Environmentalsociologyasafieldofinquiry

EarthDay1970isoftensaidtorepresenttheappearanceofthemodernenvironmental
movement.

WhenEarthDayinauguratedtheEnvironmentalDecadeofthe1970s80s,sociologists
foundthemselveswithoutanypriorbodyoftheoryorresearchtoguidethemtowardsa
distinctiveunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweensocietyandtheenvironment.

Thethreemajorclassicalsociologicalpioneerswere:

1. mileDurkheim
2. KarlMarx
3. MaxWeber.

Thefailureofgeographicalandbiologicaldeterminism
Inthenineteenthcentury,TheEffectsofGeographicalEnvironment
Onthehumanconditionwasatopicofconsiderablescholarlyinterestanditwasgreatly
studiedbymanyscholarsduringthisera.OneofthefamousscholarwereHenryThomas
BucklewhowasaBritishhistorianandauthorofTheHistoryofCivilizationinEngland.His
centralthesiswasthathumansocietyisaproductofnaturalforcesandistherefore
susceptibletoanaturalexplanation.

AsecondleadinggeographicaldeterministwasEllsworthHuntington.Inhisprincipal
sociologicalworks,CivilizationandClimate,WorldPowerandEvolutionandTheCharacterof
Races,Huntingtonattemptedtoestablishaseriesofcorrelationsbetweenclimateand
health,energy,andmentalprocessessuchasintelligence,geniusandwillpower.

Theoryofnaturalselectionbycharlesdarwinhesaidthatplantsandanimalsarebest
suitedtoadapttotheenvironmentfortheirsurvival.

LatermanyoftheearlyconservativesociologicalthinkersuchHofstadterandHerbert
SpencerappliedprinciplesofNaturalSelection(notalwaysaccurately)tothehuman
context

StudyofModernization

Twoworksinthestudyofthemodernisingprocessesweredoneby:
InkelesandSmithinBecomingModern(1974)andLernersinhisbook
ThePassingofTraditionalSociety(1958).

ForInkelesandSmith,modernisationdenotesbothasocietalandpersonal
transformation.Atthesocietallevel,modernisationisconceptualisedasa
processofnationandinstitutionbuilding.Inthe1960s,thedecadeof
development,manyThirdWorldnationsfailedtomaketheirentryintothe
modernworld,slidingbackwardsintotribalismandethnicconflict.
Newlyliberatedcountriesfromcolonialism,theseemergingcountrieswere
saidtobehollowshells,lackingtheinstitutionalstructureswhicharethe
essentialelementofnationtobeviableandeffectivesociopoliticaland
economicenterprise.

InkelesandSmitharguethattheprimaryreasonforthisfailureto
modernisewasthatindividualmembersofthecommunitywere
psychologicallytrappedinthepastandunabletocrosstraditionalwaysof
thinkingtobecomemodernpersonalities.

ToDanielLerner(1958),thekeycorrelateofdevelopingmodernityisthe
mediasroleinestablishingapsychologicalopennesstochangeamong
peasantpopulations.

Classicalsociologicaltheoryandtheenvironment
EMILEDURKHEIM
KARLMARX
MAXWEBER
MajorCriticsoftheseclassicalsociologistwere
Goldblattclassicalsociologicaltheorieslacksanadequate
conceptualframeworkthatisessentialtounderstandthecomplex
interactionsbetweensocietiesandenvironments.

Jrvikowskitheirworksareinadequatetosolvetodaysenv
problems.

BUTTLEconcludesthattheworksbyclassicalsociologyisverymuch
mixed:someofthetoolsinitiallydevelopedbytheclassicaltheorists

areneeded,buttheoverallthrustoftheclassicaltraditionwasto
downplayecologicalquestionsandbiophysicalforces.

Practitioners:
1. RaymondMurphy
2. PatrickWest

TheorybyEmileDurkheim:

EmileDurkheimdevelopedtheoriesofsocialstructuresthatincludedfunctionalism,
divisionoflabor,andanomie(L ackoftheusualsocialorethicalstandardsinanindividualor
group).Thesetheorieswerefoundedontheconceptofsocialfacts,orsocietalnorms,
values,andstructures.Functionalismisaconceptwiththreeintegralelements.

TheDivisionofLaborinSocietyisabookwritten,originallyinFrench,byEmile
Durkheimin1893.
InTheDivisionofLaborinSociety,Durkheimdiscusseshowthedivisionoflaboris
beneficialforsocietybecauseitincreasesthereproductivecapacity,theskillofthe
workman,anditcreatesafeelingofsolidarity(unity)betweenpeople.Thedivisionof
laborgoesbeyondeconomicinterestsitalsoestablishessocialandmoralorderwithin
asociety.
Therearetwokindsofsocialsolidarity,accordingtoDurkheim:mechanicalsolidarity
andorganicsolidarity.Mechanicalsolidarityconnectstheindividualtosocietywithout
anyintermediary.Thatis,societyisorganizedcollectivelyandallmembersofthegroup
sharethesamebeliefs.
Whileorganicsolidarity,ontheotherhand,isbasedonthefactthatsocietyisasystem
ofdifferentfunctionsthatareunitedbydefiniterelationships.Eachindividualmusthave
adistinctjoboractionandapersonalitythatishisorherown.Individualitygrowsas
partsofsocietygrow.Thus,societybecomesmoreefficientatmovinginsync,yetatthe
sametime,eachofitspartshasmoremovementsthataredistinctlyitsown.

AccordingtoDurkheim,themoreprimitiveasocietyis,themoreitischaracterizedby
mechanicalsolidarity.Themembersofthatsocietyaremorelikelytoresembleeach
otherandsharethesamebeliefsandmorals.Associetiesbecomesmoreadvanced
andcivilized,theindividualmembersofthosesocietiesstarttobecomemoreunique

anddistinguishablefromeachother.Thussolidaritybecomesmoreorganicasthese
societiesdeveloptheirdivisionsoflabor.

AccordingtoDurkheim.Thenervoussystemregulatesvariousbodyfunctionssothey
worktogetherinharmony.Likewise,thelegalsystemregulatesallthepartsofsociety
sothattheyworktogetherinagreement.

http://sociology.about.com/od/Works/a/TheDivisionOfLaborInSociety.htm

MAXandWEBER:

ForWebersocialchangewasnotsimplysomethingthatcameaboutbecause
ofclassconflict.Histheoryofsocialchangeismeantasachallengetothis
sortofMarxiananalysis.instead,Weberarguedthatsocialchangecould
comeaboutintwomainways.
First,itcouldcomeaboutpurposefully.Thiswouldhappenwhenpeople's
understandingoftheworldchangedandtheythentriedtochangesocietyto
matchwithworldfortheirsurvival.AnexampleofthiswouldbeWeber'sidea
thattheProtestantReformationhelpedleadtothecreationoftruecapitalism.
Second,itcouldcomeaboutaccidentally.Here,Weberwassayingthat
thingssuchaswarscouldhavemajorimpactsonsocietyeventhoughthe
peoplefightingthewarhadnointentionofcausingsuchchangetooccur.

MarxandWeberscharacteristicsofmodernsocieties
weredifferent.Marxstressedcapitalismandclassconflict
andWeberstressedrationalisationandbureaucracy.
https://www.google.co.in/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF8#q=max+weber
+theory+of+social+change

WeberandMarxhavedifferentopinionsonclass.AccordingtoMarxthereareonlytwo
classesinsociety.Thebourgeoisie(MiddleClassorcapitalist),thosewhoown
productionandtheproletariat(workingclasspeople)thosewhodonotownproduction

andthosewholabourforthebourgeoisie.Weberhasadifferentviewofclassandhe
thinkstherearedifferentlevelsofclassheintroducedthemiddleclass,whichhas
upsetMarxsplansforafutureproletariatrevolution.

Webertheoriesarebasedmuchonhisidealtypes,notbesttypesbuttypesthatareof
thepurestkind.MarxsviewsaremuchmoreoptimisticthanWebersidealistic
pessimisticviews.

MARXbelievedthatsocialconflictbetweencapitalistsandworkerswere
alienatingthemfromjobsandalsoleadingtoestrangementfromnature.

2NDAGRICULTURALREVOLUTION(183080)

Thesecondagriculturalrevolutionisgenerallysaidtohaveoccurredalongwiththe
IndustrialRevolution.ItcameaboutinpartbecauseoftheIndustrialRevolutionandit
helpedallowtheIndustrialRevolutiontohappen.
ThechangesthatledtosuchRevolutionwere:
MANUALtomechanizedproduction,
SUBSISTENCEfarmingtosurplusproduction
Increaseinuseoffertilizersthatreducessoilfertility.

SomeofthesharpestcriticismsofMarxfromanenvironmentalist
standpointhavecomefromleadingsociologists(bothnonMarxistand
Marxist),particularlyinBritain.Giddens(1981,p.60)hascontendedthat
Marx,althoughdemonstratingconsiderableecologicalsensitivityinhis
earliestwritings,lateradoptedaPrometheanattitudetowardnature.

Marxsconcernwithtransformingtheexploitativehumansocialrelations
expressedinclasssystemsdoesnotextend,Giddenswrites,tothe
exploitationofnature(1981,p.59).Similarly,Redclift(1984,p.7)has
observedthatforMarxtheenvironmentservedanenablingfunctionbutall
valuewasderivedfromlaborpower.


thatMarxbelievedthattheproblemofproductionhadbeensolvedby
capitalismandthatthefuturesocietyofassociatedproducerstherefore
wouldnothavetotakeseriouslytheproblemoftheallocationofscarce
resources,whichmeantthattherewasnoneedforanecologically
conscioussocialism.Marxthusstandsaccusedofwearingblindersin
relationtothefollowing:
(1)theexploitationofnature,
(2)naturesroleinthecreationofvalue,
(3)natureschangingcharacterandtheimpactofthisonhumansociety,
(4)theroleoftechnologyinenvironmentaldegradation,
Iftheseblinderwerevalidthenmarksdoesnotprovideinsightsinto
problemsofecologicalcrisisandindeedwoulditselfconstituteamajor
obstacletotheunderstandingofenvironmentalproblems

HoweverMarxsaddressedsomeoftheproblemslistedabovetosome
extentinhiswritings
InwhihcMarxprovidedapowerfulanalysisofthemainecologicalcrisisof
hisdaystheproblemofsoilfertilitywithincapitalistagricultureaswellas
commentingontheothermajorecologicalcrisesofhistime(thelossof
forests,thepollutionofthecities,andthepressureofoverpopulationon
land).Indoingso,heraisedfundamentalissuesabouttheantagonismof
townandcountry,thenecessityofecologicalsustainability,andwhathe
calledthemetabolicrelationbetweenhumanbeingsandnature.Inhis
theoryofmetabolicriftandhisresponsetoDarwinianevolutionarytheory,
Marxwentaconsiderablewaytowarda
historicalenvironmentalmaterialismthattookintoaccountthecoevolution
ofnatureandhumansociety

MetabolicriftisKarlMarx'snotionofthe"irreparableriftinthe
interdependentprocessofsocialmetabolism.
http://greencriminology.org/glossary/metabolicrifttheory/

MARXANDTHESECONDAGRICULTURALREVOLUTION:THE
METABOLICRIFT

TheConceptoftheSecondAgriculturalRevolutionAlthoughitisstill
commonforhistorianstorefertoasingleagriculturalrevolutionthattook
placeinBritaininthe17thand18thcenturiesandthatlaidthefoundation
fortheindustrialrevolutionthatfollowed,agriculturalhistorianscommonly
refertoasecondandevenathirdagriculturalrevolution.Thefirst
agriculturalrevolutionwasagradualprocessoccurringoverseveral
centuries,associatedwiththeenclosuresandthegrowingcentralityof
marketrelationstechnicalchangesincludedimprovedtechniquesofcrop
rotation,manuring,drainage,andlivestockmanagement.Incontrast,the
secondagriculturalrevolution(Thompson1968)occurredoverashorter
period(183080)andwascharacterizedbythegrowthofafertilizer
industryandarevolutioninsoilchemistry

Environmentalsociologyinindiancontext

Earlierroots

MarxismthepoliticalandeconomictheoriesofKarlMarxandFriedrichEngels,later
developedbytheirfollowerstoformthebasisofcommunism.

DrawbacksofESinindia
1.EarlyESignoredmacroframeworkintermsofindustrialisationand
urbanisation.

2.Lessattentiontoadivasis,sociallyoppressedanddalits.

3.Noexaminationofmovements,theirideology,mobilizationofpeople,
genderclassdivision.

TheoreticalProblems:
1.Earlyenvsociologistsdidntunderstandfullythemeaningof
Community,Tradition,Rural,Tribe.uncriticallytheywereacceptedina
unilinearway.CTRT

2.Villagewasperceivedashomogeneous,itsdynamiccharacteristicswere
ignored,theywereposedasstagnantcommunitywholivedininharmony
withnatureandwerevictimsofdevelopment.

3.Whilestudyingmigrationonlypushfactorwasconsideredpullfactor
wasignored.

4.Toomuchemphasisonecofeminismpeasantsandwomenwerebearers
ofecologicalwisdomandknowledge.howeverwomencantbeportrayed
ashomogenousgroup.
Originofenvironmentalmovementsinindia
1970environmentalactivismincreases,moreawarenessabout
environmentissuesamonglargermassofpeople

1972limitstogrowthbyclubofrome
Projecttigerimplementationbuildingofnationalparksandnatural
reservoirs.
Inmandal,agroupofpeasantsstoppedgroupofloggersfromfellingof
treesbyhuggingit.

Bestknownenvironmentalmovements
1.Bishnoimovement
2.Chipkomovement
toprotecthimalayanforestsfromdestruction.
Benefitsofforests,righttofoddershouldgotolocalpeoples.
Villagersembracedthetreestoresistfalling.
Ideabychandiprasadbhatt.
3.Narmadabachaoandolan
Oneofworldslargestmultipurposewaterproject.
1millionpeopledisplaced.
Submergenceofforestandagriculturalland.
Centredonissueofhumanrights.
4.Appikomovement
Forestbasedenvmovement.
Uttarakanaddadistrict,karnataka.

5.Silentvalley
Inkerela,richbiodiversity,constructionofhydrostaticdamonriver
kunthipuzhawereproposedbythestate.

 Itwouldhavedrownvaluablerainforestandendangeredfloraand
fauna.
SilentValleyMovementisthetaleofabattleagainstthestatetoprotectapristine
evergreenrainforestofKerala.SilentValleyissituatedinPalghatdistrictandcontains
Indiaslastsubstantialstretchoftropicalevergreenforest.

6.Tehridam

http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/ecological_marxists.htm

TheMarxistapproachtoecologicaldestructionandIndiansocialmovementsfocusesonthe
inequalityofpowerandcontroloverthemeansofproductionanddestruction,unequalexposure
tocontaminationintheworkplaceandneighborhoods,inequalityinaccesstolandanduseof
chemicalfertilizersandherbicidesandothercontaminantsandunequalaccesstostatepower.
Marxistsfocusontheclassstructure,classinequalitiesandtheclassnatureofthe
environmentaldisasterswhichtakeplace.

EnvironmentalMovementsinIndiaisaresponsetotheenvironmentalchallengesfacedby
thecountryfromthetimeofcolonialismtothepresentinthenameofdevelopmentand
modernity.ThesemovementsareoftendirectmanifestationsofGandhiannonviolenceand
peacemaking.Gandhiannonviolencehadbeenacceptedbytheenvironmentalmovements
astheirprimeobjective

EnvironmentalismasamovementstartedinIndiain1970sandflourishedwiththeChipko
movement.Unlikethewesternenvironmentalmovementswhichrepresentedtheupperand
middleclass,Indianenvironmentalmovementssignifiedtheenvironmentalismofthe
3

poor. Thesemovementsareoftenledbythepeasantsandindigenouspeople,especially
thewomenfolk.Itlinksissuesofecologywithquestionofhumanrights,ethnicityand
distributivejustice.

MostofthesemovementsreliedontheGandhianvaluesofecologicalprudenceandfrugality
andfollowedtheGandhianmodelofdecentralizeddemocracyandvillageSwaraj.Atthe
sametime,somemovementslikeSilentValleymovementfromKeralaexemplifythe
synthesisofbothGandhianandMarxianideologies

IdeologicalDifferencebetweenGandhianandMarxian

TheideologicaldifferencebetweentheGandhianandMarxiansystemofenvironmentalismis
thatGandhibelievedmodernindustrializationastherootcauseofenvironmental
degradationwhileMarxiststhinkcapitalismasthemajorelementwhichdeterioratesthe
environment.Marxsuggeststhedevelopmentofscienceandtechnologyasatoolfor
masteringnaturewhileGandhiconsidersscienceandtechnologyasahindrancetonature
conservation.Gandhiadvocatesthelimitationofhumanwantsforthesakeofnaturewhile
Marxstoodforeachmanaccordingtohisneeds,andeachmanaccordingtohisability.
Amongthesedifferences,thereareanumberofsimilaritiesbetweenthesetwogroups.Both
GandhianandMarxiansystemseeksjusticetothepoorpeoplewhoarelivingintunewith
nature.Theypromotedtheideaofselfsufficiencyandsustainableeconomyandworkforan
egalitariansociety

PresentEnvironmentContext

Earthsciencesystemsaysthattherearenineplanetaryboundariesexist
1. ClimateChange
2. OceanAcidification
3. StratosphereofOzonelayer
4. ChangeintheBiogeochemicalFlow
5. LossofBiodiversity
6. ChangeinLandUse
7. ChangeinFreshWaterUse
8. IncreaseinAerosolLoading
9. ChemicalPollution

Note:

Earthsystemscience(ESS)istheapplicationofsystemssciencetotheEarthsciences.In
particular,itconsidersinteractionsbetweentheEarth's"spheres"suchasatmosphere,
hydrosphere,cryosphere,geosphere,pedosphere,biosphere,and,even,the
magnetosphereaswellastheimpactofhumansocietiesonthesecomponents

EnvironmentalDegradationismathematicallydefinedas

EnvironmentalDegradation(I)=PxAxT

WherePPollution,AAffluenceandTisTechnology

MagdoffandFosterpointoutinWhateveryEnvironmentalistneedstoknowabout
Capitalism:

Negativeorzeropopulationgrowthcanposeseriousproblemsforacapitalistsocietythatis
alwaysinsearchofnewmarketsforitsgoodsandrequiringacontinualexpansionofthe
laborforceandoftherelativesurpluspopulationoftheunemployedinordertomeetthe
needsofproductionandprofitsinonelineitheexplainthatCapitalismcannotfunctionin
absenceofPopulationGrowth