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UEEA1333

Analogue Electronics
Topic 3
Filters and Tuned Amplifiers

Jan 2014
1

In this topic, we will:


Compare the advantage and disadvantage of
active and passive filters
Determine the filter transfer function of
Butterworth and Chebyshev filters
Design low-pass, high-pass and band-pass
filters
Determine the center frequency and
bandwidth of tuned amplifiers
2

Reference
Sedra, Smith, (2004) 5th Ed. Microelectronic
Circuits, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19514252-7. Chapter 12.
Rolf Schaumann, Mac E. Van Valkenburg (2001),
Design of Analog Filters, Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-511877-4.

Introduction to Filters
A filter is a frequency-selective circuit that
passes a specified band of frequencies and
blocks or attenuates signals of frequencies
outside this band.

Cut-off frequency
The cutoff or 3-dB break frequency is the
frequency at which the attenuation is 3 dB
In practical filters, this frequency is usually taken as
the frequency that separates the pass and stop band
In this case, the passband is the range of
frequencies at which the attenuation does not
exceed 3 dB, while the stopband is the range of
frequencies at which the attenuation exceeds 3 dB
(However, in filter design, as we shall see later, a
different way may be used to specify the filter)
5

High-Pass Filter

3 dB

Band-Pass Filter

Band-Reject or Band-Stop Filter

Passive and Active Filters


Only passive elements such as capacitors,
inductors, and resistors are used in passive
filters.
Filters that make use of the properties of opamps in addition to resistors and capacitors are
called active filters.

Active versus Passive Filters


Advantages
No loading effect: high input resistance and low output
resistance
Gain: can provide gain

Disadvantages
Bandwidth: limited to low frequency (audio frequency
range)
Power supply: required
Distortion: limited range of signal magnitudes
Noise: active elements generate more noise

10

Filter transfer function


Filter transfer function:

Vo ( s )
T ( s) =
Vi (s
( s)

11

Filter transmission:

T ( j ) = T ( j ) e

j ( )

A filter shapes the frequency spectrum of the


input signal according to the magnitude of the
transfer function:

Vo ( j ) = T ( j ) Vi ( j )
Also, the phase characteristics of the signal are
modified according to the filter phase function
12

Filter specification
Minimum
required
stopband
attenuation

Maximum
allowed
variation in
passband
*ripple

Passband
edge
Stopband
edge

13

Filter transfer function


After the specifications are determined, the
next step is finding a transfer function T(s)
whose magnitude meets the specification
aM s M + aM 1s M 1 + ... + a0
T (s) =
N
N 1
s + bN 1s + ... + b0
N is the filter order (for stability, M N)
Coefficients are real numbers
14

Poles and zeros


Factor the polynomials:
aM ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...( s z M )
T (s) =
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s p N )

zm are the transfer-function zeros


pn are the transfer-function poles or natural
modes, and must lie on the left-half of s-plane
(for stability)
Zeros and poles can be real or complex; but if
complex, has to be in conjugate pairs
15

Butterworth filter
Magnitude function is given by:

T ( j ) =


1+

p

2N

at = p ,
T ( j p ) =

at 0 = p (1 / )1/ N

T ( j 0 ) = 1 / 2

1+ 2

Amax = 20 log 1 +

2
16

1/2

0 (3-dB break frequency)


17

Properties of Butterworth filter


|T(j0)| = 1 for all N (voltage gain at zero
frequency, that is, dc voltage gain)
Butterworth response is very flat near = 0,
thus called maximally flat.
Voltage gain at > 0 exhibits N-pole roll-off
Roll-off rate = -20N dB/decade = -6N dB/octave

18

19

At stopband edge, = s,
A( s ) = 20 log[1 / 1 + (s / p ) ]
2N

= 10 log[1 +

/p

2N

Use this equation to determine lowest integer value


of N such that A(s) Amin

The transfer function can be written as:


T (s) =

( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s p N )
where 0 = p (1 / )1/ N

20

Poles lie in the


left-half of s-plane
on a circle of
1/ N

(
1
/

)
radius p
,
spaced equally by
equal angles /N
This is used to
determine the
poles p1, p2, , pN
21

Example

N = even: conjugate poles only

N =odd: a real pole at = 0, p2


and conjugate poles, p1 & p3

22

Design procedure
1
Determine = 10
Determine filter order required i.e. lowest
integer value of N such that A(s) Amin
Determine the N poles
Determine the transfer function
Amax / 10

23

Example: Find the Butterworth transfer function that


meets the following LPF specifications: fp = 10 kHz,
Amax = 1 dB, fs = 15 kHz, Amin = 25dB

24

= 10

Amax / 10

1 = 10

1 / 10

1 = 0.5088

A( s ) = 10 log[1 + ( s / p ) ]
2

2N

10 Amin /10 1
10 25 /10 1
log Amax /10 log 1/10

10
1

10 1

N=
=
= 8.756
2 log( s / p )
2 log(15 / 10)
choose N = 9
Find the poles (through geometry or from table):

p1 = 0 (0.1736 + j 0.9848)
p9 = 0 (0.1736 j 0.9848)

a conjugate pole
25

10
sin 10 = / 0 = 0 sin 10
cos 10 = / 0 = 0 cos 10

p1 = 0 sin 10 + j0 cos10 = 0 (0.1736 + j 0.9848)


p9 = 0 (0.1736 j 0.9848)

26

p2 = 0 (0.5000 + j 0.8660)
p8 = 0 (0.5000 j 0.8660)
p3 = 0 (0.7660 + j 0.6428)
p7 = 0 (0.7660 j 0.6428)
p4 = 0 (0.9397 + j 0.3420)
p6 = 0 (0.9397 j 0.3420)
p5 = 0 (1.0000 + j 0.0000)
T ( s) =
=

a real pole

0 9
( s p1 )( s p9 )( s p2 )( s p8 )( s p3 )( s p7 )( s p4 )( s p6 )( s p5 )

0 9
( s 0 (0.1736 + j 0.9848))( s 0 (0.1736 j 0.9848))( s 0 (0.500 + j 0.8660))..........
27

In terms of second order factors, it is written as

T ( s) =

0 9
( s + 0 )( s + 0.34720 s + 0 )

1
( s + 1.53210 s + 0 )( s + 0 s + 0 )
2

1
2
2
( s + 1.87940 s + 0 )

0 = p (1 / )1/ N
= 6.773 10 4 rad/s

This is obtained by cross multiplying the conjugate factors , for example:

( s + 0 (0.1736 j 0.9848))( s + 0 (0.1736 + j 0.9848))


= s 2 + 0.34720 s + 1.0000
2

2 + 2

2
28

Pole Locations for Normalized


Butterworth Response from Table

29

Chebyshev filter

Even order

odd order
30

Properties of Chebyshev filter


equiripple response in the passband
monotonically decreasing transmission in the
stopband
odd-order filter has |T(0)| = 1
evenorder filter exhibits its maximum
magnitude deviation at = 0
the total number of passband maxima and
minima equals the order of the filter
31

Magnitude of the transfer function:


T ( j ) =
T ( j ) =

1
1

1 + cos [ N cos ( / p )]
2

1
1

1 + cosh [ N cosh ( / p )]
2

for p
for p

at passband edge = p ,
T ( j p ) =
Amax

1+
2
= 10 log(1 + )
2

32

At stopband edge, = s,

A( s ) = 10 log[1 + cosh N cosh ( s / p ) ]


2

Use this equation to determine lowest integer


value of N such that A(s) Amin
Poles are given by:
2k 1
1
1 1
pk = p sin
sinh sinh
+

N 2
N
2k 1
1
1 1
j p cos
cosh sinh
k = 1,2,..., N

N 2
N
33

Transfer function:
N = odd :
T (s) =

2 N 1 ( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s p N )

N = even :
T (s) =

K p

( s p1 )( s p2 )...(s p N )
where K = T ( = 0)
34

Design procedure:
Determine = 10 Amax /10 1
Determine filter order required i.e. lowest
integer value of N such that A(s) Amin
Determine the N poles from equation
Determine the transfer function

35

Example: Find the Chebyshev transfer function that


meets the following LPF specifications: fp = 10 kHz,
Amax = 1 dB, fs = 15 kHz, Amin = 25dB

= 10

Amax / 10

1 = 10

1 / 10

1 = 0.5088

A( s ) = 10 log[1 + cosh N cosh ( s / p ) ]


2

Amin / 10
25 / 10
10

1
10
1
1
1
cosh
cosh
Amax / 10
1 / 10
10
1
10
1

=
N=
1
1
cosh ( s / p )
cosh (15 / 10)

4.245
=
= 4.4
0.962

choose 5

36

p1 , p5 = p (0.0895 j 0.9901)
p2 , p4 = p (0.2342 j 0.6119)
p3 = p (0.2895)

2 N 1 = 0.5088(2 4 ) = 8.1408
T ( s ) =

p5
8.1408( s + 0.2895 p )

1
2
2
( s + 0.4684 p s + 0.4293 p )
1
2
2
( s + 0.1789 p s + 0.9883 p )

s 2 + 2 p s + ( 2 + 2 ) p
2(0.2342)=0.4684
0.23422 + 0.61192
= 0.4293

37

Chebyshev
pole location

0 = 2 + 2
Q = 2 + 2 / 2

38

First-order filters
General first order (bilinear) transfer function:

a1s + a0
T ( s) =
s + 0
a0 and a1 determine type of filter
LPF: a1 = 0
HPF: a0 = 0
a1s
a0
T ( s) =
T ( s) =
s + 0
s + 0

39

LPF

(inverting)

HPF

Dont use this for cascading (except first stage)!

40

Active RC LPF (non-inverting)

1 sC
Vx (s ) =
Vi (s )
R + 1 sC
1
=
Vi (s )
1 + sRC
RF
Vx (s )
Vo (s ) = 1 +
R1

RF 1

= 1 +
Vi (s )
R1 1 + sRC

Vo (s )
K
RF
T (s ) =
=
where K = 1 +
Vi (s ) 1 + sRC
R1

41

Vo ( j )
a0
a0 / 0
K
T (s = j ) =
=

=
Vi ( j ) 1 + jRC j + 0 1 + j / 0
T ( j ) =

K
1 + (RC ) 2

When = 0 ,

a0 / 0
1 + ( / 0 ) 2

a0 / 0
T ( j ) =
2

Compare terms :

0 = 1 / RC f = 1 / 2RC
When = 0,
T (0 ) = K = a0 / 0

3 dB cut - off frequency


DC gain

For K =1, use RF = 0, R1 = open i.e. voltage follower

42

Example: Design an active LPF (noninverting) for f0 = 1kHz and magnitude of


DC gain = 4.
choose C = 0.01 F
1
R=
= 15916
2f 0C
RF
Dc gain = K = 1 +
=4
R1
RF = 3R1
R1 = 10 k

RF = 30 k

43

R
Vx (s ) =
Vi (s )
R + 1 sC
s
Vi (s )
=
s + 1 / RC
RF
Vx (s )
Vo (s ) = 1 +
R1

Active RC HPF (non-inverting)

RF
s

= 1 +
Vi (s )
R1 s + 1 / RC

Vo (s )
sK
T (s ) =
=
Vi (s ) s + 1 / RC

RF
where K = 1 +
R1
44

Vo ( j )
j K
ja1
=

T (s = j ) =
Vi ( j ) j + 1 / RC j + 0
T ( j ) =

K
1 + (1 / RC ) 2

When = 0 ,

a1
1 + (0 / ) 2

a1
T ( j 0 ) =
2

Compare terms :
0 = 1 / RC f = 1 / 2RC

3 dB cut - off frequency

When = ,
T ( ) = K = a1

high - frequency gain

For K =1, use RF = 0, R1 = open i.e. voltage follower

45

Example: Design an active HPF (noninverting) for f0 = 1kHz and magnitude of


high frequency gain = 3.
choose C = 0.01 F
1
R=
= 15916
2f 0C
RF
Dc gain = K = 1 +
=3
R1
RF = 2 R1
R1 = 10 k

RF = 20 k

46

Example: Design an active LPF (inverting) for


0 = 10,000 rad/s and magnitude of DC gain
=1. Write the transfer function of the filter.
1

1
CR2 =
0 =
= 10,000
0
CR2
R2 = 10 k, C = 0.01 F
a0

R2
Dc gain = 1 =
=
0 R1

R1 = R2 = 10 k

a0 = 0 = 10,000
10,000
T ( s) =
s + 10,000

47

Example: Design an active HPF (inverting) for


0 = 10,000 rad/s and magnitude of high
frequency gain =10. Write the transfer function
of the filter.
1

1
CR1 =
0 =
= 10,000
0
CR1
R1 = 10 k, C = 0.01 F
R2
HF gain = 1 0 = a1 =
R1
a1 = 10

R2 = 10 R1 = 100 k

10s
T ( s) =
s + 10,000

48

Second-order filters
General second-order (biquadratic) filter
transfer function:

a2 s + a1s + a0
T ( s) = 2
2
s + (0 / Q) s + 0
2

LPF: a1, a2 =0
HPF: a0, a1 = 0
BPF: a0, a2 = 0

49

0 and Q determine the poles:


0
p1 , p2 =
j0 1 (1 / 4Q 2 )
2Q

Let p1 , p2 = j
a2 s 2 + a1s + a0
T (s) =
( s p1 )( s p2 )
a2 s 2 + a1s + a0
=
( s + + j )( s + j )
a2 s + a1s + a0
= 2
s + 2s + 2 + 2
Compare :
0
2
=
0 = 2 + 2 = 0 1 (1 / 4Q 2 )
50
2Q
2

Q is the pole quality factor


Q closer to j axis, more
selective, but cannot be on the
axis as that may produce
oscillations.
a0, a1 and a2 determine type of
filter (LPF,HPF etc.)
A second-order filter exhibits a
stop-band rolloff of 40
dB/decade compared to 20
dB/decade for a first-order filter
51

Second-order filter realizations


Op-amp RC resonator
Two-integrator loop circuit - KHN biquad,
Tow-Tomas biquad
Single-Amplifier Biquads
Sallen-Key circuit

52

Sallen-Key 2nd order Low-Pass Filter


The general form of the 2nd order LPF filter transfer
function is can be written as:

K
T (s ) = 2
2
s + (0 Q )s + 0
2
0

where K = a0 /02 is the dc gain.

53

Sallen-Key circuit for LPF

It can be shown that:

K02
T (s ) = 2
s + (3 K )0 s + 02

54

where 0 =

1
1
=
R2 R3C2C3 RC

selecting R1 = R2 = R3 = R, C2 = C3 = C,

1
cutoff frequency = f 0 =
2RC
Rf
K = 1+
and
R1
1
Comparing denominators, 3 K =
Q

1
K = 3
Q

Frequency response of a 2-nd order system at the 3-dB


point depends on the damping factor such that Q =
1/2. For compromise between the peak magnitude
and bandwidth or to avoid peaking, choose Q = 1/2
Thus, K =1.586 = 1 + RF/R1 RF/R1 = 0.586

55

Design of Sallen-Key circuit:


Given f0 and Q, select C = C2 = C3 , R = R2 = R3
1
R=
2f 0C
1
RF
K = 3 = 1+
Q
R1
RF = (2 1 / Q) R1 = 0.586 R1

if choose Q = 1/2

Gain reduction can be achieved using voltage divider


(without affecting Q).
Gain increase have to add another op-amp
56

Gain reduction for Sallen-Key circuit:


Gain reduction of a (<1) is done by
voltage divider, so that |T( j0)| = aK
We require Rin = R2 and va = avi
Ra Rb
Rb
= R2 ,
=a
Ra + Rb
Ra + Rb

Rb
R2
=
=a
Ra + Rb Ra
Ra = R2 / a

and Rb = R2 /(1 a )

For example, 2nd order Butterworth filter may require


that |T( j0)| = 1. For Sallen-Key circuit, |T( j0)| = K,
therefore, use gain reduction of a = 1/K

57

Sallen-Key circuit with gain reduction:

Voltage divider

Ra = R / a
Rb = R /(1 a )

aK02
T (s ) = 2
2
s + (3 K )0 s + 0
58

Second-Order High-Pass Filters


The general form of the filter transfer function is of
the form
2

s K
T (s ) = 2
2
s + (0 Q )s + 0
where K is the high frequency gain.
Using Sallen-Key circuit, interchange R and C

59

The transfer function becomes:


2
s K
T (s ) = 2
2
s + (3 K )0 s + 0
0
1
1
cutoff frequency = f 0 =
=
=
2 2 R2 R3C2C3 2RC
1
3 K =
Q

1
K = 3
Q

For gain reduction, use capacitive divider:

Ca = C /(1 a )

Cb = C / a
60

Band-pass filters
The transfer function:

K PB (C / Q) s
H BP ( s ) = 2
2
s + (C / Q) s + C
where K PB = pass - band gain

C = center frequency
Q = quality factor
61

fc
Q=
=
BW
fH fL
fc =

fL fH
where f L = low cutoff frequency
f H = high cutoff frequency

If Q 10, considered as wide bandpass


If Q > 10, considered as narrow bandpass
62

Wide Band-Pass Filters


Can be implemented by cascading first-order
high pass and low pass filters

63

T ( s ) = TLPF ( s )THPF ( s )
K LP H
K HP s
K PB H s
=

=
( s + H ) ( s + L ) ( s + L )( s + H )

64

Higher order filters


In general, there are two methods to realize
transfer functions of higher order filters
The first technique is the cascade method.
The second general method is the direct method,
where a single circuit is used to realize the entire
transfer function (normally done for passive filter
design).

65

The Cascade Method


The transfer function is factored into a product of
first-order and/or second-order terms. Each term is
then individually realized by an active RC circuit.
Connect first-order and/or second-order filter
networks in cascade so that the overall transfer
function is the product of the transfer function of each
individual network:
q

T ( s ) = T1 ( s )T2 ( s )...Tq ( s ) = Ti ( s )
i =1

where Ti takes either the linear or biquadratic form


66

T1

T2

T3

Tq

Cascade connection of q sections


For this method to work, each section must be
isolated from each other in the sense that each
successive network does not load the previous one.
The input impedance of the loading section must
be much larger than the output impedance of the
driving section
Section ordering will depend on various factors
(beyond our scope)
67

Tuned amplifiers
Frequency response:

68

Basic principle is to use a parallel LCR circuit


as the load of a BJT or FET amplifier

*biasing not shown

R = RL || ro

69

g mVi
g mVi
Vo =
=
YL
sC + 1 / R + 1 / sL
Vo g m
s
a1s
=
2
2
2
Vi
C s + (1 / CR ) s + 1 / LC s + (c / Q) s + c
Compare with transfer function of 2nd order BPF :
Centre frequency :
Quality factor :
3 - dB bandwidth :

c = 1 / LC
Q = c CR
B = c / Q = 1 / CR

| T (c ) |= a1Q / c = g m R
Center frequency gain :

K PB = g m R

70

Example: Design a tuned amplifier using the type


shown, having fo= 1 MHz, B = 10 kHz, KPB = -10
V/V. The FET used has gm = 5 mA/V and ro = 10 k.
Determine RL, CL and L.

K PB = 10 = g m R R = 2 k
Since R = RL || ro , then RL = 2.5 k
B = 2 10 = 1 / CR C = 1 /(2 10 )(2000) = 7958 pF
4

0 = 2 106 = 1 / LC
L = 1 /( 4 10 )(7958 p ) = 3.18 H
2

12

71

Inductor power loss is represented by series


resistance rs
But usual practice is to specify the inductors
Q factor at the frequency of interest:

Qo =

o L
rs

(Typically 50-200)

Coil Q limits the Q achieved by the circuit

72

To simplify analysis, represent inductor loss as


a parallel resistance
Y ( jo ) = 1 /( rs + jo L)
1
1 1 + j (1 / Qo )
=
=
2
jo L 1 j (1 / Qo ) jo L 1 + (1 / Qo )
1

For Qo >> 1,
1

1
Y ( j o )
[1 + j (1 / Qo )]
+
j o L
jo L o LQo
Equating the admittance :
R p = o LQo
73

Example: If the inductor of previous example has Qo


= 150, find RP and then find the value to which RL
should be changed to keep the overall Q.

R p = o LQo = 2 106 (3.18 )(150) = 3 k


'

RL = RL || R p = 2.5 k
'

3RL
= 2.5
'
3 + RL
'

RL = 15 k
74

Required value of inductance may not be available for


the required high value of Q0
A tapped inductor, or autotransformer, can be used as
an impedance transformer to allow using higher
inductance and smaller capacitance
Example: if n = 3 is used for the previous examples
amplifier, then coil of inductance L=9x3.18= 28.6 H
and capacitance C = 7958/9 = 884 pF will be required

75

To couple the output of a tuned amplifier to the input


of another amplifier, the tapped coil can be used to
increase the effective input resistance of the latter
stage, thus avoiding reduction of overall Q

76

Example: Consider the circuit in (a) without tapping


the coil. Let L = 5 H and R1 = 1 k. We wish to
design a tuned amplifier with fo = 455 kHz and a 3-dB
bandwidth of 10 kHz. If the BJT has Rin = 1 k and Cin
= 200 pF, find the actual bandwidth obtained and
required value of C1.
6

o = 1 / LC 455000 = 1 / (5 10 )C
C = 24.47 nF = C1 + Cin = C1 + 200 p
C1 = 24.27 nF
BW = 1/2RC = 1/2 (1k || 1k )(24.47 n ) = 13 kHz
77

Example: Since the bandwidth realized in the


previous example is greater than desired, find an
alternative design using a tapped coil. Find n to
meet the specifications. Also find the new
required value of C1.

1
o = 1 / LC o L =
2
C1 + Cin / n
2

1
1
BW =
=
= 10000
2
2
2RC 2 ( R1 || n Rin )(C1 + Cin / n )
n = 1.36

Cin = 24.36 nF
78

Exercises
Sketch graphs to show the frequency response
characteristics of LPF, HPF and BPF.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of
active filter compared to passive filter.
Explain the cascading method to realize high
order filters.
Derive the formula for the equivalent parallel
resistance Rp of an inductance L with ripple
factor Q and series resistance rs
79

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