Causality

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Causality(alsoreferredtoascausation,[1]orcauseandeffect)isthe
agencyorefficacythatconnectsoneprocess(thecause)withanother
processorstate(theeffect),wherethefirstisunderstoodtobepartly
responsibleforthesecond,andthesecondisdependentonthefirst.In
general,aprocesshasmanycauses,whicharesaidtobecausalfactors
forit,andalllieinitspast.Aneffectcaninturnbeacauseofmany
othereffects.Althoughretrocausalityissometimesreferredtoin
thoughtexperimentsandhypotheticalanalyses,causalityisgenerally
acceptedtobetemporallyboundsothatcausesalwaysprecedetheir
dependenteffects.
Causalityisanabstractionthatindicateshowtheworldprogresses,so
basicaconceptthatitismoreaptasanexplanationofotherconceptsof
progressionthanassomethingtobeexplainedbyothersmorebasic.
Theconceptislikethoseofagencyandefficacy.Forthisreason,aleap
ofintuitionmaybeneededtograspit.[2]Accordingly,causalityisbuiltintotheconceptualstructureofordinary
language.[3]
InAristotelianphilosophy,theword'cause'isalsousedtomean'explanation'or'answertoawhyquestion',
includingAristotle'smaterial,formal,efficient,andfinal"causes"thenthe"cause"istheexplanansforthe
explanandum.Inthiscase,failuretorecognizethatdifferentkindsof"cause"arebeingconsideredcanleadto
futiledebate.OfAristotle'sfourexplanatorymodes,theonenearesttotheconcernsofthepresentarticleisthe
"efficient"one.
Thetopicremainsastapleincontemporaryphilosophy.
Whilestudyingofmeaningofcausalitysemanticstraditionallyappealtothechickenortheeggcausality
dilemma,i.e."whichcamefirst,thechickenortheegg?".Thenitallocatesitsconstituentelements:acause,an
effectandlinkitself,thatjoinsbothofthem.

Concept
Metaphysics
Thenatureofcauseandeffectisaconcernofthesubjectknownasmetaphysics.
Ontology
Ageneralmetaphysicalquestionaboutcauseandeffectiswhatkindofentitycanbeacause,andwhatkindof
entitycanbeaneffect.
Oneviewpointonthisquestionisthatcauseandeffectareofoneandthesamekindofentity,withcausalityan
asymmetricrelationbetweenthem.Thatistosay,itwouldmakegoodsensegrammaticallytosayeither"Ais
thecauseandBtheeffect"or"BisthecauseandAtheeffect",thoughonlyoneofthosetwocanbeactually
true.Inthisview,oneopinion,proposedasametaphysicalprincipleinprocessphilosophy,isthateverycause
andeveryeffectisrespectivelysomeprocess,event,becoming,orhappening.[4]Anexampleis'histripping
overthestepwasthecause,andhisbreakinghisankletheeffect'.Anotherviewisthatcausesandeffectsare
'statesofaffairs',withtheexactnaturesofthoseentitiesbeinglessrestrictivelydefinedthaninprocess
philosophy.[5]
Anotherviewpointonthequestionisthemoreclassicalone,thatacauseanditseffectcanbeofdifferentkinds
ofentity.Forexample,inAristotle'sefficientcausalexplanation,anactioncanbeacausewhileanenduring
objectisitseffect.Forexample,thegenerativeactionsofhisparentscanberegardedastheefficientcause,
withSocratesbeingtheeffect,Socratesbeingregardedasanenduringobject,inphilosophicaltraditioncalleda
'substance',asdistinctfromanaction.
Epistemology
Sincecausalityisasubtlemetaphysicalnotion,considerableeffortisneededtoestablishknowledgeofitin
particularempiricalcircumstances.

Geometricalsignificance
Causalityhasthepropertiesofantecedenceandcontiguity.[6][7]Thesearetopological,andareingredientsfor
spacetimegeometry.AsdevelopedbyAlfredRobb,thesepropertiesallowthederivationofthenotionsoftime
andspace.[8]MaxJammerwrites"theEinsteinpostulate...opensthewaytoastraightforwardconstructionof
thecausaltopology...ofMinkowskispace."[9]Causalefficacypropagatesnofasterthanlight.[10]Thus,the
notionofcausalityismetaphysicallypriortothenotionsoftimeandspace.

Necessaryandsufficientcauses
Causesareoftendistinguishedintotwotypes:necessaryandsufficient.[11]Athirdtypeofcausation,which
requiresneithernecessitynorsufficiencyinandofitself,butwhichcontributestotheeffect,iscalleda
"contributorycause."
Necessarycauses
Ifxisanecessarycauseofy,thenthepresenceofynecessarilyimpliesthepresenceofx.Thepresenceof
x,however,doesnotimplythatywilloccur.[12]
Sufficientcauses
Ifxisasufficientcauseofy,thenthepresenceofxnecessarilyimpliesthepresenceofy.However,
anothercausezmayalternativelycausey.Thusthepresenceofydoesnotimplythepresenceofx.[12]
Contributorycauses
Forsomespecificeffect,inasingularcase,factorthatisacontributorycauseisoneamongstseveralco
occurrentcauses.Itisimplicitthatallofthemarecontributory.Forthespecificeffect,ingeneral,thereis
noimplicationthatacontributorycauseisnecessary,thoughitmaybeso.Ingeneral,afactorthatisa
contributorycauseisnotsufficient,becauseitisbydefinitionaccompaniedbyothercauses,whichwould
notcountascausesifitweresufficient.Forthespecificeffect,afactorthatisonsomeoccasionsa
contributorycausemightonsomeotheroccasionsbesufficient,butonthoseotheroccasionsitwouldnot
bemerelycontributory.[13]
J.L.Mackiearguesthatusualtalkof"cause"infactreferstoINUSconditions(insufficientbutnonredundant
partsofaconditionwhichisitselfunnecessarybutsufficientfortheoccurrenceoftheeffect).[14]Anexampleis
ashortcircuitasacauseforahouseburningdown.Considerthecollectionofevents:theshortcircuit,the
proximityofflammablematerial,andtheabsenceoffirefighters.Togethertheseareunnecessarybutsufficient
tothehouse'sburningdown(sincemanyothercollectionsofeventscertainlycouldhaveledtothehouse
burningdown,forexampleshootingthehousewithaflamethrowerinthepresenceofoxygenandsoforth).
Withinthiscollection,theshortcircuitisaninsufficient(sincetheshortcircuitbyitselfwouldnothavecaused
thefire)butnonredundant(becausethefirewouldnothavehappenedwithoutit,everythingelsebeingequal)
partofaconditionwhichisitselfunnecessarybutsufficientfortheoccurrenceoftheeffect.So,theshortcircuit
isanINUSconditionfortheoccurrenceofthehouseburningdown.

Contrastedwithconditionals
Conditionalstatementsarenotstatementsofcausality.Animportantdistinctionisthatstatementsofcausality
requiretheantecedenttoprecedeorcoincidewiththeconsequentintime,whereasconditionalstatementsdo
notrequirethistemporalorder.ConfusioncommonlyarisessincemanydifferentstatementsinEnglishmaybe
presentedusing"If...,then..."form(and,arguably,becausethisformisfarmorecommonlyusedtomakea
statementofcausality).Thetwotypesofstatementsaredistinct,however.
Forexample,allofthefollowingstatementsaretruewheninterpreting"If...,then..."asthematerial
conditional:
1.IfBarackObamaispresidentoftheUnitedStatesin2011,thenGermanyisinEurope.
2.IfGeorgeWashingtonispresidentoftheUnitedStatesin2011,then<arbitrarystatement>.

Thefirstistruesinceboththeantecedentandtheconsequentaretrue.Thesecondistrueinsententiallogicand
indeterminateinnaturallanguage,regardlessoftheconsequentstatementthatfollows,becausetheantecedent
isfalse.
Theordinaryindicativeconditionalhassomewhatmorestructurethanthematerialconditional.Forinstance,
althoughthefirstistheclosest,neitheroftheprecedingtwostatementsseemstrueasanordinaryindicative
reading.Butthesentence:
IfShakespeareofStratfordonAvondidnotwriteMacbeth,thensomeoneelsedid.
intuitivelyseemstobetrue,eventhoughthereisnostraightforwardcausalrelationinthishypotheticalsituation
betweenShakespeare'snotwritingMacbethandsomeoneelse'sactuallywritingit.
Anothersortofconditional,thecounterfactualconditional,hasastrongerconnectionwithcausality,yeteven
counterfactualstatementsarenotallexamplesofcausality.Considerthefollowingtwostatements:
1.IfAwereatriangle,thenAwouldhavethreesides.
2.IfswitchSwerethrown,thenbulbBwouldlight.
Inthefirstcase,itwouldnotbecorrecttosaythatA'sbeingatrianglecausedittohavethreesides,sincethe
relationshipbetweentriangularityandthreesidednessisthatofdefinition.Thepropertyofhavingthreesides
actuallydeterminesA'sstateasatriangle.Nonetheless,evenwheninterpretedcounterfactually,thefirst
statementistrue.AnearlyversionofAristotle's"fourcause"theoryisdescribedasrecognizing"essential
cause".Inthisversionofthetheory,thattheclosedpolygonhasthreesidesissaidtobethe"essentialcause"of
itsbeingatriangle.[15]Thisuseoftheword'cause'isofcoursenowfarobsolete.Nevertheless,itiswithinthe
scopeofordinarylanguagetosaythatitisessentialtoatrianglethatithasthreesides.
Afullgraspoftheconceptofconditionalsisimportanttounderstandingtheliteratureoncausality.Ineveryday
language,looseconditionalstatementsareoftenenoughmade,andneedtobeinterpretedcarefully.

Questionablecause
Fallaciesofquestionablecause,alsoknownascausalfallacies,noncausaprocausa(Latinfor"noncausefor
cause"),orfalsecause,areinformalfallacieswhereacauseisincorrectlyidentified.

Theories
Counterfactualtheories
Subjunctiveconditionalsarefamiliarfromordinarylanguage.Theyareoftheform,ifAwerethecase,thenB
wouldbethecase,orifAhadbeenthecase,thenBwouldhavebeenthecase.Counterfactualconditionalsare
specificallysubjunctiveconditionalswhoseantecedentsareinfactfalse,hencethename.Howevertheterm
usedtechnicallymayapplytoconditionalswithtrueantecedentsaswell.
Psychologicalresearchshowsthatpeople'sthoughtsaboutthecausalrelationshipsbetweeneventsinfluences
theirjudgmentsoftheplausibilityofcounterfactualalternatives,andconversely,theircounterfactualthinking
abouthowasituationcouldhaveturnedoutdifferentlychangestheirjudgmentsofthecausalroleofeventsand
agents.Nonetheless,theiridentificationofthecauseofanevent,andtheircounterfactualthoughtabouthowthe
eventcouldhaveturnedoutdifferentlydonotalwayscoincide.[16]Peopledistinguishbetweenvarioussortsof
causes,e.g.,strongandweakcauses.[17]Researchinthepsychologyofreasoningshowsthatpeoplemake
differentsortsofinferencesfromdifferentsortsofcauses.
Inthephilosophicalliterature,thesuggestionthatcausationistobedefinedintermsofacounterfactualrelation
ismadebythe18thCenturyScottishphilosopherDavidHume.Humeremarksthatwemaydefinetherelation
ofcauseandeffectsuchthat``where,ifthefirstobjecthadnotbeen,thesecondneverhadexisted."[18]

Morefullfledgedanalysisofcausationintermsofcounterfactualconditionalsonlycameinthe20thCentury
afterdevelopmentofthepossibleworldsemanticsfortheevaluationofcounterfactualconditionals.Inhis1973
paper"Causation,"DavidLewisproposedthatthefollowingdefinitionofthenotionofcausaldependence:[19]
AneventEcausallydependsonCif,andonlyif,(i)ifChadoccurred,thenEwould
haveoccurred,and(ii)ifChadnotoccurred,thenEwouldnothaveoccurred.
Causationisthendefinedasachainofcausaldependence.Thatis,CcausesEifandonlyifthereexistsa
sequenceofeventsC,D1,D2,...Dk,Esuchthateacheventinthesequencedependsontheprevious.
Notethattheanalysisdoesnotpurporttoexplainhowwemakecausaljudgementsorhowwereasonabout
causation,butrathertogiveametaphysicalaccountofwhatitisfortheretobeacausalrelationbetweensome
pairofevents.Ifcorrect,theanalysishasthepowertoexplaincertainfeaturesofcausation.Knowingthat
causationisamatterofcounterfactualdependence,wemayreflectonthenatureofcounterfactualdependence
toaccountforthenatureofcausation.Forexample,inhispaper"CounterfactualDependenceandTime's
Arrow,"Lewissoughttoaccountforthetimedirectednessofcounterfactualdependenceintermsofthe
semanticsofthecounterfactualconditional.[20]Ifcorrect,thistheorycanservetoexplainafundamentalpartof
ourexperience,whichisthatwecanonlycausallyaffectthefuturebutnotthepast.

Probabilisticcausation
InterpretingcausationasadeterministicrelationmeansthatifAcausesB,thenAmustalwaysbefollowedby
B.Inthissense,wardoesnotcausedeaths,nordoessmokingcausecanceroremphysema.Asaresult,many
turntoanotionofprobabilisticcausation.Informally,A("Thepersonisasmoker")probabilisticallycausesB
("Thepersonhasnoworwillhavecanceratsometimeinthefuture"),iftheinformationthatAoccurred
increasesthelikelihoodofBsoccurrence.Formally,P{B|A}P{B}whereP{B|A}istheconditionalprobability
thatBwilloccurgiventheinformationthatAoccurred,andP{B}istheprobabilitythatBwilloccurhavingno
knowledgewhetherAdidordidnotoccur.Thisintuitiveconditionisnotadequateasadefinitionfor
probabilisticcausationbecauseofitsbeingtoogeneralandthusnotmeetingourintuitivenotionofcauseand
effect.Forexample,ifAdenotestheevent"Thepersonisasmoker,"Bdenotestheevent"Thepersonnowhas
orwillhavecanceratsometimeinthefuture"andCdenotestheevent"Thepersonnowhasorwillhave
emphysemasometimeinthefuture,"thenthefollowingthreerelationshipshold:P{B|A}P{B},P{C|A}
P{C}andP{B|C}P{B}.Thelastrelationshipstatesthatknowingthatthepersonhasemphysemaincreases
thelikelihoodthathewillhavecancer.Thereasonforthisishavingtheinformationthatthepersonhas
emphysemaincreasesthelikelihoodthatthepersonisasmokerthusindirectlyincreasesthelikelihoodthatthe
personwillhavecancer.However,wewouldnotwanttoconcludethathavingemphysemacausescancer.Thus,
weneedadditionalconditionssuchastemporalrelationshipofAtobeandarationalexplanationastothe
mechanismofaction.Itishardtoquantifythislastrequirementandthusdifferentauthorsprefersomewhat
differentdefinitions.

Causalcalculus
Whenexperimentalinterventionsareinfeasibleorillegal,thederivationofcauseeffectrelationshipfrom
observationalstudiesmustrestonsomequalitativetheoreticalassumptions,forexample,thatsymptomsdonot
causediseases,usuallyexpressedintheformofmissingarrowsincausalgraphssuchasBayesiannetworksor
pathdiagrams.Thetheoryunderlyingthesederivationsreliesonthedistinctionbetweenconditional
probabilities,asin
,andinterventionalprobabilities,asin
.
Theformerreads:"theprobabilityoffindingcancerinapersonknowntosmoke,havingstarted,unforcedby
theexperimenter,todosoatanunspecifiedtimeinthepast",whilethelatterreads:"theprobabilityoffinding
cancerinapersonforcedbytheexperimentertosmokeataspecifiedtimeinthepast".Theformerisa
statisticalnotionthatcanbeestimatedbyobservationwithnegligibleinterventionbytheexperimenter,while
thelatterisacausalnotionwhichisestimatedinanexperimentwithanimportantcontrolledrandomized
intervention.Itisspecificallycharacteristicofquantalphenomenathatobservationsdefinedbyincompatible
variablesalwaysinvolveimportantinterventionbytheexperimenter,asdescribedquantitativelybythe

Heisenberguncertaintyprinciple.Inclassicalthermodynamics,processesareinitiatedbyinterventionscalled
thermodynamicoperations.Inotherbranchesofscience,forexampleastronomy,theexperimentercanoften
observewithnegligibleintervention.
Thetheoryof"causalcalculus"[21]permitsonetoinferinterventionalprobabilitiesfromconditional
probabilitiesincausalBayesiannetworkswithunmeasuredvariables.Oneverypracticalresultofthistheoryis
thecharacterizationofconfoundingvariables,namely,asufficientsetofvariablesthat,ifadjustedfor,would
yieldthecorrectcausaleffectbetweenvariablesofinterest.Itcanbeshownthatasufficientsetforestimating
thecausaleffectof on isanysetofnondescendantsof that separate from afterremovingall
arrowsemanatingfrom .Thiscriterion,called"backdoor",providesamathematicaldefinitionof
"confounding"andhelpsresearchersidentifyaccessiblesetsofvariablesworthyofmeasurement.

Structurelearning
Whilederivationsincausalcalculusrelyonthestructureofthecausalgraph,partsofthecausalstructurecan,
undercertainassumptions,belearnedfromstatisticaldata.ThebasicideagoesbacktoSewallWright's1921
work[22]onpathanalysis.A"recovery"algorithmwasdevelopedbyRebaneandPearl(1987)[23]whichrestson
Wright'sdistinctionbetweenthethreepossibletypesofcausalsubstructuresallowedinadirectedacyclicgraph
(DAG):
1.
2.
3.
Type1andtype2representthesamestatisticaldependencies(i.e., and areindependentgiven )andare,
therefore,indistinguishablewithinpurelycrosssectionaldata.Type3,however,canbeuniquelyidentified,
since and aremarginallyindependentandallotherpairsaredependent.Thus,whiletheskeletons(the
graphsstrippedofarrows)ofthesethreetripletsareidentical,thedirectionalityofthearrowsispartially
identifiable.Thesamedistinctionapplieswhen and havecommonancestors,exceptthatonemustfirst
conditiononthoseancestors.Algorithmshavebeendevelopedtosystematicallydeterminetheskeletonofthe
underlyinggraphand,then,orientallarrowswhosedirectionalityisdictatedbytheconditionalindependencies
observed.[21][24][25][26]
Alternativemethodsofstructurelearningsearchthroughthemanypossiblecausalstructuresamongthe
variables,andremoveoneswhicharestronglyincompatiblewiththeobservedcorrelations.Ingeneralthis
leavesasetofpossiblecausalrelations,whichshouldthenbetestedbyanalyzingtimeseriesdataor,
preferably,designingappropriatelycontrolledexperiments.IncontrastwithBayesianNetworks,pathanalysis
(anditsgeneralization,structuralequationmodeling),servebettertoestimateaknowncausaleffectortotesta
causalmodelthantogeneratecausalhypotheses.
Fornonexperimentaldata,causaldirectioncanoftenbeinferredifinformationabouttimeisavailable.Thisis
because(accordingtomany,thoughnotall,theories)causesmustprecedetheireffectstemporally.Thiscanbe
determinedbystatisticaltimeseriesmodels,forinstance,orwithastatisticaltestbasedontheideaofGranger
causality,orbydirectexperimentalmanipulation.Theuseoftemporaldatacanpermitstatisticaltestsofapre
existingtheoryofcausaldirection.Forinstance,ourdegreeofconfidenceinthedirectionandnatureof
causalityismuchgreaterwhensupportedbycrosscorrelations,ARIMAmodels,orcrossspectralanalysis
usingvectortimeseriesdatathanbycrosssectionaldata.

Derivationtheories
NobelPrizelaureateHerbertA.SimonandphilosopherNicholasRescher[27]claimthattheasymmetryofthe
causalrelationisunrelatedtotheasymmetryofanymodeofimplicationthatcontraposes.Rather,acausal
relationisnotarelationbetweenvaluesofvariables,butafunctionofonevariable(thecause)ontoanother
(theeffect).So,givenasystemofequations,andasetofvariablesappearingintheseequations,wecan

introduceanasymmetricrelationamongindividualequationsandvariablesthatcorrespondsperfectlytoour
commonsensenotionofacausalordering.Thesystemofequationsmusthavecertainproperties,most
importantly,ifsomevaluesarechosenarbitrarily,theremainingvalueswillbedetermineduniquelythrougha
pathofserialdiscoverythatisperfectlycausal.Theypostulatetheinherentserializationofsuchasystemof
equationsmaycorrectlycapturecausationinallempiricalfields,includingphysicsandeconomics.

Manipulationtheories
Sometheoristshaveequatedcausalitywithmanipulability.[28][29][30][31]Underthesetheories,xcausesyonlyin
thecasethatonecanchangexinordertochangey.Thiscoincideswithcommonsensenotionsofcausations,
sinceoftenweaskcausalquestionsinordertochangesomefeatureoftheworld.Forinstance,weareinterested
inknowingthecausesofcrimesothatwemightfindwaysofreducingit.
Thesetheorieshavebeencriticizedontwoprimarygrounds.First,theoristscomplainthattheseaccountsare
circular.Attemptingtoreducecausalclaimstomanipulationrequiresthatmanipulationismorebasicthan
causalinteraction.Butdescribingmanipulationsinnoncausaltermshasprovidedasubstantialdifficulty.
Thesecondcriticismcentersaroundconcernsofanthropocentrism.Itseemstomanypeoplethatcausalityis
someexistingrelationshipintheworldthatwecanharnessforourdesires.Ifcausalityisidentifiedwithour
manipulation,thenthisintuitionislost.Inthissense,itmakeshumansoverlycentraltointeractionsinthe
world.
Someattemptstodefendmanipulabilitytheoriesarerecentaccountsthatdon'tclaimtoreducecausalityto
manipulation.Theseaccountsusemanipulationasasignorfeatureincausationwithoutclaimingthat
manipulationismorefundamentalthancausation.[21][32]

Processtheories
Sometheoristsareinterestedindistinguishingbetweencausalprocessesandnoncausalprocesses(Russell
1948Salmon1984).[33][34]Thesetheoristsoftenwanttodistinguishbetweenaprocessandapseudoprocess.
Asanexample,aballmovingthroughtheair(aprocess)iscontrastedwiththemotionofashadow(apseudo
process).Theformeriscausalinnaturewhilethelatterisnot.
Salmon(1984)[33]claimsthatcausalprocessescanbeidentifiedbytheirabilitytotransmitanalterationover
spaceandtime.Analterationoftheball(amarkbyapen,perhaps)iscarriedwithitastheballgoesthrough
theair.Ontheotherhand,analterationoftheshadow(insofarasitispossible)willnotbetransmittedbythe
shadowasitmovesalong.
Thesetheoristsclaimthattheimportantconceptforunderstandingcausalityisnotcausalrelationshipsorcausal
interactions,butratheridentifyingcausalprocesses.Theformernotionscanthenbedefinedintermsofcausal
processes.

WhyBecauseGraphofthecapsizingoftheHeraldofFreeEnterprise(clicktoseeindetail).

Fields
Science
Forthescientificinvestigationofefficientcausality,thecauseandeffectareeachbestconceivedofas
temporallytransientprocesses.
Withintheconceptualframeofthescientificmethod,aninvestigatorsetsupseveraldistinctandcontrasting
temporallytransientmaterialprocessesthathavethestructureofexperiments,andrecordscandidatematerial
responses,normallyintendingtodeterminecausalityinthephysicalworld.[35]Forinstance,onemaywantto
knowwhetherahighintakeofcarrotscauseshumanstodevelopthebubonicplague.Thequantityofcarrot
intakeisaprocessthatisvariedfromoccasiontooccasion.Theoccurrenceornonoccurrenceofsubsequent
bubonicplagueisrecorded.Toestablishcausality,theexperimentmustfulfillcertaincriteria,onlyoneexample
ofwhichismentionedhere.(Thereareothercriterianotmentionedhere.)Forexample,instancesofthe
hypothesizedcausemustbesetuptooccuratatimewhenthehypothesizedeffectisrelativelyunlikelyinthe
absenceofthehypothesizedcausesuchunlikelihoodistobeestablishedbyempiricalevidence.Amere
observationofacorrelationisnotnearlyadequatetoestablishcausality.Innearlyallcases,establishmentof
causalityreliesonrepetitionofexperimentsandprobabilisticreasoning.Hardlyeveriscausalityestablished
morefirmlythanasmoreorlessprobable.Itisoftenmostconvenientforestablishmentofcausalityifthe
contrastingmaterialstatesofaffairsarefullycomparable,anddifferthroughonlyonevariablefactor,perhaps
measuredbyarealnumber.Otherwise,experimentsareusuallydifficultorimpossibletointerpret.
Insomesciences,itisverydifficultornearlyimpossibletosetupmaterialstatesofaffairsthatcloselytest
hypothesesofcausality.Suchsciencescaninsomesenseberegardedas"softer".
Physics
Itisusefultobecarefulintheuseofthewordcauseinphysics.Properlyspeaking,thehypothesizedcauseand
thehypothesizedeffectareeachtemporallytransientprocesses.Forexample,forceisausefulconceptforthe
explanationofacceleration,butforceisnotbyitselfacause.Moreisneeded.Forexample,atemporally
transientprocessmightbecharacterizedbyadefinitechangeofforceatadefinitetime.Suchaprocesscanbe

regardedasacause.Causalityisnotinherentlyimpliedinequationsofmotion,butpostulatedasanadditional
constraintthatneedstobesatisfied(i.e.acausealwaysprecedesitseffect).Thisconstrainthasmathematical
implications[36]suchastheKramersKronigrelations.
Causalityisoneofthemostfundamentalandessentialnotionsofphysics.[37]Causalefficacycannotpropagate
fasterthanlight.Otherwise,referencecoordinatesystemscouldbeconstructed(usingtheLorentztransformof
specialrelativity)inwhichanobserverwouldseeaneffectprecedeitscause(i.e.thepostulateofcausality
wouldbeviolated).
Causalnotionsappearinthecontextoftheflowofmassenergy.Forexample,itiscommonplacetoarguethat
causalefficacycanbepropagatedbywaves(suchaselectromagneticwaves)onlyiftheypropagatenofaster
thanlight.Wavepacketshavegroupvelocityandphasevelocity.Forwavesthatpropagatecausalefficacy,both
ofthesemusttravelnofasterthanlight.ThuslightwavesoftenpropagatecausalefficacybutdeBrogliewaves
oftenhavephasevelocityfasterthanlightandconsequentlycannotbepropagatingcausalefficacy.
Causalnotionsareimportantingeneralrelativitytotheextentthattheexistenceofanarrowoftimedemands
thattheuniverse'ssemiRiemannianmanifoldbeorientable,sothat"future"and"past"aregloballydefinable
quantities.
Engineering
Acausalsystemisasystemwithoutputandinternalstatesthatdependsonlyonthecurrentandpreviousinput
values.Asystemthathassomedependenceoninputvaluesfromthefuture(inadditiontopossiblepastor
currentinputvalues)istermedanacausalsystem,andasystemthatdependssolelyonfutureinputvaluesisan
anticausalsystem.Acausalfilters,forexample,canonlyexistaspostprocessingfilters,becausethesefilterscan
extractfuturevaluesfromamemorybufferorafile.
Biology,medicineandepidemiology
AustinBradfordHillbuiltupontheworkofHumeandPopperandsuggestedinhispaper"TheEnvironment
andDisease:AssociationorCausation?"thataspectsofanassociationsuchasstrength,consistency,specificity
andtemporalitybeconsideredinattemptingtodistinguishcausalfromnoncausalassociationsinthe
epidemiologicalsituation.(SeeBradfordHillcriteria.)Hedidnotnotehowever,thattemporalityistheonly
necessarycriterionamongthoseaspects.Directedacyclicgraphs(DAGs)areincreasinglyusedinepidemiology
tohelpenlightencausalthinking.[38]
Psychology
Psychologiststakeanempiricalapproachtocausality,investigatinghowpeopleandnonhumananimalsdetect
orinfercausationfromsensoryinformation,priorexperienceandinnateknowledge.
Attribution
Attributiontheoryisthetheoryconcerninghowpeopleexplainindividualoccurrencesofcausation.Attribution
canbeexternal(assigningcausalitytoanoutsideagentorforceclaimingthatsomeoutsidethingmotivated
theevent)orinternal(assigningcausalitytofactorswithinthepersontakingpersonalresponsibilityor
accountabilityforone'sactionsandclaimingthatthepersonwasdirectlyresponsiblefortheevent).Taking
causationonestepfurther,thetypeofattributionapersonprovidesinfluencestheirfuturebehavior.
Theintentionbehindthecauseortheeffectcanbecoveredbythesubjectofaction.Seealsoaccidentblame
intentandresponsibility.
Causalpowers

WhereasDavidHumearguedthatcausesareinferredfromnoncausalobservations,ImmanuelKantclaimed
thatpeoplehaveinnateassumptionsaboutcauses.Withinpsychology,PatriciaCheng(1997)[39]attemptedto
reconciletheHumeanandKantianviews.AccordingtoherpowerPCtheory,peoplefilterobservationsof
eventsthroughabasicbeliefthatcauseshavethepowertogenerate(orprevent)theireffects,therebyinferring
specificcauseeffectrelations.
Causationandsalience
Ourviewofcausationdependsonwhatweconsidertobetherelevantevents.Anotherwaytoviewthe
statement,"Lightningcausesthunder"istoseebothlightningandthunderastwoperceptionsofthesameevent,
viz.,anelectricdischargethatweperceivefirstvisuallyandthenaurally.
Namingandcausality
DavidSobelandAlisonGopnikfromthePsychologyDepartmentofUCBerkeleydesignedadeviceknownas
theblicketdetectorwhichwouldturnonwhenanobjectwasplacedonit.Theirresearchsuggeststhat"even
youngchildrenwilleasilyandswiftlylearnaboutanewcausalpowerofanobjectandspontaneouslyusethat
informationinclassifyingandnamingtheobject."[40]
Perceptionoflaunchingevents
SomeresearcherssuchasAnjanChatterjeeattheUniversityofPennsylvaniaandJonathanFugelsangatthe
UniversityofWaterlooareusingneurosciencetechniquestoinvestigatetheneuralandpsychological
underpinningsofcausallaunchingeventsinwhichoneobjectcausesanotherobjecttomove.Bothtemporal
andspatialfactorscanbemanipulated.[41]
SeeCausalReasoning(Psychology)formoreinformation.
Statisticsandeconomics
Statisticsandeconomicsusuallyemploypreexistingdataorexperimentaldatatoinfercausalitybyregression
methods.Thebodyofstatisticaltechniquesinvolvessubstantialuseofregressionanalysis.Typicallyalinear
relationshipsuchas

ispostulated,inwhich istheithobservationofthedependentvariable(hypothesizedtobethecaused
variable), forj=1,...,kistheithobservationonthejthindependentvariable(hypothesizedtobeacausative
variable),and istheerrortermfortheithobservation(containingthecombinedeffectsofallothercausative
variables,whichmustbeuncorrelatedwiththeincludedindependentvariables).Ifthereisreasontobelievethat
noneofthe siscausedbyy,thenestimatesofthecoefficients areobtained.Ifthenullhypothesisthat
isrejected,thenthealternativehypothesisthat
andequivalentlythat causesycannotbe
rejected.Ontheotherhand,ifthenullhypothesisthat
cannotberejected,thenequivalentlythe
hypothesisofnocausaleffectof onycannotberejected.Herethenotionofcausalityisoneofcontributory
causalityasdiscussedabove:Ifthetruevalue
,thenachangein willresultinachangeinyunless
someothercausativevariable(s),eitherincludedintheregressionorimplicitintheerrorterm,changeinsucha
wayastoexactlyoffsetitseffectthusachangein isnotsufficienttochangey.Likewise,achangein is
notnecessarytochangey,becauseachangeinycouldbecausedbysomethingimplicitintheerrorterm(orby
someothercausativeexplanatoryvariableincludedinthemodel).
Theabovewayoftestingforcausalityrequiresbeliefthatthereisnoreversecausation,inwhichywouldcause
.Thisbeliefcanbeestablishedinoneofseveralways.First,thevariable maybeanoneconomic
variable:forexample,ifrainfallamount ishypothesizedtoaffectthefuturespriceyofsomeagricultural
commodity,itisimpossiblethatinfactthefuturespriceaffectsrainfallamount(providedthatcloudseedingis

neverattempted).Second,theinstrumentalvariablestechniquemaybeemployedtoremoveanyreverse
causationbyintroducingaroleforothervariables(instruments)thatareknowntobeunaffectedbythe
dependentvariable.Third,theprinciplethateffectscannotprecedecausescanbeinvoked,byincludingonthe
rightsideoftheregressiononlyvariablesthatprecedeintimethedependentvariablethisprincipleisinvoked,
forexample,intestingforGrangercausalityandinitsmultivariateanalog,vectorautoregression,bothofwhich
controlforlaggedvaluesofthedependentvariablewhiletestingforcausaleffectsoflaggedindependent
variables.
Regressionanalysiscontrolsforotherrelevantvariablesbyincludingthemasregressors(explanatory
variables).Thishelpstoavoidfalseinferencesofcausalityduetothepresenceofathird,underlying,variable
thatinfluencesboththepotentiallycausativevariableandthepotentiallycausedvariable:itseffectonthe
potentiallycausedvariableiscapturedbydirectlyincludingitintheregression,sothateffectwillnotbepicked
upasanindirecteffectthroughthepotentiallycausativevariableofinterest.

Metaphysics
Thedeterministicworldviewholdsthatthehistoryoftheuniversecanbeexhaustivelyrepresentedasa
progressionofeventsfollowingoneafterascauseandeffect.[7]Theincompatibilistversionofthisholdsthat
thereisnosuchthingas"freewill".Compatibilism,ontheotherhand,holdsthatdeterminismiscompatible
with,orevennecessaryfor,freewill.[42]

Management
Forqualitycontrolinmanufacturinginthe1960s,KaoruIshikawa
developedacauseandeffectdiagram,knownasanIshikawadiagramor
fishbonediagram.Thediagramcategorizescauses,suchasintothesix
maincategoriesshownhere.Thesecategoriesarethensubdivided.
Ishikawa'smethodidentifies"causes"inbrainstormingsessions
conductedamongvariousgroupsinvolvedinthemanufacturingprocess.
Thesegroupscanthenbelabeledascategoriesinthediagrams.Theuse
ofthesediagramshasnowspreadbeyondqualitycontrol,andtheyare
usedinotherareasofmanagementandindesignandengineering.
Ishikawadiagramshavebeencriticizedforfailingtomakethe
distinctionbetweennecessaryconditionsandsufficientconditions.It
seemsthatIshikawawasnotevenawareofthisdistinction.[43]

Usedinmanagementandengineering,
anIshikawadiagramshowsthe
factorsthatcausetheeffect.Smaller
arrowsconnectthesubcausesto
majorcauses.

Humanities
History
Inthediscussionofhistory,eventsaresometimesconsideredasifinsomewaybeingagentsthatcanthenbring
aboutotherhistoricalevents.Thus,thecombinationofpoorharvests,thehardshipsofthepeasants,hightaxes,
lackofrepresentationofthepeople,andkinglyineptitudeareamongthecausesoftheFrenchRevolution.This
isasomewhatPlatonicandHegelianviewthatreifiescausesasontologicalentities.InAristotelian
terminology,thisuseapproximatestothecaseoftheefficientcause.
SomephilosophersofhistorysuchasArthurDantohaveclaimedthat"explanationsinhistoryandelsewhere"
describe"notsimplyaneventsomethingthathappensbutachange".[44]Likemanypracticinghistorians,
theytreatcausesasintersectingactionsandsetsofactionswhichbringabout"largerchanges",inDantos
words:todecide"whataretheelementswhichpersistthroughachange"is"rathersimple"whentreatingan
individuals"shiftinattitude",but"itisconsiderablymorecomplexandmetaphysicallychallengingwhenwe
areinterestedinsuchachangeas,say,thebreakupoffeudalismortheemergenceofnationalism".[45]

Muchofthehistoricaldebateaboutcauseshasfocusedontherelationshipbetweencommunicativeandother
actions,betweensingularandrepeatedones,andbetweenactions,structuresofactionorgroupandinstitutional
contextsandwidersetsofconditions.[46]JohnGaddishasdistinguishedbetweenexceptionalandgeneral
causes(followingMarcBloch)andbetween"routine"and"distinctivelinks"incausalrelationships:"in
accountingforwhathappenedatHiroshimaonAugust6,1945,weattachgreaterimportancetothefactthat
PresidentTrumanorderedthedroppingofanatomicbombthantothedecisionoftheArmyAirForcetocarry
outhisorders."[47]Hehasalsopointedtothedifferencebetweenimmediate,intermediateanddistantcauses.[48]
Forhispart,ChristopherLloydputsforwardfour"generalconceptsofcausation"usedinhistory:the
"metaphysicalidealistconcept,whichassertsthatthephenomenaoftheuniverseareproductsoforemanations
fromanomnipotentbeingorsuchfinalcause""theempiricist(orHumean)regularityconcept,whichisbased
ontheideaofcausationbeingamatterofconstantconjunctionsofevents""the
functional/teleological/consequentialconcept",whichis"goaldirected,sothatgoalsarecauses"andthe
"realist,structuristanddispositionalapproach,whichseesrelationalstructuresandinternaldispositionsasthe
causesofphenomena".[49]
Law
Accordingtolawandjurisprudence,legalcausemustbedemonstratedtoholdadefendantliableforacrimeor
atort(i.e.acivilwrongsuchasnegligenceortrespass).Itmustbeproventhatcausality,ora"sufficientcausal
link"relatesthedefendant'sactionstothecriminaleventordamageinquestion.Causationisalsoanessential
legalelementthatmustbeproventoqualifyforremedymeasuresunderinternationaltradelaw.[50]

Theology
NotetheconceptofomnicausalityinAbrahamictheology,whichisthebeliefthatGodhassetinmotionall
eventsatthedawnoftimeheisthedeterminerandthecauseofallthings.Itisthereforeanattempttorectify
theapparentincompatibilitybetweendeterminismandtheexistenceofanomnipotentgod.[51]

History
Westernphilosophy
Aristotelian
Aristotleidentifiedfourkindsofanswerorexplanatorymodetovarious"Why?"questions.Hethoughtthat,for
anygiventopic,allfourkindsofexplanatorymodewereimportant,eachinitsownright.Asaresultof
traditionalspecializedphilosophicalpeculiaritiesoflanguage,withtranslationsbetweenancientGreek,Latin,
andEnglish,theword'cause'isnowadaysinspecializedphilosophicalwritingsusedtolabelAristotle'sfour
kinds.[15][52]Inordinarylanguage,therearevariousmeaningsofthewordcause,thecommonestreferringto
efficientcause,thetopicofthepresentarticle.
Materialcause,thematerialwhenceathinghascomeorthatwhichpersistswhileitchanges,asfor
example,one'smotherorthebronzeofastatue(seealsosubstancetheory).[53]
Formalcause,wherebyathing'sdynamicformorstaticshapedeterminesthething'spropertiesand
function,asahumandiffersfromastatueofahumanorasastatuediffersfromalumpofbronze.[54]
Efficientcause,whichimpartsthefirstrelevantmovement,asahumanliftsarockorraisesastatue.This
isthemaintopicofthepresentarticle.
Finalcause,thecriterionofcompletion,ortheenditmayrefertoanactionortoaninanimateprocess.
Examples:Socratestakesawalkafterdinnerforthesakeofhishealthearthfallstothelowestlevel
becausethatisitsnature.

OfAristotle'sfourkindsorexplanatorymodes,onlyone,the'efficientcause'isacauseasdefinedintheleading
paragraphofthispresentarticle.Theotherthreeexplanatorymodesmightberenderedmaterialcomposition,
structureanddynamics,and,again,criterionofcompletion.ThewordthatAristotleusedwas.Forthe
presentpurpose,thatGreekwordwouldbebettertranslatedas"explanation"thanas"cause"asthosewordsare
mostoftenusedincurrentEnglish.AnothertranslationofAristotleisthathemeant"thefourBecauses"asfour
kindsofanswerto"why"questions.[15]
Aristotleassumedefficientcausalityasreferringtoabasicfactofexperience,notexplicableby,orreducibleto,
anythingmorefundamentalorbasic.
InsomeworksofAristotle,thefourcausesarelistedas(1)theessentialcause,(2)thelogicalground,(3)the
movingcause,and(4)thefinalcause.Inthislisting,astatementofessentialcauseisademonstrationthatan
indicatedobjectconformstoadefinitionofthewordthatreferstoit.Astatementoflogicalgroundisan
argumentastowhyanobjectstatementistrue.Thesearefurtherexamplesoftheideathata"cause"ingeneral
inthecontextofAristotle'susageisan"explanation".[15]
Theword"efficient"usedherecanalsobetranslatedfromAristotleas"moving"or"initiating".[15]
EfficientcausationwasconnectedwithAristotelianphysics,whichrecognizedthefourelements(earth,air,fire,
water),andaddedthefifthelement(aether).Waterandearthbytheirintrinsicpropertygravitasorheaviness
intrinsicallyfalltoward,whereasairandfirebytheirintrinsicpropertylevitasorlightnessintrinsicallyrise
awayfrom,Earth'scenterthemotionlesscenteroftheuniverseinastraightlinewhileacceleratingduring
thesubstance'sapproachtoitsnaturalplace.
AsairremainedonEarth,however,anddidnotescapeEarthwhileeventuallyachievinginfinitespeedan
absurdityAristotleinferredthattheuniverseisfiniteinsizeandcontainsaninvisiblesubstancethatheld
planetEarthanditsatmosphere,thesublunarysphere,centeredintheuniverse.Andsincecelestialbodies
exhibitperpetual,unacceleratedmotionorbitingplanetEarthinunchangingrelations,Aristotleinferredthatthe
fifthelement,aither,thatfillsspaceandcomposescelestialbodiesintrinsicallymovesinperpetualcircles,the
onlyconstantmotionbetweentwopoints.(AnobjecttravelingastraightlinefrompointAtoBandbackmust
stopateitherpointbeforereturningtotheother.)
Lefttoitself,athingexhibitsnaturalmotion,butcanaccordingtoAristotelianmetaphysicsexhibitenforced
motionimpartedbyanefficientcause.Theformofplantsendowsplantswiththeprocessesnutritionand
reproduction,theformofanimalsaddslocomotion,andtheformofhumankindaddsreasonatopthese.Arock
normallyexhibitsnaturalmotionexplainedbytherock'smaterialcauseofbeingcomposedoftheelement
earthbutalivingthingcanlifttherock,anenforcedmotiondivertingtherockfromitsnaturalplaceand
naturalmotion.Asafurtherkindofexplanation,Aristotleidentifiedthefinalcause,specifyingapurposeor
criterionofcompletioninlightofwhichsomethingshouldbeunderstood.
Aristotlehimselfexplained,
Causemeans
(a)inonesense,thatastheresultofwhosepresencesomethingcomesintobeinge.g.,thebronze
ofastatueandthesilverofacup,andtheclasseswhichcontainthese[i.e.,thematerialcause]
(b)inanothersense,theformorpatternthatis,theessentialformulaandtheclasseswhichcontain
ite.g.theratio2:1andnumberingeneralisthecauseoftheoctaveandthepartsoftheformula
[i.e.,theformalcause].
(c)Thesourceofthefirstbeginningofchangeorreste.g.themanwhoplansisacause,andthe
fatheristhecauseofthechild,andingeneralthatwhichproducesisthecauseofthatwhichis
produced,andthatwhichchangesofthatwhichischanged[i.e.,theefficientcause].

(d)Thesameas"end"i.e.thefinalcausee.g.,asthe"end"ofwalkingishealth.Forwhydoesa
manwalk?"Tobehealthy",wesay,andbysayingthisweconsiderthatwehavesuppliedthecause
[thefinalcause].
(e)Allthosemeanstowardstheendwhichariseattheinstigationofsomethingelse,as,e.g.,fat
reducing,purging,drugsandinstrumentsarecausesofhealthfortheyallhavetheendastheir
object,althoughtheydifferfromeachotherasbeingsomeinstruments,othersactions[i.e.,
necessaryconditions].
Metaphysics,Book5,section1013a,translatedbyHughTredennick[55]
Aristotlefurtherdiscernedtwomodesofcausation:proper(prior)causationandaccidental(chance)causation.
Allcauses,properandaccidental,canbespokenaspotentialorasactual,particularorgeneric.Thesame
languagereferstotheeffectsofcauses,sothatgenericeffectsareassignedtogenericcauses,particulareffects
toparticularcauses,andactualeffectstooperatingcauses.
Avertinginfiniteregress,Aristotleinferredthefirstmoveranunmovedmover.Thefirstmover'smotion,too,
musthavebeencaused,but,beinganunmovedmover,musthavemovedonlytowardaparticulargoalor
desire.
MiddleAges
InlinewithAristoteliancosmology,ThomasAquinasposedahierarchyprioritizingAristotle'sfourcauses:
"final>efficient>material>formal".[56]Aquinassoughttoidentifythefirstefficientcausenowsimplyfirst
causeaseveryonewouldagree,saidAquinas,tocallitGod.LaterintheMiddleAges,manyscholars
concededthatthefirstcausewasGod,butexplainedthatmanyearthlyeventsoccurwithinGod'sdesignor
plan,andtherebyscholarssoughtfreedomtoinvestigatethenumeroussecondarycauses.
AftertheMiddleAges
ForAristotelianphilosophybeforeAquinas,thewordcausehadabroadmeaning.Itmeant'answertoawhy
question'or'explanation',andAristotelianscholarsrecognizedfourkindsofsuchanswers.Withtheendofthe
MiddleAges,inmanyphilosophicalusages,themeaningoftheword'cause'narrowed.Itoftenlostthatbroad
meaning,andwasrestrictedtojustoneofthefourkinds.ForauthorssuchasNiccolMachiavelli,inthefield
ofpoliticalthinking,andFrancisBacon,concerningsciencemoregenerally,Aristotle'smovingcausewasthe
focusoftheirinterest.Awidelyusedmoderndefinitionofcausalityinthisnewlynarrowedsensewasassumed
byDavidHume.[56]Heundertookanepistemologicalandmetaphysicalinvestigationofthenotionofmoving
cause.Hedeniedthatwecaneverperceivecauseandeffect,exceptbydevelopingahabitorcustomofmind
wherewecometoassociatetwotypesofobjectorevent,alwayscontiguousandoccurringoneafterthe
other.[57]InPartIII,sectionXVofhisbookATreatiseofHumanNature,Humeexpandedthistoalistofeight
waysofjudgingwhethertwothingsmightbecauseandeffect.Thefirstthree:
1."Thecauseandeffectmustbecontiguousinspaceandtime."
2."Thecausemustbepriortotheeffect."
3."Theremustbeaconstantunionbetwixtthecauseandeffect.'Tischieflythisquality,thatconstitutes
therelation."
Andthenadditionallytherearethreeconnectedcriteriawhichcomefromourexperienceandwhichare"the
sourceofmostofourphilosophicalreasonings":
4."Thesamecausealwaysproducesthesameeffect,andthesameeffectneverarisesbutfromthesame
cause.Thisprinciplewederivefromexperience,andisthesourceofmostofourphilosophical
reasonings."
5.Hangingupontheabove,Humesaysthat"whereseveraldifferentobjectsproducethesameeffect,it
mustbebymeansofsomequality,whichwediscovertobecommonamongstthem."

6.And"foundedonthesamereason":"Thedifferenceintheeffectsoftworesemblingobjectsmust
proceedfromthatparticular,inwhichtheydiffer."
Andthentwomore:
7."Whenanyobjectincreasesordiminisheswiththeincreaseordiminutionofitscause,'tistobe
regardedasacompoundedeffect,deriv'dfromtheunionoftheseveraldifferenteffects,whicharisefrom
theseveraldifferentpartsofthecause."
8.An"object,whichexistsforanytimeinitsfullperfectionwithoutanyeffect,isnotthesolecauseof
thateffect,butrequirestobeassistedbysomeotherprinciple,whichmayforwarditsinfluenceand
operation."
In1949,physicistMaxBorndistinguisheddeterminationfromcausality.Forhim,determinationmeantthat
actualeventsaresolinkedbylawsofnaturethatcertainlyreliablepredictionsandretrodictionscanbemade
fromsufficientpresentdataaboutthem.Forhim,therearetwokindsofcausation,whichwemayherecall
nomicorgenericcausation,andsingularcausation.Nomiccausalitymeansthatcauseandeffectarelinkedby
moreorlesscertainorprobabilisticgenerallawscoveringmanypossibleorpotentialinstanceswemay
recognizethisasaprobabilizedversionofcriterion3.ofHumementionedjustabove.Anoccasionofsingular
causationisaparticularoccurrenceofadefinitecomplexofeventsthatarephysicallylinkedbyantecedence
andcontiguity,whichwemayhererecognizeascriteria1.and2.ofHumementionedjustabove.[6]

Hinduphilosophy
Vedicperiod(ca.1750500BCE)literaturehaskarma'sEasternorigins.[58]Karmaisthebeliefheldby
SanathanaDharmaandmajorreligionsthataperson'sactionscausecertaineffectsinthecurrentlifeand/orin
futurelife,positivelyornegatively.Thevariousphilosophicalschools(darsanas)providedifferentaccountsof
thesubject.Thedoctrineofsatkaryavadaaffirmsthattheeffectinheresinthecauseinsomeway.Theeffectis
thuseitherarealorapparentmodificationofthecause.Thedoctrineofasatkaryavadaaffirmsthattheeffect
doesnotinhereinthecause,butisanewarising.SeeNyayaforsomedetailsofthetheoryofcausationinthe
Nyayaschool.InBrahmaSamhita,BrahmadescribesKrishnaastheprimecauseofallcauses.[59]
Bhagavadgt18.14(http://www.bhagavadgita.org/Gita/verse1813.html)identifiesfivecausesforanyaction
(knowingwhichitcanbeperfected):thebody,theindividualsoul,thesenses,theeffortsandthesupersoul.
AccordingtoMonierWilliams,intheNyyacausationtheoryfromSutraI.2.I,2intheVaisheshikaphilosophy,
fromcasualnonexistenceiseffectualnonexistencebut,noteffectualnonexistencefromcasualnon
existence.Acauseprecedesaneffect.Withathreadsandclothmetaphors,threecausesare:
1.Coinherencecause:resultingfromsubstantialcontact,'substantialcauses',threadsaresubstantialto
cloth,correspondingtoAristotle'smaterialcause.
2.Nonsubstantialcause:Methodsputtingthreadsintocloth,correspondingtoAristotle'sformalcause.
3.Instrumentalcause:Toolstomakethecloth,correspondingtoAristotle'sefficientcause.
MonierWilliamsalsoproposedthatAristotle'sandtheNyaya'scausalityareconsideredconditionalaggregates
necessarytoman'sproductivework.[60]

Buddhistphilosophy
Thegeneraloruniversaldefinitionofpratityasamutpada(or"dependentorigination"or"dependentarising"or
"interdependentcoarising")isthateverythingarisesindependenceuponmultiplecausesandconditions
nothingexistsasasingular,independententity.AtraditionalexampleinBuddhisttextsisofthreesticks
standinguprightandleaningagainsteachotherandsupportingeachother.Ifonestickistakenaway,theother
twowillfalltotheground.

CausalityintheChittamatrinbuddhistschoolapproach,Asanga's(c.400CE)mindonlyBuddhistschool,
assertsthatobjectscauseconsciousnessinthemind'simage.Becausecausesprecedeeffects,whichmustbe
differententities,thensubjectandobjectaredifferent.Forthisschool,therearenoobjectswhichareentities
externaltoaperceivingconsciousness.TheChittamatrinandtheYogacharaSvatantrikaschoolsacceptthat
therearenoobjectsexternaltotheobserver'scausality.ThislargelyfollowstheNikayasapproach.[61][62][63][64]
TheAbhidharmakoakrikapproachisVasubandhu'sAbhidharmacommentarytextintheSarvstivdaschool
(c.500CE).Ithasfourintricatecausalconditioningconstructionswiththe:1)rootcause,2)immediate
antecedent,3)objectsupport,and4)predominance.Then,thesixcausesare:1)instrumentality(kraahetu),
deemedtheprimaryfactorinresultproduction2)simultaneityorcoexistence,whichconnectsphenomenathat
arisesimultaneously3)homogeneity,explainingthehomogenousflowthatevokesphenomenacontinuity4)
association,whichoperatesonlybetweenmentalfactorsandexplainswhyconsciousnessappearsas
assemblagestomentalfactors5)dominance,whichformsone'shabitualcognitiveandbehaviorist
dispositionsand6)fruition,referringtowhateveristheactivelywholesomeorunwholesomeresult.Thefour
conditionsandsixcausesinteractwitheachotherinexplainingphenomenalexperience:forinstance,each
consciousmomentactsbothasthehomogenouscause,aswellastheimmediateantecedentconsciousness
conditionrise,anditsconcomitants,inasubsequentmoment.
TheVaibhashika(c.500CE)isanearlybuddhistschoolwhichfavorsdirectobjectcontactandaccepts
simultaneouscauseandeffects.Thisisbasedintheconsciousnessexamplewhichsays,intentionsandfeelings
aremutuallyaccompanyingmentalfactorsthatsupporteachotherlikepolesintripod.Incontrast,simultaneous
causeandeffectrejectorssaythatiftheeffectalreadyexists,thenitcannoteffectthesamewayagain.How
past,presentandfutureareacceptedisabasisforvariousbuddhistschool'scausalityviewpoints.[65][66][67]

Seealso
General
Causalresearch
Causalinference
Cosmologicalargument
Dominoeffect
Effectuation
JournalofCausal
Inference
Sequenceofevents
Mathematics
Causalfilter
Causalsystem
Causalityconditions
Chaostheory
Physics
Anthropicprinciple
Arrowoftime
Butterflyeffect
Chainreaction
Feedback
Grandfatherparadox
QuantumZenoeffect
Retrocausality
Schrdinger'scat

Philosophy
Aetiology
Arche()
Causasui
Chance(philosophy)
Chickenortheegg
Conditionofpossibility
Determinism
Mill'sMethods
Newcomb'sparadox
Nonsequitur(logic)
Ontologicalparadox
Posthocergopropterhoc
Predestinationparadox
Proposedproofsofuniversalvalidity
(principleofcausality)
Proximateandultimatecausation
Supervenience
Philosophyofmind
Synchronicity

Statistics
Causalloopdiagram
CausalMarkovcondition
Correlationdoesnot
implycausation
Experimentaldesign
Grangercausality
Linearregression
Randomness
Rubincausalmodel
Validity(statistics)
Psychologyandmedicine
Adverseeffect
Clinicaltrial
Forcedynamics
Iatrogenesis
Nocebo
Placebo
Scientificcontrol
Suggestibility
Suggestion
Pathologyandepidemiology
Causalinference
Epidemiology

WheelerFeynman
absorbertheory

Etiology
Molecularpathology
Molecularpathological
epidemiology
Pathogenesis
Pathology
Sociologyandeconomics
Instrumentalvariable
Rootcauseanalysis
Selffulfillingprophecy
Unintendedconsequence
Virtuouscircleand
viciouscircle

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Furtherreading
AzamatAbdoullaev(2000).TheUltimateofReality:ReversibleCausality,inProceedingsofthe20thWorld
CongressofPhilosophy,Boston:PhilosophyDocumentationCentre,internetsite,PaideiaProjectOnLine:
http://www.bu.edu/wcp/MainMeta.htm
ArthurDanto(1965).AnalyticalPhilosophyofHistory.CambridgeUniversityPress.
Idem,'ComplexEvents',PhilosophyandPhenomenologicalResearch,30(1969),6677.
Idem,'OnExplanationsinHistory',PhilosophyofScience,23(1956),1530.
Dorschel,Andreas,'TheCryptoMetaphysicof'UltimateCauses'.RemarksonanallegedExpos'(transl.Edward
Craig),in:Ratio,N.S.I(1988),nr.2,pp.97112.
Green,Celia(2003).TheLostCause:CausationandtheMindBodyProblem.Oxford:OxfordForum.ISBN0
953677214Includesthreechaptersoncausalityatthemicrolevelinphysics.
Hewitson,Mark(2014).HistoryandCausality.PalgraveMacmillan.ISBN9781137372390.
Little,Daniel(1998).Microfoundations,MethodandCausation:OnthePhilosophyoftheSocialSciences.NewYork:
Transaction.
Lloyd,Christopher(1993).TheStructuresofHistory.Oxford:Blackwell.
Idem(1986).ExplanationinSocialHistory.Oxford:Blackwell.
MauriceMandelbaum(1977).TheAnatomyofHistoricalKnowledge.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsPress.
JudeaPearl(2000).Causality:ModelsofReasoningandInference[1](http://bayes.cs.ucla.edu/BOOK2K/)
CambridgeUniversityPressISBN9780521773621

Rosenberg,M.(1968).TheLogicofSurveyAnalysis.NewYork:BasicBooks,Inc.

Spirtes,Peter,ClarkGlymourandRichardScheinesCausation,Prediction,andSearch,MITPress,ISBN
0262194406
UniversityofCaliforniajournalarticles,includingJudeaPearl'sarticlesbetween1984and1998[2](htt
p://fmdb.cs.ucla.edu/tech_reports/searchresponse.lasso#AnchorJudea%20Pearl).
Schimbera,JrgenSchimbera,Peter(2010),DeterminationdesIndeterminierten.Kritische
AnmerkungenzurDeterminismusundFreiheitskontroverse(inGerman),Hamburg:VerlagDr.Kovac,
ISBN9783830050995
MiguelEspinoza,Thoriedudterminismecausal,LHarmattan,Paris,2006.ISBN2296011985.

Externallinks
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