiujiang Yangtze
River Bridge, the 15MnVNq produced by angang steel on the Yangtze River Bridge in
Wuhu, mining 14 MnNbq steel manufactured by the Wuhan iron and steel (thickness 16
mm yield strength 370 MPa); the Lupu bridge, Pu steel reference as Germany DIN EN
standard S355N steel (thickness 16 mm yield strength 355 MPa). Promulgated in 2000
national standard of the structural steel for bridges (GB/T 714-2000), provides Q345q,
Q370q, Q420q (containing three of C, D, E rating) series-steel (thickness yield strength
345MPa, respectively 16 mm, 370 MPa, 420 MPa).
Early high strength steel, high strength, but poor solderability, need to be pre-heated
welding, to bring quality and cost control difficulty, so applications are difficult.
(generally not more than two) of steel, in order to give full play to material properties,
economical benefits.
Located in United States, Tennessee, Martin, R. (Martin Creek) bridge, opened in
February 1998, to 2 71.78 m two-span continuous girder bridge, the roadway width of
8.53 m, horizontal layout 3 contiguous pieces of shaped beam, girder spacing 3.2 m.
Original design used 345W steel, after support from FHWA, using HPS 485W for bridge
design. In re-design, intermediate HPS 485W was used in pivot near the beam, span beam
using hybrid design, which all transverse webs and connect the 345W. Final result: girder
steel consumption by 24.2%, costs reduced by 10.6%. Weight considerably reduced
because the primary beam, apparently transport, erection and lower construction cost
savings.
Fig. 7.75 Comparison of energy absorbing plastic hinges and seismic control device (a)
Beam plastic hinges to absorb seismic energy; (b) Energy dissipation devices absorb
seismic energy.
After 10 years of research, Japan Nippon Steel company LYP100, LYP235 (yield
strength of 100MPa and 235MPa) two low-yield-point steel, steels compared to
conventional steel with lower yield strength and resistance to Rachyan, and yield-point
margin of error smaller, has better extension and low cycle fatigue resistance properties.
Fig. 7.76 LP steel schematic drawing (unit: mm) (a) LP steel production process; (b) LP
plate cost reduction.
concrete, by 1990, the slump 270 mm, 100 MPa, compressive strength and high
performance concrete.
Feature
Code
Feature
Code
Feature
Code
Bonding with
hardened concrete
absorbs energy
AD Poor absorbency
EA High strength/density
ratio (high strength
light weight)
AR Early strength
ES
Corrosion protection
CP High modulus
EM Low permeability
IMP
CS Wash erosion
resistance
WSH
Durability
S/D
WRK
VS
TS
Table 7.4 shows the places of application requirements of HPC performance codes
shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.4 Performance requirements of the application of high performance concrete.
Application site
N/E*
Performance
requirements
Architectural pillars
Post-tensioning plate
CS, EM
Base
CS
Floor
EM, S/D
Cold weather
construction
ES
IMP, CR, AR
Hazardous waste
storage
IMP, DUR
Parking lot
CP, DUR
ES, MOR
Structure
Bridge
Main
Pavement
struction
Repair
WRK, ES
AR
Urgent Repair
WRK, ES
Underwater
WSH
Long Time
DUR, CS, AD
EA, AD
Public health
structures
IMP, DUR
Earthquake
EA, WRK
EA, TA, CS
Relief structure
EA, TS, CS
Tunnel
Pre-cast/prestressed concrete
Fix
Military structures
Military structure
Special
Lunar concrete
WRK
Automatic
construction
WRK
engineering structural and attracts the engineering sectors great attention. In Engineering
structures oftern used are mainly carbon fiber FRP (carbon fiber), fiberglass (glass fiber)
and aramid fiber (aramid fiber) reinforced resin matrix, respectively referred to as CFRP,
AFRP and GFRP. Table 7.5 the three types of fibers and the mechanical properties
comparison with steel and aluminum.
As can be seen from Table 7.5, fibrous material strength (tensile strength/weight)
20~50 times that of steel, high-strength lightweight performance is outstanding; carbon
fiber modulus (tensile modulus/weight) 5~10 times that of steel, aramid fiber modulus for
steel sheets 2~3 times, modulus of fiberglass and steel. Simply looking at specific strength
and modulus alone, actual projects with carbon fiber material works achieve best results,
but carbon fibre elongation is very small, they sometimes need to be mixed with other
fibers, with the idea better overall performance.
Table 7.5 Comparison of typical fiber axial direction mechanical properties with that of
steel, aluminum.
Material type
E
Glass
Fiber
Coefficient
Tensile Youngs of thermal
Specific Specific
Relative
Extension
strength modulus expansion
intensity modulus
density
rate (%)
(GPa) (GPa)
(GPa) (GPa)
(106/C)
2.55
3.5
74
5.0
4.8
1.37
29
S, R
2.49
4.9
84
2.9
5.7
1.97
34
2.89
3.5
110
5.7
3.2
1.21
38
AR
2.70
3.2
73.1
6.5
4.4
1.19
27
2.52
3.3
68.9
6.3
4.8
1.31
27
Standard
type
(T300)
1.75
3.5
235
0.41
1.5
2.00
134
High
strength
(T800H)
1.81
5.6
300
0.56
1.7
3.09
166
1.88
4.0
485
0.6
0.8
2.13
213
ExtremeHigh
model
(P120)
2.18
2.2
830
1.4
0.3
1.01
381
Kelvar
49
1.44
3.6
125
2.0
2.5
2.50
87
1.45
2.9
165
3.6
1.3
2.00
114
Carbon
Fiber High
models
(M50J)
Aramid
Fiber Kelvar
149
Steel
HM-50
1.39
3.1
77
0.1
4.2
2.23
55
HRB400
Steel
bars
7.8
0.42
206
12
18
0.05
26
High
strength
steel
wire
7.8
1.86
200
12
3.5
0.24
26
2.7
0.63
74
22
3.0
0.23
27
Aluminum
elements, force can also be combined with other materials. But the lower transverse
strength and shear strength of pultruded profiles.
FRP winding profiles were continuous fibers or fabrics impregnated resin, clinging to
core-mould according to certain rules (or lining of bile), and then after curing to form in
order to annular fibers oriented profiles, a common form of tubes, tanks, spheres, etc. In
engineering structure, FRP winding Canal filling can be used as a column, concrete piles,
beams, component properties can be superior to concrete-filled steel tube.
Moulded profiles are pre-impregnated resin fiber or pressurised heating curing fabric
into the tool made of FRP material. Profile of this technology to produce accurate, smooth
surface, stable quality, but usually low in fiber mechanical properties is poor.
For some large or complex-shaped profiles, normal temperature and low pressure is
generally used contact moulding process, low pressure at room temperature, or under no
pressure formed a type of sticky with resin fibers and fabrics, used to manual operation is
complete, so called hand lay-up. This method can produce complicated shapes, fibers lay
out arbitrary and large sizes of FRP products, product quality is stable.
Paste in concrete structures using FRP surface to improve the bearing capacity of most
of the current application of FRP bridge condition. Concrete piers strengthened with FRP
winding through concrete to improve strength and deformation capacity of concrete and
the shear capacity of high pier, this is the most effective re-habilitation method of FRP
reinforced concrete. Beam and plate tension sides pasting FRP sheet can be improve their
bending strength and cracks can be effectively controlled, passive force due to FRP,
reinforcement efficiency is not high. Wrapped with FRP beams, beams shear strength can
be improved, but there is also strength of FRP application low-efficiency problem,
generally only using the strength of FRP 20%~40%.
Fiber volume content in FRP reinforcement could reach 60%, has the advantages of
light weight, high strength, weight about one-fifth of the ordinary steel, strong 6 times the
ordinary steel, corrosion resistance and fatigue resistance, low relaxation, nonmagnetic,
and so on. With FRP tendons instead of steel makes good Use of its corrosion resistance,
avoiding corrosion on the structural damage, reduce structural maintenance costs; FRP
cable used as a suspended rope slings and cables of the cable-stayed bridge, and tendons
in pre-stressed concrete bridge.
Due to high strength and light weight, the direct use of FRP profiles to build bridges
with good prospects, countries around the world conducted a lot of research on cable, up
to now, completely made of FRP bridge limited to footbridges. 1982, in Miyun County,
Beijing, China lay-up process of GFRP honeycomb beam, built a bridge, spans 20.7 m,
width 9.2 m, is the worlds first FRP road bridges. In 1992, the United Kingdom of
Aberfeldy in Scotland built up a whole structure of FRP cable-stayed pedestrian bridge,
long 113 m, main span of 63 m, width 2.2 m, double tower double cable plane cablestayed system, a-shaped pylon. Towers, beams and decking and handrails of a box-shaped
cross-section of GFRP pultruded, AFRP cables of cable-stayed, coated with polyethylene
protection, some connected to metal connections. The total cost of $ 200,000, for
traditional wooden, concrete and steel cable-stayed bridge or half the cost of the steel truss
bridge, and at least 20 years from dimension fix the bridges success greatly promoted the
study of FRP bridge. In 2002, Japans Maeda proposed using FRP to build 5000 m longspan suspension bridge scheme Tower, qiaosuo and bridges are FRP, and static and
dynamic analysis of the programme proposed for application of FRP bridge opened up a
bright future.
FRP bridge as a whole in addition to, build a deck with FRP and FRP composite
member is being a hot spot, as shown in Fig. 7.78. Decks are vulnerable to erosion,
especially in the northern regions winter road salt non-slip, corrosion of the deck is more
severe, good corrosion resistance of FRP, made decks can greatly improve performance,
save maintenance cost.
Fig. 7.78 FRP bridge deck (a) FRP honeycomb sandwich deck; (b) FRP-concrete
composite deck.
reach the glass transition temperature (usually about 300C) behaviour will occur when
you shift. Current solution is mixed with fire retardant FRP resin material, at the same
time fire prevention at the surface and improve its fire resistant properties.
Fig. 7.79 FRP materials connection form (size unit: mm) (a) Bonded FRP reinforcement
type anchor; (b) Wedge bonding FRP reinforcement type anchor; (c) Bonding FRP profile
form.
In addition, fatigue resistance, durability of the FRP has not yet mature theory and
experience, need further study.
Finally, the economics is the question concerned by all engineers and users. Only seen
from the material price, FRP structure and compared with reinforced concrete structure is
not competitive, but due to light weight, and taking into account the corrosion resistance
of FRP materials lower maintenance costs arising from using FRP materials, the overall
economic efficiency is deserving attention. Given that the FRP is at an early stage, the cost
is high, as the volume of applications increased, the price of FRP products produced on a
larger scale will be greatly decrease. Case study of concrete structures strengthened with
CFRP and its price from the initial 2000 yuan/m2, is reduced to at present about 500
Yuan/m2, is a good example.
numerical analysis of structural dynamic response, until the final stage when test is carried
out, this leads to significant savings in manpower and material resources and project
selection can be carried out on a large scale.
disassociated, ensures the quality of bridge construction monitoring data cannot be instant
analysis, resulting in quality problems of bridge construction. As the technology of
computer network and digital sensor signal development of remote control of bridge
construction possible.
In recent years, various sensor signals the progressive realisation of analog-digital
conversion, digital signals can be easily through computer networks instant transmission.
the sensor or measuring instrument embedded in the structure transmit data in real time
from the construction site to the office computer engineers, engineers can compare
estimates of rates and design, judge bridges the site conditions, in the event of deviations
can be adjusted promptly inform site. Construction monitoring technology in the past 30
years have made sufficient progress, thanks to the structural development in computing
technology, you can use computers to simulate the entire construction before the bridge
construction drive second, thanks to the sensors and the development of network
technology, makes it possible to remote real time measurement.
the course of a bridge built, ways to solve specific problems, and after summarising the
formation theory and method of enterprise in order to enhance its ability to compete, if
extended to other similar projects, can also get very good social benefits. Therefore, some
prospect of technology combined with the engineering special studies, forming
monographic study on theories, techniques and methods become another primary purpose.
Chinese government from the central to the local, thematic studies on promising strong
support, in addition to engineering construction set owners to provide funding,
government back to work with a certain amount of subsidies. Currently used in bridge
design and construction of theory, technology and engineering methods are formed this
way. For example, in Chinas first railway passenger line on Qinhuangdao-Shenyang
passenger dedicated railway line construction process, on land speed bridge type,
prefabricated technology of erecting bridge, bridging technology, equipment and other
special studies on a number of key issues, the results for our large-scale construction of
passenger dedicated line provided technical support. Again, the bridge of Donghai bridge
erection technology of thematic research offers for our other cross-sea bridge construction
experience.
promotional value, can improve the industry competition ability research projects were
funded. On bridge engineering research funding in recent years is the highest national
technical support program.
National science and technology support program is to implement the outline of the
national medium-and long-term program for scientific and technological development
(20062020) (Hereinafter referred to as the program), mainly for national economic and
social development needs, is focusing on major economic and Social Development
Department technical problems, and was established on the basis of national scientific and
technological plans of national science and technology plan. Supporting programme,
mainly the implementation of the platform for point and its priority theme in the area of
mission, to major public technical and industrial generic technology research focuses on
development and application of the model, and major construction projects and major
equipment development, strengthening of integrated innovation and the introduction of
secondary innovation, with a focus on involving global major technical issues of sex,
trans-industry, trans-regional, focused on overcoming a number of key technologies, break
through the bottlenecks and improve our industrial competitiveness, providing support to
the coordinated development of economy and society in China.
States currently funding mainly for bridge engineering research is set in large complex
bridge construction project, requiring in bridge construction at the same time, address the
common problems of similar bridges, enhance the competitiveness of the industry as a
whole. Currently national science and technology support included in bridge-building case
studies were funded through three bridges, they are: Su-Tong Yangtze river highway
bridge and Zhoushan Island West Hou bridge of Taizhou Changjiang river highway
bridge. Funded research is as follows.
Su Tong bridge technology supporting plan research overall objectives: make meter
scale long span cable-stayed bridges breakthrough to improve cable-stayed bridge
construction techniques. There are six sub-topics:
1000 meter scale cable-stayed bridge technology standards and essential structure
and properties;
Long cable production, erection and vibration reduction technology research and
demonstration;
Erection of large-span steel box girder and its control technology research and
demonstration;
Monitoring and control technology research of 300 m cable tower;
Deep water pile foundation construction and erosion protection for complete
integration technology;
Construction management for large complex traffic engineering and safety disaster
reduction technology.
Xihoumen bridge technology supporting plan research overall objectives are:
realization of construction technology of super long-span suspension bridges in our
country catch up with the world advanced level. There are six sub-topics:
Cross-sea mega size steel box girder of long span suspension bridge structure
for the first time in the country, although the design of theoretical calculations have
pledged to set up, but in order to ensure bridge construction site safe, sectional model test
of anchorage zone, a theoretical analysis is to validate the design indeed, the second is
verifying the reliability of construction technology.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is innovation in bridge structural details ? Where can structural details of
innovation start?
2. What drives the application of advanced construction technology, construction
equipment? From where come the innovation of construction technology and
equipment?
REFERENCES
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Engineering. Journal of Structural Engineering, 2002, 128(8).
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Proceeding of Chinese Croatian Joint Colloquium Long Arch Bridges, Brijuni
Islands, 10-14 July 2008.
[4] Michel Virlogeux. Bridges with Multiple Cable- Stayed Spans. Structural
Engineering International, 2001, 11(1).
[5] Z avor, J Radic, V Prpic. Bridge Across Rijeka Dubrovacka, Croatia. Structural
Engineering International, 2010, 20(2). 2003, 13 (3).
[6] Chen Yongqi, Geng Ruiqi, MA Zhe. Vibration Reduction of Fluid Viscous Damper
for Bridge Design and Type Selection. Journal of Civil Engineering, 2007, 40 (7).
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Viaduct: Structural Engineering International, 2000, 10(1).
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Structural Engineering International, 2000, 10(1).
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Engineering International, 1999-9 (1).
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Bridge Near Honfleur. Proc. of the Int. Conf. on Cable-Stayed Bridges, Bangkok,
1987(11):1111-1122.
[13 ] Mike Schlaich, Rudolf Bergermann. Monoleg Towers with Transverse Stabilising
Cables. Structural Engineering International, 1998, 8(4).
[14] De Ges Jorge Lus Nunes, Jnior Calil. Field Performance of a Composite LogConcrete Bridge. Structural Engineering International, 2008, 18(1).
[15] Deng. Bridge-for 36 Years. Qin Quan, Translated. Beijing: Tsinghua University
Press, 2003.
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Bridge of Shibanpo Changjiang River Bridge in Chongqing Iron and SteelConcrete Joint Design. Bridge Design 2007(2).
[17] Christy Cui, Meng Fanchao, Zhao Canhui, et al. Nanjing Changjiang Third Bridge
location. Beginning in 2003, Tianjin out of Haihe economic development overall plan, it
has been the past five year, has achieved great successes in its infrastructure construction.
Among them, the bridge construction is one of the highlights of haihe development, has
completed the order represented a number of excellent works of dagu bridge Figs. 8.7, 8.8,
for the entire river landscape considerably. Attention on Tianjin 5 years of bridge-building,
whether it is modified by strengthening of existing bridges or the implementation of a new
bridge, conceptual design of system analysis of urban bridges provides good material.
The five points above, as certain characteristics of the Haihe River Bridge, many of
these areas is common for city bridge. But the characteristics of urban bridge do not exist
the so-called unification, for each citys bridge, things could have been different, even for
the same two bridges in the city, their requirements are sometimes quite different.
Therefore, we cannot pass the limited character of urban bridge features a nearcomprehensive summary. It is Not hard to find urban bridge with highway bridge beam in
bridge aesthetic requirements, environmental conditions and other aspects, the difference
is obvious, but a successful bridge must meet safety, utility, economy and beauty four
demands, which requirements are the same for all bridges. Previously involved concepts
and theories, and apply equally to city bridges, so no attention is here, focusing on the
characteristic of urban bridges talking about several points while, as a bridge (all types)
continuation of conceptual design and additions.
In order to differentiate from road and rail bridges, the contents of the chapter, using
narrower concept of urban bridge, especially in urban centers bustling bridges, bridges
aims to solve inner-city traffic, spanning medium, in the range of appropriate scales
bridge, which we often refer to the urban landscape bridge.
Here we treat urban bridge as a separate section to discuss, because in recent years,
city bridge beam landscape very high frequencies of terms such as, it seems that all the
bridge engineers talking about beautiful everyone in the speaking of innovation and
the topics concentrated on the large component on top of the bridge. These days, for
almost all of urban bridge construction industry owner require landscape design. In fact,
the landscape design of the urban bridge that is in itself is a statement of the layman
design is a process of discovering, analysing and solving problems, city bridge design is a
blend of structure engineering and architectural aesthetic thought in creative thinking
process, there is no peeling of the bridge design called the landscape design. Structural
engineering and architectural aesthetics combined with the topic in 7. Section 5 will form
a more exhaustive discussion. The beginning of this chapter National symposium on
bridge referred to in the country, bridge aesthetics received more and more attention,
this is a very welcome, but still want to see, not all of the owners and designers can truly
understand the construction of bridges in cities reasonable use of aesthetics and
innovation. There are some bridges, decorated with a very pompous, very economic and
there are individual bridge work, for different purposes, innovations, but makes for a
weird and unreasonably bridge, which reduces the value of the bridge, these demand our
vigilance. In this chapter we want to solve the problem: How is the process of conceptual
design of urban bridge like? In which we encounter design problems, and how should we
respond? Well start off city bridges development history.
Marx said: people cannot be allowed to change history, they had in a direct
encounter, established, from the past inherited condition to create. So, who will have a
more profound and thorough understanding of history, who are more likely to succeed
work foundation. Conversely, if only to look beyond ideology and in the present, not to
mention future-oriented, Im afraid even now is uncertain. In fact, great time to have a
great sense of history, a great designer must also have great historical meaning. Therefore,
todays design students learn to appreciate the historical achievements, and learn to apply
it in the contemporary setting. We have to study the city bridge, first thing to analyse is its
history.
We know that rivers are cradles of human civilisation, mentioned in the history
textbooks of the cradles of human civilisation, is the worlds accepted, they are the
Euphrates and Tigris and Euphrates river valleys, the Ganges river, the Nile river and the
Yellow river. Together with the Development of civilisations, urban bridge across a rivers
history can be traced back to the earliest urban civilisation development and bridge beam
since ancient times and peoples daily life are inseparable, famous qingming Shang he Tu
Fig. 8.9 is the Testimony of ancient Chinese bridge-side commercial prosperity. This
diagram depicts the qingming Festival the Northern Song capital of Bianjing (now
Kaifeng) East point inside and outside the door and the Bian river bustling scene on both
sides.
In this section, through fragments of narrative history of urban bridge which can help
us to understand the design of municipal bridges change the course of history. Attention is
needed that when we read history, to have a sense of the times and a sense of realism,
Rather than simply knowing a few historical facts. Because history has its objectivity,
but every era has its own of new issues, new social situation, and hope that through history
to look for new answers. In this fast-changing time, we need to understand history from a
new perspective. We look forward to the historical changes of urban bridges analysis, find
some inspiration.
Fig. 8.11 Southern China Bridges (a) Maple (Suzhou); (b) Stone arch bridge (Shaoxing);
(c) Bridge (Zhou); (d) wutingqiao (Yangzhou).
Tower Bridge is the first bridge from mental arithmetic on the River Thames. Its
designer was the London architects Horace Jones and Wolfe Barry. The bridge was
originally designed to establish a principle: new bridge must be integrated into the
surrounding environment, so that the old palace and adjacent to the London maintain the
harmony of stone castle, Tower Bridge hence got its name. Designer use rebel bridge was
designed so that it reflected in the environment of conflict beautiful, but kept the echoes
on the environment. Tower Bridge is a double layer of dual-use Bridge, lower level is a
bascule bridge, upper level is fixed footbridge Within one month of the initial navigation,
Tower Bridge opening or closing a total 655 times, it also alludes to the Thames at that
time flourishing. The construction of this bridge meaning has gone far beyond its
functional needs, but it has been recognised as enjoying London City and the River
Thames best place for scenery, the bridge itself into the local environment, became
classics in the history of the bridge.
Represented by the beautiful Tower Bridge and Pont Alexandre III bridge, urban
bridge is not a brief appearance in modern bridge engineering history. With the growing
deterioration of the urban environment of industrialisation, people start to care about
living environment, build the new landscape of thought of nature conservation-oriented. In
1863, United States officially presented the landscape designers and landscape design
represented by Olmsted, landscape design courses was offered in 1900, in Harvard. Bridge
as an artificial landscape elements, judging from the sense of Visual beauty, also received
attention. In 1936, fulicilaianghate and Kaershexitele of Germany jointly published the
bridge shape, according to his request, the 1978, International bridge engineering society
created the structural engineering aesthetics task force, to the attention of the world to
promote bridge aesthetics, 1984 book bridge publication of architecture and style. Japan
starting in 1930s-40s and the 80s, published the Guide to aesthetic bridge design,
bridge modeling and other writings. New bridge aesthetics is gradually taking shape,
broadens the design idea to generally raise the level of bridge construction and design,
emerge and can be comparable with the predecessor bridge design and innovative
newbridge laid the Foundation of. Modern bridge image features can be summarised as
follows:
simple, slender, smooth, bright;
respect for the natural environment, pay attention to the overall effect;
remarkable creative effect;
detailed delicacy, modest decoration.
construction started early, traffic large bridge main complex of overpass bridge, across the
city line, light rail viaduct, and is very good for easing Beijings busy urban transport.
With the construction of ring road in Beijing and other cities, rapid development of traffic
engineering, construction of urban bridge both in terms of size and quality is impressive. I
will cite several bridges: built-in 1986, over the Yongding river daning reservoir the
yongding River Bridge, 1120 m, is Beijings longest river-crossing bridge, the project won
the national quality engineering AG in 1991, Beijing Guang an men used pre-stressed
concrete, reinforced concrete and other forms of interchange and supports different bridge,
bridge area of about 21000 m2, a breakthrough in structural design of special-shaped slab;
completed in 2001, North Beijing city ring road, all 147 bridges, bridge area of 485,000
m2; in October, 2003 designed to complete the ring road of Beijing has interchange 55
seats, of which 12 large interchange, Bridge 11, line 259 bridges and bridge area of
694,000 m2. At the end of 2007, Beijing has built a variety of interchange over more than
400, but said Chinas largest number.
In recent years in Beijing area in the city of new type of bridge design and
construction, have made the leap-style development: for example, Beijing BeijingChengde
highway in Beijing success in Chaobai river built a cable stayed bridge with low pylon;
built internally in qinghe bridge line Subway Line 5 a curved cable stayed bridge; in the
Changping District of South Central bridge built Asias first self-anchored suspension
bridge. In the design concept also has a new improvement, in construction of urban bridge
the application of new materials, new technology, new technology has taken a solid step
forward.
which was still open in the 1960s, others have been replaced by fixed bridges, due to the
river of Tianjin, little bridges, railway, resulting in the river crossing Difficulty, railroad
difficulty, causing serious consequences for urban traffic.
Table 8.1 1965~2004 Tianjin Haihe River Bridge.
S.
Project name
No.
1. Northampton bridge
Length
Bridge type
(m)
97 Span 24 m + 45 m + 24 m hanging
cantilever prestressed concrete girder
bridge
Year
built
1973
97.60 long-span 24 m + 45 m + 24 m
prestressed concrete continuous box
girder bridge
1974
(1995)
1977
4. Square bridge
1982
1983
6. Thrifty bridge
1985
266
1987
8. Liuzhuang bridge
reconstruction project
The span 4 20 m + 3 35 m + 4 20
m
9. Bridge reconstruction
project
466
1991
1996
2001
In 1949, after the liberation of Tianjin, with the development of Tianjins economic
self-reliance built a massive bridge Table 8.1. Especially since the 1980s after the
introduction of reform and opening up, great changes have taken place in bridge
construction on the technology and scale. In order to improve urban transport in order to
meet the needs of economic construction, Tianjin has newly built and re-built many
important bridges. Especially in the Haihe river in Tianjin, gradually building the Lion
Bridge, North Andover Plaza bridge, chifeng light bridge and the Guanghua bridge. These
are all concrete bridge, built-in the 1970, of the 20th century and 80 respectively. Old
bridge renovation project including the 1991, Liu Zhuangqiao and King Kong Bridge in
1996.
Tianjin haihe bridges mostly built before in the mid 1980, of the 20th century on, more
Jintang bridge, built in 1906, Jiefang bridge, built in 1927. Due to the existing bridge built
for a long time, limited to the political and economic condition, its simple structure and
low load, and due to the settlement of the business for many years, most no longer meets
planning navigation requirements as well as Haihe economic development consistent with
the objectives, in particular, highlight the landscape design requirements. For the
penetration of these issues to be resolved at the end , existing bridges need to be rebuilt or
reconstructed.
As the river of nine rivers converge, has given birth to this beautiful city and formed
and continues to be enriched its culture, history and cultural heritage. For connecting the
city of Tianjin Haihe River Bridge construction pioneer leagues has become the natural
places of great players. Silent love of the Haihe River, witnessing the history of bridge
construction of Tianjin. From the late 19th century, on the Haihe river in Tianjin began
building various bridges. Bridge structure evolved from the original forms into meeting
the needs of urban development and function. From the design concept, the bridge
construction is no longer content merely to function, but constant attention to coordination
with the urban landscape. Construction of the Haihe River Bridge, one must take full
account of the citys master plan, and look at haihe economic development closely, and
with a new design creating a modern city environment. Tianjin Haihe economic
development, Tianjin Haihe bridge planned to form a complete set of system.
According to the current construction of Haihe River Bridge, can be divided into the
following two categories:
Both the re-construction of the old bridge of the Haihe river, including retrofit and
bridge repair and reinforcement of concrete bridges; Concrete bridge reconstruction
include: Lion Bridge, Guanghua bridge and North bridge, bridge of light; Open repair
and reinforcement of the bridge include: Jintang bridge, Jiefang bridge.
The new bridge on the river, including: Dagu bridge and Fenghua, Chifeng, Bengbu
bridge, Ji Zhaoqiao bridge, and so on.
well do their job without having to care about how artists think; the artist may or may not
need theories of the scientists will be able to creations, but is not so simple for designers,
they have to pay attention to scientific and artistic effects. Here, although it is not possible
only through text drove home for the conceptual design of urban bridge, but this is not
going to give talk about some vague concept, but how to deeply explore issues in
structural engineering and architecture learn two ways to carry out the conceptual design
of urban bridge.
structures. The previous 3.3 (bridge type and applicability of the foundation), we have
compared the shape of bridge structures with detailed description, here is only for simple
review.
Cable-stayed Bridge
Cantilever construction of cable-stayed bridges due to the suit, tower shape and the shape
diversify their tall beautiful model, various parts reasonable strength, quickly spread the
word to come out, this is also the most successful in the history of bridge structure models.
So far the built cable-stayed bridge with the largest Span length is Chinas Su Tong
Yangtze River Bridge, a main span of 1088 m, exceeds 1000 m.
required by various factors must meet the designed main span. This should be based on
design for long-span must be met, according to adjustment of upper and lower parts of the
economy as a whole selection of bridge span, and according to the to select the type of
bridge. The smaller the span, the more options, and vice-versa.
Then, implement the safety, utility, economy and beauty principle, according to
different conditions of bridge span, select the appropriate bridge type, from the point of
view, and continuous system of pre-stressed concrete bridge should be preferred, and the
design process as far as possible the use of new technologies, new materials and new
techniques.
Traditional bridge type selection, can be summarised as follows: the span selected for
the pilot, backed by four principles, sound bridge programme selection. This idea,
ingrained in almost all the bridges in the designers head, guides us to design. May be you
didnt notice, this modern, industrial design and its appearance is only two hundred or
three hundred years ago something, maybe you never doubted the correctness of this
bridge type selection, and even as a designer, you do not fully understand the true meaning
of this option. Engineers approach is generally motivated by economics, practical
considerations, generally receive the design has a very strict time limit, as in todays
society when the bridge became a mass product, engineer work tends to be limited to a
standard procedure, and will bring them to find readymade solutions.
About 100 years ago or 80 years ago, bridges slowly become industrialised, with
advances in engineering, bridge more and more possession and control, community lost
interest in the bridge, construction of the bridge is no longer a risky business. After the
second world war, people had to re-build road and rail networks after the war, and later
developed into our modern transportation systems in large industrial bridge engineers
become anonymous partner. Since reform and opening up, Chinas construction of the
bridge has undergone a never before process of rapid development, bridge construction are
impressive in terms of its scale and the number, form a thriving scene. In such a large
bridge construction, formed a mature set of bridge design and construction technology for
simply-supported girder bridge and continuous girder bridge, continuous rigid-frame
bridge, x-style arch bridge, bridge of concrete-filled steel tube arch bridge type, such as
developing very quickly, almost every classic bridge all land in China is furiously
copying, in this process, the choices and the importance of appearance, usually lag behind
practical consideration.
Nowadays people are fully aware of all the artificial, the cultural landscape is formed
by relying on technological progress has its advantages and disadvantages. Germany
master qiaogexilasi structure: design today, only a functional purpose, doesnt care about
the overall effect. Most to be proud of, especially after the industrial revolution in the
1960, of the 20th century, including many name loud, for which our eyes shiny structures,
today has been monotonous and awkward structure in place. At that time, a bridge across
the streets and a railroad the bridge, in terms of materials or forms are not the same, a city
bridge with a broad rural bridge is often different. Now all the bridges are similar to
simple, clumsy, drab box-shaped components constitute the primary beam consists of precast elements or, beam is equipped with vertical and horizontal blocks, beams supported
on a flat base. In long-span variable depth beams. The upper structure applies to all types
of piers and are interchangeable. Production of this factory, the bulk of the bridge, on a
highway, appeared to be relatively affordable, but if it is in the city is terrible, as if the
whole city was packed with stands one track, match-box-like skyscrapers, bark beetles of
the technological advances become eroded peoples living environment, the whole city
landscape slowly become alienated, eventually forming the environmentally indifferent
city. Therefore, we rejected in the city similar to simple quantification production of
bridges, this doesnt mean that they should pursue bridge forms of quirky and weird, but
that buildings and structures, our consumer resource consumption at the expense of
constructed living space, we want to work with city bridge is closely related to our daily
life can be reflected history and culture, rather than an industrial product.
City bridge due to its regional restrictions, more medium and small span across line
across the river bridge, bridge types to choose from more flexibility in the design of the
structure also provides a larger space. Here, we present a view that: the city of bridges
beam bridge type selection is more than just a traffic problem, cannot and highway bridges
for mass production and cannot be rigidly fixed or mechanical way of thinking, but using
a more flexible design to create a more reasonable characteristics better suited to urban
environments structure parameters.
In contrast, traditional bridge type selection thinking has its drawbacks, its really easy
to understand, because, the bridge type selection statement in itself limits the designers
thinking, we do a bridge is designed to be organised structure to overcome obstacles, hard
at the concept design stage in beam bridges, arch bridges, Suo Fuqiao, choosing one of the
bridges, they will amount to form, and put into the habitual thinking, resulting in
monotony of the bridge form. In the dilemma in the planning principles and authors
mentioned Ritter: Problem-solving skills a lot, one solution is dont be too quick to be
restricted to a certain range. In the UK architects bulaienlaosen, also mentioned in the
monographs of the design thinking: designer constraints relative to other sources of
constraints flexible (designer constraint refers to the habitual thinking in the design
process itself, such as constraint). If constraint caused too much difficulty, or difficult to
achieve, the designer can be freely adjusted or reformulated constraints. Design students
often did not recognize realize the simple truth, tend to think it should cost a lot of
intelligence in an attempt to resolve many self-inflicted that could not be overcome.
Designers need to acquire skills, is able to use a critical eye to evaluate and analyse their
own design restraint. So, in our design of urban bridge, to review the applicability of
traditional bridge type selection.
back to bridging the last step is design from the original requirements set out to craft
our structure, we need to is a kind of structure of thinking, rather than a series of
models. In sculpture, for example, if it is a factory production of stone lions, it is charged
its just a product, but from the hands of masters, and carved into their feelings for the recreation can become a work of art.
The design concept that Bridge structure form is decided by need is not the
negation of traditional bridge type selection method, on the contrary, it they are
interlinked. However, engineers have to bridge some understanding of how choices are
one-sided, used according to bridge span to select the type of bridge, but, in fact, never
had any articles point out that, for a functional set of bridges, what kind of bridge type is
best suited. Bridges in the form depends primarily on the number of needs, namely:
construction cost, construction materials, transport, worker technical, aesthetic and other
factors.
Bridge is in the form of the ever-changing and basic form of warping, arched bridges,
cable-stayed bridge, suspension bridge, but the bridge option is not is select from one of
these bridge types, then apply some classic bridge and be done, we need to open our
minds, not only bridge in the form of ever-changing, why should we get bogged down in
form, we can according to organisation frame form to meet the actual needs.
During the process of our knowledge, to learn how to in and out, can we have a
critical distance, the independent thinking. On bridge form selection, entry refers to is
that our predecessors left the classic bridge, carefully studied analysis of mechanical
characteristics of fully understanding these bridge, applicability and functionality
advantages; Get out of the is referring to, from a bystander point of view, from a large
scale to measure the accumulation of history, a classic bridge. Many of those world class
bridge works today still have remarkable features, but this is only in the knowledge level,
unable to graft it onto that bridge today. However, we can try to transform yourself into
the role of bridge master, exploring them when designing bridges when thinking, design
work is definitely not plagiarism imitations of them, there is no question that, and so on,
repeated exercises our ability to think, to form their own structure of thinking, utilizing
todays designs, is the right way to learn. How to use mechanical concepts in design of
urban bridge, forming excellent structure, the bridge will be reflected in what the kind of
structure, will be discussed in the next section.
section, we talked about the bridges structural design, is to tell you, city bridge design to
its specific objectives in order to meet the needs of all aspects of this design idea will lead
us to be the kind of structure? The content that is discussed in this section.
countries in the process of technology development and need further efforts to shorten the
gap in culture, due to the developed infrastructure is complete, scale and pace of the
construction of the bridge has reached a stable development stage, bridge designers began
to focus more on the bridge of cultural understanding, Spain engineer Santiago caratera
watts is particularly prominent in this area. In China, is now at a stage of rapid
development infrastructure, and so-called food will often eat, and then for the United
States; clothing will often warm, and then seek Hali; Chang an Habitat will then seek
music, Chinese bridge on building size and number and taken get extraordinary results,
but beautiful bridge lags utility requirements, this is determined by the economic and
social conditions in China.
In his book, published in 1991, the global bridge aesthetics, mentioned in the view:
Bridge configuration should be designed under the maximum visual attraction to bear its
loads. Some prominent bridge engineers and architects in the book of words very
enlightening for us:
The validity of performance and aesthetic structure so closely together, which is more
difficult to determine in some sheer beautiful bridge and touch us in the creative impulses
behind in structural engineering, whether it is dynamic or static structure of abstract
aesthetics thought.
De Miranda (Italy)
As was the case as each crafts, a beautiful bridge of many aesthetic characteristics are
represented in the form, to say that in the bridge designer of bridges could be granted in
the form of a beautiful. Process for both sensitivity and technical capacity require form,
because it does not do so, he cannot guarantee the realization of thought.
Revelo (Mexico)
In this regard, however, must be emphasised depending on project requirements, but
with less changes or decorating attempts to improve appearance is set method of bridge
and should be condemned in the strong wording. Only developed into a general idea of the
main aesthetic design department in order to achieve kick-butt design. Therefore, there
must be a full involvement of the architect, this, from the time envisaged by the basic
forms are to begin.
Liebenberg (South Africa).
Many writers argue that the global bridge aesthetics and bridge shape should not be in
the form of load effects, regardless of its shape, while bridge shape should not be in the
form of appearance, regardless of bridge load effect. Instead, the two main objectives and
appearance, is not out to combine together, thus the choice of a certain specific forms of
bridges from the design evolution and come, alternating and continuous consideration
forms the design process in the functionality and appearance of the effect of two aspects of
decision-making. Finally, at least in the designers comments, two aspects of the design
optimisation and thus will show up. Functionality and appearance of both determining
form, bridge designers to ignore one or the other major goals, to be built in the wrong
place at the wrong time, the wrong bridge. As Dr man-Chung Tang has mentioned:
beauty is not added on the structure of the decorations, but the philosophy throughout the
design process. Function of a beautiful bridge should be natural, with simple structure,
the Lincoln Memorial drive. The building to direct peoples attention to the new building
up straight on the Gallerys main entrance. Cable-supported bridge in bridge forms the
traditional vertical pylons, to draw out a striking entrance box. Due to the master of
Calatrava on the load-bearing concrete structures, the white material of concrete pylons
vividly underscores the forceful and strong temperament, all of a sudden the whole
building character and inventory hold out. In 2001, by the United States on the times
magazines annual design list, Milwaukee Art Museum, were cited as the top. This bridge
and art gallery received the 2004, International Association for bridge and structural
engineering with outstanding structure Award.
Although the bridge has no Majesty spectacular vehemence, but its fresh, balanced
structure shows the kind of gritty temperament. At this point, Calatrava arch-beam
treatment preferences are revealed.
fuzzy two different ideas, requires systematic and chaos of intuition and reset method of
thinking, requires imaginative thinking and accurate calculation of integrated. In other
words, is to learn how to design science and consciousness, deductive and inductive
organically together. How to use in design of structures, it is a very complicated and
delicate skill, it would just like us to learn flute and table tennis, although almost all are all
trained to to learn, but it takes practice to do.
Concepts of urban landscape bridge structure of the design is a creative design, need a
rich imagination, and in the overall design filled with unknown factors in the process,
some designers, created may be a burden, but for others speaking, they may feel that it is
very exciting. Germany bridge master as a bridge engineer, described his creative process:
naturally, you will have some unconscious thought, it is because something is stored in
your memory inspiration occasionally emerges. But generally speaking, happy is hard
work; field exploration, thinking and painting sketches, evaluating design plan, identify
advantages. A sketch after another, not satisfied with the reverse designs, fighting with it,
new programmes, to consult with others, sweat, until the final solution from the many
choices in implementing them. The more difficult a task, the greater the opportunity that
you can come up with some unique solutions. As time goes by, you will develop a certain
degree of design strategy. First solve the most difficult problems in a complex task, but
using the most simple way possible, so that other unresolved issues will become less
difficult issues, and finally youll be able to put forward a comprehensive and coherent
solution design scheme. However, our engineers are not there simply to seek to satisfy,
and not just to promote technological progress to the top, we are within a short time to live
on the Earth, making human life more pleasant. If you frequently experience urban
landscape bridge conceptual design process, it is not difficult to understand the hardships
of the creative process. In most of the time, when we do not see The things we require, we
may feel frustrated, in the conceptual design of the structure of the process, we are going
to learn could substitute with firm confidence disappointedI know it was already on the
path of realisation, is what we are learning in practice the growing structure of thinking
ability gives us that confidence.
Bridge name
Dagu bridge
Chifeng bridge
Bengbu bridge
Fenghua bridge
Fumin bridge
Auspicious bridge
These world famous design companies participate in the Haihe river new bridge
design, making Haihe River new bridge able to fully integrate current development trends
of bridge, borrowing world intellectual resources, establish a culture, and pursuing high
technology. Meanwhile, we also emphasise great importance to innovation in design and
construction, through the continuation of new bridges in Haihe River culture, highlight the
economic development in Tianjin.
Width of the Tianjin Haihe river is generally around 100 meters, as span are small, and
navigation standards are not high, so most of the various types of bridges are consider a
bridge over the river. Starting from selecting your new bridge of dagu bridge in bridge and
structural characteristics as shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Structure feature highlights of the newly built haihe River bridge.
Bridge Arrangement
name
of bridge
span (m)
Dagu
bridge
Three spans On both sides the main arch rings decumbent in opposite
of: 24 + 106 direction, main arch ring size, tilt angle are asymmetry. Sling
+ 24
space layout, full bridge consists of four cable planes.
Fenghua Three-span: Tied arch bridge. Three spatial arrangement of arch form three
bridge 56 + 138 + groups of vierendeel, each group of vierendeel arch with three
56
triangle connected with the Blade. Full-bridge has six Slingcable-plane, each group of vierendeel arch features two cable
planes, with the exception of two pairs of vierendeel arch outside
the inner Sling crossing arrangement, all other Sling are arranged
in parallel.
Bengbu Seven cross: Arch-beam composite structure bridges. Antisymmetric flexible
bridge 27 + 12.63 + arches on both sides and the middle lane group of rigid box
35.37 + 42 + girder and intermediate supports are also anti-symmetric layout.
35.37 +
Composition of the main arch also consists of smaller arch ribs,
12.63 + 27 arch ribs are connected by transverse arch ribs, each form of arch
rib using space warps.
Fenghua Three-span: Special cable-stayed bridge, uses the streamline form enclosed
bridge 120 + 55 + curved steel box girder in main beam. Main tower is located in
40
the inside of the curve of oblique, structurally separated from the
main bridge. Pylon cable is positioned behind main tower to
balance the horizontal force of main tower. Main span and side
span are asymmetrical, main span use fan-shaped arrangement,
side with thin rope system.
Fumin
bridge
In the whole process of Dagu bridge construction system switch is the key to
completion of bridge, novel structure requires in this phase of construction to be
innovative. Practice proves, the entire set of system construction technology to be
practical. It increases the accuracy of the positioning of the bridge structure, accelerate the
pace of construction, guarantees the safety of construction process for smooth and
completing the works played an important role in quality, but also for the future of such
bridges provides valuable experience for reference. The design mainly has following
several aspects and construction innovations:
general procedures for mechanical calculation and analysis of applicability of bridge
structure;
steel weldability study on small space;
low alloy steel thick plate welding performance of different types of steel welding
performance;
inverted trapezoidal arch moulding process;
study on installation technology of steel box arch ribs;
asymmetry of the Suspender tension control process.
regulations simply increase or decrease the stiffness can be improved to some extent
loading condition of the structure, and for this kind of beam and Arch (Generalized arch)
system, in whole or in part under the influence of external load rigidity and internal force
distribution problem, it takes should be carefully weighed and studied.
This bridge and the bridge has been built in the past, stress characteristics of huge
difference, unable to bridge design has been built through learning from other experiences
full control and design information on structures, so we devoted to the study of the bridge.
Design concept of this bridge novel, even with conventional bridge design concepts, and
manifested in the following aspects:
Main structure consists of box girder of the bridge with the lattice arch consists of
small box girder sections, structure of the unique network-shape arch bridge is never
use a principal stress structures.
Design first starting from the landscape dimensions of the selected components,
which greatly increases the difficulty of structural design and workload.
Load bars under tension and compression transform into bridge design support
structure (1st, 6th Pier).
Used in the bridge configuration is a hinged components in order to meet the need of
force structure (2nd and 5th Pier).
Special V-shaped structure Pier design (3rd and 4th Pier).
Due to the prominent landscape of this bridge, bridge structure fully into account
aesthetic requirements. This bridge, such as linear, sectional dimensions of space hormone
directly affects the aesthetic effect through optimized calculations and research necessary
to solve the difficulties of the structure to meet traffic requirements, and full attention to
appearance, so as to ensure uniformity in its effects and appearance features, rich in
Tianjin urban image, Ascension Day Tianjins status, which greatly promoted the
economic development the Haihe River.
Fig. 8.23 Before and after the transformation of the Lion Bridge.
Tests on the first of the bridge showed that Northampton bridge suspension beam are
unable to meet the existing load requirements, you need to thoroughly replacement.
Meanwhile, Northampton bridge of cantilever beam brackets must also be reinforced.
According to the planning requirement of Haihe River Bridge, on the North onkyo
alterations include the following:
the Governors mansion and old prison dungeons in the middle ages, when the prisoners at
the Governors mansion after the trial, criminals will be brought to the Dungeon, and may
have thus to be gone forever. Only one bridge away, but can be described as between
heaven and hell. These dying prisoners, after which beautiful marble bridge, through the
side of the bridge window to see beautiful water scenery, will not help and groaned, the
bridge of sighs hence the name.
Through the bridge of sighs in this case, we may wish to explore the deep:
essentially, the bridge was designed to between the two points (tokary Palace next to the
Governors mansion and old prison dungeons in the middle ages) to provide access to
bridge the natural and artificial obstacles (the Canal between two buildings). Bridge
Designer is not just building a building, its soul is how to use ingenious structures that link
the meaning perfectly into the environment, so that it not only provides a new processes,
new viewpoints and experiences through time, and forming new place and in shaping the
landscape.
Therefore, the bridges of the city and the urban environment are inseparable, it, town
squares and main streets and other urban architecture, into the cultural landscape of the
city as a whole, is part of peoples daily life.
by 2015 the urbanisation rate will reach around 52%, by 2030 65% or so.
In the rapid development of urbanisation in China and even the whole world today,
understanding further insight into the urban environment, it becomes very necessary. In
the famous TV series beijingers in New York, a classic line, had this to say: If you love
someone, send him to New York, for its heaven if you hate someone, send him to New
York, for its hell. It is clear that urban environment complex, let us not analyzed the
citys concepts from the fields of philosophy, this is not the focus of this chapter. We are
here concerned the city as a place to live, many of us work, and it really gives us a kind of
environment? These urban bridge design concepts and how close liaison?
bold colors. However, most of the bridges are designed and decorated with your local
environment Association Harmony complement each other.
Tang (China)
The bridge should never be considered unrelated to its surroundings. Therefore, a
bridge must be designed to complement each other with their setting environment and
Harmony exists.
Menn (Switzerland)
City bridge, the city/bridge, city bridge concept, closely related to the citys overall
philosophy. Bridge should fit in the local environment, as well as the history and culture of
the city, unique style, and so on, require bridges to echo the urban environment, reflecting
the high urban quality.
Covent Garden bright, shiny footbridge, across from the new building of the Royal Ballet
School and the Royal Opera House link for dancers direct before. Revolving bridge shape,
square 23 door frame made of aluminum girders, adjacent to each gantry rotation, then
install glass to become. The bridge opened in 2003, as shown in Fig. 8.26.
(c) The United Kingdoms Millennium Bridge Over the Lankaisitelun River
United Kingdom Millennium Bridge on the Lankaisitelun river Fig. 8.28 Y-shaped
railway viaduct piers and connects with the North Bank of the river. It makes both sides of
the river between Lancaster and morecambe walking and bicycling all very convenient.
This twin mast cable-stayed structure using the south better geographical conditions and at
the same time awakens sleeping memories, people seemed to enjoy the 17 and 18th
century, when the pier was crowded with ships. Bridge passageway extending into the
terminal, adding navigation the image, you can also play a reinforcing role and prevents
the mast swings.
In making use of architectural aesthetics of urban bridge model design, and structural
design compared, often of a more large uncertainties. In fact, for the architectural design
of the bridge is not a so-called absolute standard that can be quantified, in the design
process, most of the time we are unable to determine exactly to what extent an issue is
fully resolved. Generally speaking, the designers end a design for two reasons: one is that
time has run out, and second, they think it is no longer necessary to have a design problem
studied further more. Bridge design in urban landscape, however, we had to hastily
because former junction beam architectural design process, there are many designs and
sometimes regrets. The causes of these issues are , the urban landscape bridge was built
building design, is often the goal is unclear, including design issues would also need to be
proactive to discover. Clearly, judge when to conclude its work is an important bridge
designers, but this seems to only find itself through practice. Fizzled out design problems
is very unreasonable, and the other extreme is that problem at design at the beginning of
Ming dynasty practice, later also tend to bring a lot of misleading, in this argument about
traditional bridge type selection alternative thinking are mentioned.
(a) Decoration on the Main Structure of the Bridge has a Protective Effect
Such as: surface paint rust-proof steel surface coating and finishes can prevent rain water
and poisonous gases on the corrosion of concrete flowers engineered stone veneer of Pier
and abutment can prevent water, mud, ice, erosion and so on.
(b) Decorations can make up for Local Defects in Bridges of body Image
For example: bridgehead buildings make up the bridge the monotonous level image;
honeycomb, pockmarked face, templates, seam, reinforced gel top concrete tables
unavoidable construction defects can be covered through shows that decoration, so that
they could with a beautiful image like this in front of other people.
(c) Decorations can be used to Adjust the Bridge body Proportions, Scale
For example: use shadow or painted in different shades of colour change too much height
or physical area of visual perception and week surrounding environment of colour can be
adjusted to its sense of scale, and so on.
(d) Decoration can be used as Visual exchange point has Weakened the
Role of Bridge and Bridge Differences
Example: difference between great bridge and bridge joints easily shaped points,
destroying smoothly and continuously, built on the main bridge and bridge approach
between the bridgeheads, move horizontally so that peoples attention is transformed into
vertical movement, weakening the main and bridge the differences.
(h) Decorating can Extend and Strengthen the Bridge Space and time
Exhibition and Beautify the Bight Environment
Like bridge landscape lighting at night, not only make it night or day, you can enjoy the
artistic image of the bridge, and improved the city image of the city, showing social
progress, improve peoples lives.
REFERENCES
[1] Martin Pearce, Lichade Qiaobusen. Bridge Construction. Dalian: Dalian University
of Technology Press, 2003.
[2] Wanghuiping. Discussion on Treatment of City River Bridgescape/territory/in
Proceedings of the 17th National Conference on Bridges. Beijing: Peoples China
Communications Press, 2006.
[3] Wang Xiaolan. Interpretation of Architectural Culture in BooksBridge. Beijing:
China Renmin University Press, 2007.
[4] Wang Yingliang, Gao Zongyu. Bridge Design in Europe and America. Beijing:
China Railway Publishing House, 2008.
[5] Bulaienlaosen. Design thinking. Beijing: China Waterpower Press, 2007.
[6] Chen Airong, Cheng Yong, Qian feng. Bridge Design. Beijing: Peoples
Communications Press, 2005.
[7] Teng Jiajun, Shen Ping. Modern bridge Architectural Design. Beijing: Peoples
Communications Press, 2008.
[8] T. Y. Lin. Concept and System Structure. Gao Liren, Translated. Beijing: China
Architecture and Building Press, 1999.
[9] Yin Delan. Deng, and bridgeChina article. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press,
2006.
[10] World Architecture, 2009.
INDEX
A
Aerodynamic measures 258, 272
Aerodynamic testing 192
Aesthetic design 76
Air curtain 151
Alkali-aggregate reaction 493
Amplitude 264, 268
Analytical method 341, 472
Anchor group 11
Anisotropic 465
Anti-collision facilities 297
Anti-seismic design 19
Anti-seismic tower 14
Arch bridge 126, 216, 314, 318
Arch system 337
Asphalt concrete pavement 30
Asymmetric arrangement 82
Auto pneumatic caisson 153
Auxiliary pier 84
Axle vibration model 20
B
Backwards analysis 16
Bar stable formula 19
Beam end corner 111
Bedrock 241
Bell foundation 159
Bending moment 380
Bending stiffness 338
Bending torque 324
Bound voyage 121
Boundary conditions 382, 390
Breakthrough 223
Bridge construction 47
Bridge design 224
Bridge pylon 86
Bridge scheme 188
Bridge seismic damage 275
Bridge span 108
Bridge tunnel 193
Bridge-axis 114
Brooklyn bridge 4
C
Cable 239
Cable casing system 26
Cable construction line 335
Cable plane 88
Cable pylon 404
Cable stayed bridge 193
Cable tower model 304
Cables vibration control 269
Cable-stayed 289
Cable-stayed bridge 26, 27, 72, 81, 132, 140, 161, 236, 313, 327, 464
Cable-stayed suspension bridge 137
Caisson 144, 150
Caisson foundation 145
Cantilever casting method 15
Capital investment 179
Carbon fiber 13
Cast in situ 349
Channel high level 293
Circular caisson 229
Collision avoidance 39
Column base 153
Composite 306
Composite cable-stayed bridge 394
Composite design 374
Composite foundation 29, 156
Composite girder 200
Concept design 188, 353
Conceptual design 54, 55
Conceptual design phase 380
Concrete cover 422
Concrete pylon 173
Consolidation 241
Constant load 333
Constant load + live load 333
Construction preparation 344
Construction technology 141
Continuous girder 128, 322
Continuous girder bridge 349
Continuous rigid frame bridge 247
Continuous wall 151
Controlled permeability formwork 449
Corrosion 421
Corrosion resistant steel 454
Corrosion-resistant 454
Cracking resistance 458
Creep 401
Creep co-efficient 400
Creep effects 348
Critical loads 341
Critical wind speed 265
D
Damper device 33
Damping force 394
Dead load 383
Deck 245
Deck system 317
Deck-bearing type movable 446
Deflection theory 4
Derricks stiffness 337
Design concept 48, 304
Design earthquake 202
Design parameters 331
Design problems 222
Disaster prevention design 252
Discretization 380
Double spherical aseismic bearing 286
Double-wall steel cofferdam 154
Drawbridge 190
Drilling-and-blasting 150
Dual-tower cable stayed bridge 194
Durability 465
Durability of concrete 300
Durability problem 20
Durable materials 307
Dywidag anchor 11
E
Earthquake damage 275
Earthquakes 102, 273
East huntington bridge 86
Elastic sliding bearing 285
Elastic supports 319
Energy dissipation 297
Energy dissipation system 285
Expansion joints 278
F
Facade 82
G
Gantry tower 202
Geological exploration 45
Geology 98
Geometric characteristics 380
Geometric description 380
Girder bridge 169
Girder foundation 319
Global positioning system 451
Glue bamboo template 449
Glulam template 448
Grating sensors 451
H
Height-span ratio 135
High performance concrete 11, 456
High performance steel 11, 163, 452
High strength steel 209, 452
Hingeless arch 339
Horizontal alignment 115
Hot extrusion PE sleeve 424
Hydrogeological conditions 156
I
Impact anchorages 291
Impact force 293
In situ method 347
J
Jib crane 440
K
Knot frame stiffness 302
Knowledge economy 53
L
Laminated rubber bearing 284
Landscape architects 113
Landscape effect 334
Large-span cable-stayed bridge 315
Laser technology 451
Lateral movement 345
Launching construction method 351
Limit states 374
Live load 108, 110, 333, 383
Live load deflection 197
Lock-coil 11
Longitudinal and lateral movement 238
Longitudinal stiffness 110, 401
Low tower cable-stayed 140
Lower deck 219
M
Main beam girder 88
Mass damper passive control 20
Master girder 239
Maximum amplitude 273
Middle deck 219
Mid-span deflection 375
Mineral composition 98
Modulus of elasticity 463
Monitoring technology 468
Mounting rack technology 334
Movable frame construction 447
Multi-tower cable-stayed bridge 313
Natural conditions 91
Natural frequency 268
Natural science foundation 52
Natural vibration 418
Navigable holes 80
Navigation bridge 38
Navigation requirements 290
Neural network control technology 30
Non-linear materials 381
Non-linear problem 466
Numerical analysis 373, 472
O
Open caisson 146, 174, 175
Overturning moment 327
P
Parabolic steel arches 244
Parallel wire beam 263
Parametric oscillation 418
Pedestrian bridges 492
PHC pipe pile 148
Pier 239
Pier bearing platform 297
Pier foundation 32
Piers 260
Pile bent diaphragm 161
Pile foundation 148
Pile hammer equipment 148
Piles 144
Pneumatic caisson 151
Pneumatic controls 272
Post-tensioned cable-system 241
Post-tensioned pre-stressing steel 242
Post-tensioning prestressed concrete 200
Pre-cast 156
Pre-cast hoisting 435
Precise geometry control 33
Pre-fabricated base 156
Pre-fabricated units 211
Pre-fabrication 306
Pre-stressed concrete 350, 396
Pre-stressed concrete beam 359
Pre-stressed concrete girder 302
Pre-stressed plate 400
Proportional beauty 68
Pylon 140
Pylon foundations 229
Q
Quenching and tempering 453
R
Rain-wind induced vibration 268
Rebar connecting 413
Redundant design 305
Reinforced concrete 462
Reinforced earth 159
Relative displacements 278
Resonance 268, 418
Richter scale 202
Rigid frame bridge 128, 394
Rigid-frame structure 324
Rigidly connected 326
River bed 92
River regime 91
River regime analysis 234
Road construction 90
Rubber bearing 390
Rubber damper 272
S
Scaffolding 182
Seamless connectivity 320
Secondary pier 197
Sediment conditions 92
Segmental assembly 436
Seismic intensity 103
Seismic performance 317
Self-anchored 467
Self-anchored suspension bridge 138
Self-compacting concrete 457
Semi-active 269
Semi-active damper 269
Sensor signals 468
Service life 309
Shantou bay bridge 27
Shear key 326, 327
Shear plate 419
Shield protection system 298
Ship collision 144
Ship collision force 289
T
Technical innovation 90, 223
Technological innovation 141
Technology 306
Tectonic movement 160
Tectonic stress 273
Tensile strength 458
Terrain conditions 87
Tied arch bridge 2
Torsional stiffness 380
Tower anchorage 196
Tower elastic fixation 233
Transient deformation 394
Triaxial compressive stress 407
U
Ultra high performance concrete 457
Ultrafine admixtures 458
Upper deck 219
V
Vertical alignments 115
Vertical deflection 110
Viaducts 436
Vibration control 269, 394
Virtual digital world 467
Virtual reality 52
Viscous damper 394
Vortex frequency 268
Vortex-excited resonance 268
Vortex-induced vibration 264, 418
Vortex-induced vibration control 272
W
Warping 142
Water anchorage 32
Water level 94
Wind characteristics 254
Wind induced disasters 256
Wind load 198, 383
Wind resistance 225
Wind stability 88
Wind tunnel testing 226
Wind vortex 135
Wind-induced vibration 225, 264
Wind-resistance 253, 257
Y
Yield strength 413, 453