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ElectricalresistivityandconductivityWikipedia

Electricalresistivityandconductivity
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Electricalresistivity(alsoknownasresistivity,specificelectricalresistance,orvolumeresistivity)isan
intrinsicpropertythatquantifieshowstronglyagivenmaterialopposestheflowofelectriccurrent.Alow
resistivityindicatesamaterialthatreadilyallowstheflowofelectriccurrent.Resistivityiscommonlyrepresented
bytheGreekletter(rho).TheSIunitofelectricalresistivityistheohmmetre(m).[1][2][3]Asanexample,ifa
1m1m1msolidcubeofmaterialhassheetcontactsontwooppositefaces,andtheresistancebetweenthese
contactsis1,thentheresistivityofthematerialis1m.
Electricalconductivityorspecificconductanceisthereciprocalofelectricalresistivity,andmeasuresamaterial's
abilitytoconductanelectriccurrent.ItiscommonlyrepresentedbytheGreekletter(sigma),but(kappa)
(especiallyinelectricalengineering)or(gamma)arealsooccasionallyused.ItsSIunitissiemenspermetre
(S/m)andCGSEunitisreciprocalsecond(s1).

Contents
1 Definition
1.1 Resistorsorconductorswithuniformcrosssection
1.2 Generaldefinition
2 Causesofconductivity
2.1 Bandtheorysimplified
2.2 Inmetals
2.3 Insemiconductorsandinsulators
2.4 Inionicliquids/electrolytes
2.5 Superconductivity
2.6 Plasma
3 Resistivityandconductivityofvariousmaterials
4 Temperaturedependence
4.1 Linearapproximation
4.2 Metals
4.3 Semiconductors
5 Complexresistivityandconductivity
6 Tensorequationsforanisotropicmaterials
7 Resistanceversusresistivityincomplicatedgeometries
8 Resistivitydensityproducts
9 Seealso
10 Notes
11 References
12 Furtherreading
13 Externallinks

Definition
Resistorsorconductorswithuniformcrosssection

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Manyresistorsandconductorshaveauniformcrosssectionwithauniform
flowofelectriccurrent,andaremadeofonematerial.(Seethediagramto
theright.)Inthiscase,theelectricalresistivity(Greek:rho)isdefinedas:

where
Ristheelectricalresistanceofauniformspecimenofthematerial
isthelengthofthepieceofmaterial
Aisthecrosssectionalareaofthespecimen

Apieceofresistivematerialwith

Thereasonresistivityisdefinedthiswayisthatitmakesresistivityan
electricalcontactsonbothends.
intrinsicproperty,unlikeresistance.Allcopperwires,irrespectiveoftheir
shapeandsize,haveapproximatelythesameresistivity,butalong,thin
copperwirehasamuchlargerresistancethanathick,shortcopperwire.Everymaterialhasitsowncharacteristic
resistivityforexample,resistivityofrubberisfarlargerthancopper's.
Inahydraulicanalogy,passingcurrentthroughahighresistivitymaterialislikepushingwaterthroughapipefull
ofsandwhilepassingcurrentthroughalowresistivitymaterialislikepushingwaterthroughanemptypipe.If
thepipesarethesamesizeandshape,thepipefullofsandhashigherresistancetoflow.Resistance,however,is
notsolelydeterminedbythepresenceorabsenceofsand.Italsodependsonthelengthandwidthofthepipe:short
orwidepipeshavelowerresistancethannarroworlongpipes.
TheaboveequationcanbetransposedtogetPouillet'slaw(namedafterClaudePouillet):

Theresistanceofagivenmaterialincreaseswithlength,butdecreaseswithincreasingcrosssectionalarea.From
theaboveequations,resistivityhasSIunitsofohmmetres(m).
Theformula

canbeusedtointuitivelyunderstandthemeaningofaresistivityvalue.Forexample,ifA

=1m2 =1m(formingacubewithperfectlyconductivecontactsonoppositefaces),thentheresistanceofthis
elementinohmsisnumericallyequaltotheresistivityofthematerialitismadeofinm.
Conductivity,,isdefinedastheinverseofresistivity:

ConductivityhasSIunitsofsiemenspermeter(S/m).

Generaldefinition
Theabovedefinitionwasspecifictoresistorsorconductorswithauniformcrosssection,wherecurrentflows
uniformlythroughthem.Amorebasicandgeneraldefinitionstartsfromthefactthatanelectricfieldinsidea
materialmakeselectriccurrentflow.Theelectricalresistivity,,isdefinedastheratiooftheelectricfieldtothe
densityofthecurrentitcreates:

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where
istheresistivityoftheconductormaterial,
Eisthemagnitudeoftheelectricfield,
Jisthemagnitudeofthecurrentdensity,
inwhichEandJareinsidetheconductor.
Conductivityistheinverse:

Forexample,rubberisamaterialwithlargeandsmallbecauseevenaverylargeelectricfieldinrubber
makesalmostnocurrentflowthroughit.Ontheotherhand,copperisamaterialwithsmallandlargebecause
evenasmallelectricfieldpullsalotofcurrentthroughit.

Causesofconductivity
Bandtheorysimplified
Accordingtoelementaryquantummechanics,electronsinan
atomdonottakeonarbitraryenergyvalues.Rather,electrons
onlyoccupycertaindiscreteenergylevelsinanatomor
crystalenergiesbetweentheselevelsareimpossible.Whena
largenumberofsuchallowedenergylevelsarespacedclose
together(inenergyspace)i.e.havesimilar(minutely
differing)energieswecantalkabouttheseenergylevels
togetherasan"energyband".Therecanbemanysuchenergy
bandsinamaterial,dependingontheatomicnumber{number
ofelectrons(iftheatomisneutral)}andtheirdistribution
(besidesexternalfactorslikeenvironmentalmodificationofthe
energybands).

Fillingoftheelectronicstatesinvarioustypesof
materialsatequilibrium.Here,heightisenergy
whilewidthisthedensityofavailablestatesfora
certainenergyinthemateriallisted.Theshade
followstheFermiDiracdistribution(black=all
statesfilled,white=nostatefilled).Inmetalsand
semimetalstheFermilevelEFliesinsideatleast

Thematerial'selectronsseektominimizethetotalenergyin
thematerialbygoingtolowenergystateshowever,thePauli
exclusionprinciplemeansthattheycannotallgotothelowest
oneband.Ininsulatorsandsemiconductorsthe
state.Theelectronsinstead"fillup"thebandstructurestarting
Fermilevelisinsideabandgaphowever,in
fromthebottom.Thecharacteristicenergyleveluptowhich
semiconductorsthebandsarenearenoughtothe
theelectronshavefillediscalledtheFermilevel.Theposition
Fermileveltobethermallypopulatedwith
oftheFermilevelwithrespecttothebandstructureisvery
electronsorholes.
importantforelectricalconduction:onlyelectronsinenergy
levelsneartheFermilevelarefreetomovearound,sincethe
electronscaneasilyjumpamongthepartiallyoccupiedstatesinthatregion.Incontrast,thelowenergystatesare
rigidlyfilledwithafixednumberofelectronsatalltimes,andthehighenergystatesareemptyofelectronsatall
times.

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InmetalstherearemanyenergylevelsneartheFermilevel,meaningthattherearemanyelectronsavailableto
move.Thisiswhatcausesthehighelectronicconductivityofmetals.
Animportantpartofbandtheoryisthattheremaybeforbiddenbandsinenergy:energyintervalsthatcontainno
energylevels.Ininsulatorsandsemiconductors,thenumberofelectronshappenstobejusttherightamounttofill
acertainintegernumberoflowenergybands,exactlytotheboundary.Inthiscase,theFermilevelfallswithina
bandgap.SincetherearenoavailablestatesneartheFermilevel,andtheelectronsarenotfreelymovable,the
electronicconductivityisverylow.

Inmetals
Ametalconsistsofalatticeofatoms,eachwithanoutershellofelectronsthat
freelydissociatefromtheirparentatomsandtravelthroughthelattice.Thisis
alsoknownasapositiveioniclattice.[4]This'sea'ofdissociableelectrons
allowsthemetaltoconductelectriccurrent.Whenanelectricalpotential
difference(avoltage)isappliedacrossthemetal,theresultingelectricfield
causeselectronstodrifttowardsthepositiveterminal.Theactualdriftvelocity
ofelectronsisverysmall,intheorderofmagnitudeofameterperhour.
However,astheelectronsaredenselypackedinthematerial,the
electromagneticfieldispropagatedthroughthemetalatnearlythespeedof
light.[5]Themechanismissimilartotransferofmomentumofballsina
Newton'scradle.[6]

LikeballsinaNewton'scradle,
electronsinametalquickly
transferenergyfromoneterminal
toanother,despitetheirown
negligiblemovement.

Nearroomtemperatures,metalshaveresistance.Theprimarycauseofthis
resistanceisthecollisionofelectronswiththeatomsthatmakeupthecrystal
lattice.Thisactstoscatterelectronsandlosetheirenergyoncollisionsrather
thanonlinearmovementthroughthelattice.Alsocontributingtoresistanceinmetalswithimpuritiesarethe
resultingimperfectionsinthelattice.[7]

Thelargerthecrosssectionalareaoftheconductor,themoreelectronsperunitlengthareavailabletocarrythe
current.Asaresult,theresistanceislowerinlargercrosssectionconductors.Thenumberofscatteringevents
encounteredbyanelectronpassingthroughamaterialisproportionaltothelengthoftheconductor.Thelongerthe
conductor,therefore,thehighertheresistance.Differentmaterialsalsoaffecttheresistance.[8]

Insemiconductorsandinsulators
Inmetals,theFermilevelliesintheconductionband(seeBandTheory,above)givingrisetofreeconduction
electrons.However,insemiconductorsthepositionoftheFermileveliswithinthebandgap,approximately
halfwaybetweentheconductionbandminimumandvalencebandmaximumforintrinsic(undoped)
semiconductors.Thismeansthatat0kelvin,therearenofreeconductionelectrons,andtheresistanceisinfinite.
However,theresistancecontinuestodecreaseasthechargecarrierdensityintheconductionbandincreases.In
extrinsic(doped)semiconductors,dopantatomsincreasethemajoritychargecarrierconcentrationbydonating
electronstotheconductionbandorproducingholesinthevalenceband.Forbothtypesofdonororacceptor
atoms,increasingdopantdensityreducesresistance.Hence,highlydopedsemiconductorsbehavemetallically.At
veryhightemperatures,thecontributionofthermallygeneratedcarriersdominateoverthecontributionfrom
dopantatoms,andtheresistancedecreasesexponentiallywithtemperature.

Inionicliquids/electrolytes

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Inelectrolytes,electricalconductionhappensnotbybandelectronsorholes,butbyfullatomicspecies(ions)
traveling,eachcarryinganelectricalcharge.Theresistivityofionicsolutions(electrolytes)variestremendously
withconcentrationwhiledistilledwaterisalmostaninsulator,saltwaterisareasonableelectricalconductor.
Conductioninionicliquidsisalsocontrolledbythemovementofions,butherewearetalkingaboutmoltensalts
ratherthansolvatedions.Inbiologicalmembranes,currentsarecarriedbyionicsalts.Smallholesincell
membranes,calledionchannels,areselectivetospecificionsanddeterminethemembraneresistance.

Superconductivity
Theelectricalresistivityofametallicconductordecreasesgraduallyastemperatureislowered.Inordinary
conductors,suchascopperorsilver,thisdecreaseislimitedbyimpuritiesandotherdefects.Evennearabsolute
zero,arealsampleofanormalconductorshowssomeresistance.Inasuperconductor,theresistancedrops
abruptlytozerowhenthematerialiscooledbelowitscriticaltemperature.Anelectriccurrentflowinginaloopof
superconductingwirecanpersistindefinitelywithnopowersource.[9]
In1986,researchersdiscoveredthatsomecuprateperovskiteceramicmaterialshavemuchhighercritical
temperatures,andin1987onewasproducedwithacriticaltemperatureabove90K(183C).[10]Suchahigh
transitiontemperatureistheoreticallyimpossibleforaconventionalsuperconductor,sotheresearchersnamed
theseconductorshightemperaturesuperconductors.Liquidnitrogenboilsat77K,facilitatingmanyexperiments
andapplicationsthatarelesspracticalatlowertemperatures.Inconventionalsuperconductors,electronsareheld
togetherinpairsbyanattractionmediatedbylatticephonons.Thebestavailablemodelofhightemperature
superconductivityisstillsomewhatcrude.Thereisahypothesisthatelectronpairinginhightemperature
superconductorsismediatedbyshortrangespinwavesknownasparamagnons.[11]

Plasma
Plasmasareverygoodelectricalconductorsandelectricpotentialsplayanimportantrole.Thepotentialasitexists
onaverageinthespacebetweenchargedparticles,independentofthequestionofhowitcanbemeasured,iscalled
theplasmapotential,orspacepotential.Ifanelectrodeisinsertedintoaplasma,itspotentialgenerallylies
considerablybelowtheplasmapotential,duetowhatistermedaDebyesheath.Thegoodelectricalconductivityof
plasmasmakestheirelectricfieldsverysmall.Thisresultsintheimportantconceptofquasineutrality,whichsays
thedensityofnegativechargesisapproximatelyequaltothedensityofpositivechargesoverlargevolumesofthe
plasma(ne=<Z>ni),butonthescaleoftheDebyelengththerecanbechargeimbalance.Inthespecialcasethat
doublelayersareformed,thechargeseparationcanextendsometensofDebyelengths.
Themagnitudeofthepotentialsandelectricfieldsmustbedeterminedbymeansotherthansimplyfindingthenet
chargedensity.AcommonexampleistoassumethattheelectronssatisfytheBoltzmannrelation:

Differentiatingthisrelationprovidesameanstocalculatetheelectricfieldfromthedensity:

Itispossibletoproduceaplasmathatisnotquasineutral.Anelectronbeam,forexample,hasonlynegative
charges.Thedensityofanonneutralplasmamustgenerallybeverylow,oritmustbeverysmall.Otherwise,the
repulsiveelectrostaticforcedissipatesit.

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Inastrophysicalplasmas,Debyescreeningpreventselectric
fieldsfromdirectlyaffectingtheplasmaoverlargedistances,
i.e.,greaterthantheDebyelength.However,theexistenceof
chargedparticlescausestheplasmatogenerate,andbe
affectedby,magneticfields.Thiscananddoescause
extremelycomplexbehavior,suchasthegenerationofplasma
doublelayers,anobjectthatseparateschargeoverafewtens
ofDebyelengths.Thedynamicsofplasmasinteractingwith
externalandselfgeneratedmagneticfieldsarestudiedinthe
academicdisciplineofmagnetohydrodynamics.
Plasmaisoftencalledthefourthstateofmatteraftersolid,
liquidsandgases.[13][14]Itisdistinctfromtheseandother
lowerenergystatesofmatter.Althoughitiscloselyrelatedto
thegasphaseinthatitalsohasnodefiniteformorvolume,it
differsinanumberofways,includingthefollowing:

Lightningisanexampleofplasmapresentat
Earth'ssurface.Typically,lightningdischarges
30,000amperesatupto100millionvolts,and
emitslight,radiowaves,Xraysandevengamma
rays. [12]Plasmatemperaturesinlightningcan
approach28,000Kelvin(28,000C)(50,000F)
andelectrondensitiesmayexceed1024m3.

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Property

Gas

Plasma

Verylow:Airisanexcellent
insulatoruntilitbreaksdown
Electrical
Usuallyveryhigh:Formanypurposes,theconductivityofa
intoplasmaatelectricfield
conductivity strengthsabove30kilovolts plasmamaybetreatedasinfinite.
percentimeter.[15]
Twoorthree:Electrons,ions,protonsandneutronscanbe
One:Allgasparticlesbehave
distinguishedbythesignandvalueoftheirchargesothatthey
Independently inasimilarway,influenced
behaveindependentlyinmanycircumstances,withdifferentbulk
actingspecies bygravityandbycollisions
velocitiesandtemperatures,allowingphenomenasuchasnew
withoneanother.
typesofwavesandinstabilities.
Velocity
distribution

Maxwellian:Collisions
usuallyleadtoaMaxwellian
velocitydistributionofallgas
particles,withveryfew
relativelyfastparticles.

Binary:Twoparticle
collisionsaretherule,three
Interactions
bodycollisionsextremely
rare.

OftennonMaxwellian:Collisionalinteractionsareoftenweak
inhotplasmasandexternalforcingcandrivetheplasmafarfrom
localequilibriumandleadtoasignificantpopulationof
unusuallyfastparticles.
Collective:Waves,ororganizedmotionofplasma,arevery
importantbecausetheparticlescaninteractatlongranges
throughtheelectricandmagneticforces.

Resistivityandconductivityofvariousmaterials
Aconductorsuchasametalhashighconductivityandalowresistivity.
Aninsulatorlikeglasshaslowconductivityandahighresistivity.
Theconductivityofasemiconductorisgenerallyintermediate,butvarieswidelyunderdifferentconditions,
suchasexposureofthematerialtoelectricfieldsorspecificfrequenciesoflight,and,mostimportant,with
temperatureandcompositionofthesemiconductormaterial.
Thedegreeofdopinginsemiconductorsmakesalargedifferenceinconductivity.Toapoint,moredopingleadsto
higherconductivity.Theconductivityofasolutionofwaterishighlydependentonitsconcentrationofdissolved
salts,andotherchemicalspeciesthationizeinthesolution.Electricalconductivityofwatersamplesisusedasan
indicatorofhowsaltfree,ionfree,orimpurityfreethesampleisthepurerthewater,thelowertheconductivity
(thehighertheresistivity).Conductivitymeasurementsinwaterareoftenreportedasspecificconductance,relative
totheconductivityofpurewaterat25C.AnECmeterisnormallyusedtomeasureconductivityinasolution.A
roughsummaryisasfollows:
Material

Resistivity,(m)

Superconductors 0
Metals

108

Semiconductors Variable
Electrolytes

Variable

Insulators

1016

Superinsulators
Thistableshowstheresistivity,conductivityandtemperaturecoefficientofvariousmaterialsat20C(68F,293
K)
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Material

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(m)at20C

(S/m)at20C

Temperature
coefficient[note1]
(K1)

Reference

Carbon(graphene)

1.00 108

1.00 108

0.0002

[16]

Silver

1.59 108

6.30 107

0.0038

[17][18]

Copper

1.68 108

5.96 107

0.003862

[19]

Annealed
copper[note2]

1.72 108

5.80 107

0.00393

[20]

Gold[note3]

2.44 108

4.10 107

0.0034

[17]

Aluminium[note4]

2.82 108

3.50 107

0.0039

[17]

Calcium

3.36 108

2.98 107

0.0041

Tungsten

5.60 108

1.79 107

0.0045

[17]

Zinc

5.90 108

1.69 107

0.0037

[21]

Nickel

6.99 108

1.43 107

0.006

Lithium

9.28 108

1.08 107

0.006

Iron

9.71 108

1.00 107

0.005

[17]

Platinum

1.06 107

9.43 106

0.00392

[17]

Tin

1.09 107

9.17 106

0.0045

Carbonsteel(1010)

1.43 107

6.99 106

Lead

2.20 107

4.55 106

0.0039

Titanium

4.20 107

2.38 106

0.0038

Grainoriented
electricalsteel

4.60 107

2.17 106

Manganin

4.82 107

2.07 106

0.000002

[24]

Constantan

4.90 107

2.04 106

0.000008

[25]

Stainlesssteel[note5]

6.90 107

1.45 106

0.00094

[26]

Mercury

9.80 107

1.02 106

0.0009

[24]

Nichrome[note6]

1.10 106

6.7 105

0.0004

[17]

GaAs

1.00 103to1.00 108

1.00 108to103

Carbon(amorphous)

5.00 104to8.00 104

1.25 103to2 103

Carbon
(graphite)[note7]

2.50 106to5.00 106

basalplane
3.00 103basalplane

2.00 105to3.00 105

basalplane
3.30 102basalplane

PEDOT:PSS

1.00 103to1.00 101

1 101to4.6 103

[30]

Germanium[note8]

4.60 101

2.17

0.048

[17][18]

Seawater[note9]

2.00 101

4.80

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[17]

[23]

[27]

0.0005

[17][28]

[29]

[31]

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Material
Swimmingpool
water[note10]

(m)at20C
3.33 101to4.00 101

(S/m)at20C

Temperature
coefficient[note1]
(K1)

Reference
[32]

0.25to0.30

Drinkingwater[note11] 2.00 101to2.00 103

5.00 104to5.00 102

Silicon[note8]

6.40 102

1.56 103

Wood(damp)

1.00 103to1.00 104

104to103

[33]

Deionized
water[note12]

1.80 105

5.50 106

[34]

Glass

1.00 1011to1.00 1015

1015to1011

[17][18]

Hardrubber

1.00 1013

1014

[17]

Wood(ovendry)

1.00 1014to1.00 1016

1016to1014

Sulfur

1.00 1015

1016

Air

1.30 1016to3.30 1016

3 1015to8 1015

[35]

Carbon(diamond)

1.00 1012

~1013

[36]

Fusedquartz

7.50 1017

1.30 1018

PET

1.00 1021

1021

Teflon

1.00 1023to1.00 1025

1025to1023

0.075

[17]

[33]

[17]

[17]

Theeffectivetemperaturecoefficientvarieswithtemperatureandpuritylevelofthematerial.The20Cvalueis
onlyanapproximationwhenusedatothertemperatures.Forexample,thecoefficientbecomeslowerathigher
temperaturesforcopper,andthevalue0.00427iscommonlyspecifiedat0C.[37]
Theextremelylowresistivity(highconductivity)ofsilverischaracteristicofmetals.GeorgeGamowtidily
summedupthenatureofthemetals'dealingswithelectronsinhissciencepopularizingbook,One,Two,
Three...Infinity(1947):
Themetallicsubstancesdifferfromallothermaterialsbythefactthattheoutershellsoftheiratoms
areboundratherloosely,andoftenletoneoftheirelectronsgofree.Thustheinteriorofametalis
filledupwithalargenumberofunattachedelectronsthattravelaimlesslyaroundlikeacrowdof
displacedpersons.Whenametalwireissubjectedtoelectricforceappliedonitsoppositeends,these
freeelectronsrushinthedirectionoftheforce,thusformingwhatwecallanelectriccurrent.
Moretechnically,thefreeelectronmodelgivesabasicdescriptionofelectronflowinmetals.
Woodiswidelyregardedasanextremelygoodinsulator,butitsresistivityissensitivelydependentonmoisture
content,withdampwoodbeingafactorofatleast1010worseinsulatorthanovendry.[33]Inanycase,asufficiently
highvoltagesuchasthatinlightningstrikesorsomehightensionpowerlinescanleadtoinsulationbreakdown
andelectrocutionriskevenwithapparentlydrywood.

Temperaturedependence
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Linearapproximation
Theelectricalresistivityofmostmaterialschangeswithtemperature.IfthetemperatureTdoesnotvarytoomuch,
alinearapproximationistypicallyused:

where iscalledthetemperaturecoefficientofresistivity, isafixedreferencetemperature(usuallyroom

temperature),and istheresistivityattemperature .Theparameter isanempiricalparameterfittedfrom
measurementdata.Becausethelinearapproximationisonlyanapproximation, isdifferentfordifferent
referencetemperatures.Forthisreasonitisusualtospecifythetemperaturethat wasmeasuredatwithasuffix,
suchas
,andtherelationshiponlyholdsinarangeoftemperaturesaroundthereference.[38]Whenthe
temperaturevariesoveralargetemperaturerange,thelinearapproximationisinadequateandamoredetailed
analysisandunderstandingshouldbeused.

Metals
Ingeneral,electricalresistivityofmetalsincreaseswithtemperature.Electronphononinteractionscanplayakey
role.Athightemperatures,theresistanceofametalincreaseslinearlywithtemperature.Asthetemperatureofa
metalisreduced,thetemperaturedependenceofresistivityfollowsapowerlawfunctionoftemperature.
MathematicallythetemperaturedependenceoftheresistivityofametalisgivenbytheBlochGrneisen
formula:

where
istheresidualresistivityduetodefectscattering,Aisaconstantthatdependsonthevelocityof
electronsattheFermisurface,theDebyeradiusandthenumberdensityofelectronsinthemetal. istheDebye
temperatureasobtainedfromresistivitymeasurementsandmatchesverycloselywiththevaluesofDebye
temperatureobtainedfromspecificheatmeasurements.nisanintegerthatdependsuponthenatureofinteraction:
1.n=5impliesthattheresistanceisduetoscatteringofelectronsbyphonons(asitisforsimplemetals)
2.n=3impliesthattheresistanceisduetosdelectronscattering(asisthecasefortransitionmetals)
3.n=2impliesthattheresistanceisduetoelectronelectroninteraction.
Ifmorethanonesourceofscatteringissimultaneouslypresent,Matthiessen'sRule(firstformulatedbyAugustus
Matthiesseninthe1860s)[39][40]saysthatthetotalresistancecanbeapproximatedbyaddingupseveraldifferent
terms,eachwiththeappropriatevalueofn.
Asthetemperatureofthemetalissufficientlyreduced(soasto'freeze'allthephonons),theresistivityusually
reachesaconstantvalue,knownastheresidualresistivity.Thisvaluedependsnotonlyonthetypeofmetal,but
onitspurityandthermalhistory.Thevalueoftheresidualresistivityofametalisdecidedbyitsimpurity
concentration.Somematerialsloseallelectricalresistivityatsufficientlylowtemperatures,duetoaneffectknown
assuperconductivity.
AninvestigationofthelowtemperatureresistivityofmetalswasthemotivationtoHeikeKamerlinghOnnes's
experimentsthatledin1911todiscoveryofsuperconductivity.FordetailsseeHistoryofsuperconductivity.

Semiconductors
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Ingeneral,intrinsicsemiconductorresistivitydecreaseswithincreasingtemperature.Theelectronsarebumpedto
theconductionenergybandbythermalenergy,wheretheyflowfreely,andindoingsoleavebehindholesinthe
valenceband,whichalsoflowfreely.Theelectricresistanceofatypicalintrinsic(nondoped)semiconductor
decreasesexponentiallywithtemperature:

Anevenbetterapproximationofthetemperaturedependenceoftheresistivityofasemiconductorisgivenbythe
SteinhartHartequation:

whereA,BandCarethesocalledSteinhartHartcoefficients.
Thisequationisusedtocalibratethermistors.
Extrinsic(doped)semiconductorshaveafarmorecomplicatedtemperatureprofile.Astemperatureincreases
startingfromabsolutezerotheyfirstdecreasesteeplyinresistanceasthecarriersleavethedonorsoracceptors.
Aftermostofthedonorsoracceptorshavelosttheircarriers,theresistancestartstoincreaseagainslightlydueto
thereducingmobilityofcarriers(muchasinametal).Athighertemperatures,theybehavelikeintrinsic
semiconductorsasthecarriersfromthedonors/acceptorsbecomeinsignificantcomparedtothethermally
generatedcarriers.[41]
Innoncrystallinesemiconductors,conductioncanoccurbychargesquantumtunnellingfromonelocalisedsiteto
another.Thisisknownasvariablerangehoppingandhasthecharacteristicformof
,
wheren=2,3,4,dependingonthedimensionalityofthesystem.

Complexresistivityandconductivity
Whenanalyzingtheresponseofmaterialstoalternatingelectricfields(dielectricspectroscopy),inapplications
suchaselectricalimpedancetomography,[42]itisconvenienttoreplaceresistivitywithacomplexquantitycalled
impeditivity(inanalogytoelectricalimpedance).Impeditivityisthesumofarealcomponent,theresistivity,and
animaginarycomponent,thereactivity(inanalogytoreactance).Themagnitudeofimpeditivityisthesquareroot
ofsumofsquaresofmagnitudesofresistivityandreactivity.
Conversely,insuchcasestheconductivitymustbeexpressedasacomplexnumber(orevenasamatrixof
complexnumbers,inthecaseofanisotropicmaterials)calledtheadmittivity.Admittivityisthesumofareal
componentcalledtheconductivityandanimaginarycomponentcalledthesusceptivity.
Analternativedescriptionoftheresponsetoalternatingcurrentsusesareal(butfrequencydependent)
conductivity,alongwitharealpermittivity.Thelargertheconductivityis,themorequicklythealternatingcurrent
signalisabsorbedbythematerial(i.e.,themoreopaquethematerialis).Fordetails,seeMathematicaldescriptions
ofopacity.

Tensorequationsforanisotropicmaterials
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Somematerialsareanisotropic,meaningtheyhavedifferentpropertiesindifferentdirections.Forexample,a
crystalofgraphiteconsistsmicroscopicallyofastackofsheets,andcurrentflowsveryeasilythrougheachsheet,
butmovesmuchlesseasilyfromonesheettothenext.[29]
Forananisotropicmaterial,itisnotgenerallyvalidtousethescalarequations

Forexample,thecurrentmaynotflowinexactlythesamedirectionastheelectricfield.Instead,theequationsare
generalizedtothe3Dtensorform[43][44]

wheretheconductivityandresistivityarerank2tensors(inotherwords,33matrices).Theequationsare
compactlyillustratedincomponentform(usingindexnotationandthesummationconvention):[45]

Theandtensorsareinverses(inthesenseofamatrixinverse).Theindividualcomponentsarenotnecessarily
inversesforexample,xxmaynotbeequalto1/xx.

Resistanceversusresistivityincomplicatedgeometries
Evenifthematerial'sresistivityisknown,calculatingtheresistanceofsomethingmadefromitmay,insomecases,
bemuchmorecomplicatedthantheformula
above.Oneexampleisspreadingresistanceprofiling,
wherethematerialisinhomogeneous(differentresistivityindifferentplaces),andtheexactpathsofcurrentflow
arenotobvious.
Incaseslikethis,theformulas

mustbereplacedwith

whereEandJarenowvectorfields.Thisequation,alongwiththecontinuityequationforJandthePoisson's
equationforE,formasetofpartialdifferentialequations.Inspecialcases,anexactorapproximatesolutionto
theseequationscanbeworkedoutbyhand,butforveryaccurateanswersincomplexcases,computermethods
likefiniteelementanalysismayberequired.

Resistivitydensityproducts
Insomeapplicationswheretheweightofanitemisveryimportantresistivitydensityproductsaremoreimportant
thanabsolutelowresistivityitisoftenpossibletomaketheconductorthickertomakeupforahigherresistivity
andthenalowresistivitydensityproductmaterial(orequivalentlyahighconductancetodensityratio)is
desirable.Forexample,forlongdistanceoverheadpowerlines,aluminiumisfrequentlyusedratherthancopper
becauseitislighterforthesameconductance.

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Resistivitydensity

Conductorcross
section/volume,
atsameconductancerelative
tocopper

Material

Resistivity
(nm)

Density
(g/cm3)

Sodium

47.7

0.97

46

31%

2.843

Lithium

92.8

0.53

49

33%

5.531

Calcium

33.6

1.55

52

35%

2.002

Potassium

72.0

0.89

64

43%

4.291

Beryllium

35.6

1.85

66

44%

2.122

Aluminium 26.50

2.70

72

48%

1.5792

Magnesium 43.90

1.74

76.3

50.9%

2.616

Copper

16.78

8.96

150

Silver

15.87

10.49

166

111%

0.946

Gold

22.14

19.30

427

285%

1.319

Iron

96.1

7.874

757

505%

5.727

(nmg/cm3)

Relativeto
copper

100%

Silver,althoughitistheleastresistivemetalknown,hasahighdensityanddoespoorlybythismeasure.Calcium
andthealkalimetalshavethebestresistivitydensityproducts,butarerarelyusedforconductorsduetotheirhigh
reactivitywithwaterandoxygen.Aluminiumisfarmorestable.Twootherimportantattributes,priceandtoxicity,
excludethe(otherwise)bestchoice:Beryllium.Thus,aluminiumisusuallythemetalofchoicewhentheweightor
costofaconductoristhedrivingconsideration.

Seealso
Classificationofmaterialsbasedonpermittivity
Conductivitynearthepercolationthreshold
Contactresistance
Electricalimpedance
Electricalresistivitiesoftheelements(datapage)
Electricalresistivitytomography
Ohm'slaw

Ohm'slaw
Sheetresistance
SIelectromagnetismunits
Skineffect
Spitzerresistivity

Notes
1.Thenumbersinthiscolumnincreaseordecreasethesignificandportionoftheresistivity.Forexample,at30C(303K),
theresistivityofsilveris1.65 108.Thisiscalculatedas=Towhereoistheresistivityat20C(inthis
case)andisthetemperaturecoefficient.
2.Referredtoas100%IACSorInternationalAnnealedCopperStandard.Theunitforexpressingtheconductivityof
nonmagneticmaterialsbytestingusingtheeddycurrentmethod.Generallyusedfortemperandalloyverificationof
aluminium.
3.Goldiscommonlyusedinelectricalcontactsbecauseitdoesnoteasilycorrode.
4.Commonlyusedforhighvoltagepowerlines
5.18%chromium/8%nickelausteniticstainlesssteel
6.Nickelironchromiumalloycommonlyusedinheatingelements.
7.Graphiteisstronglyanisotropic.
8.Theresistivityofsemiconductorsdependsstronglyonthepresenceofimpuritiesinthematerial.
9.Correspondstoanaveragesalinityof35g/kgat20C.
10.ThepHshouldbearound8.4andtheconductivityintherangeof2.53mS/cm.Thelowervalueisappropriatefor
freshlypreparedwater.TheconductivityisusedforthedeterminationofTDS(totaldissolvedparticles).
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11.Thisvaluerangeistypicalofhighqualitydrinkingwaterandnotanindicatorofwaterquality
12.Conductivityislowestwithmonatomicgasespresentchangesto1.2 104uponcompletedegassing,orto7.5 105
uponequilibrationtotheatmosphereduetodissolvedCO2

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Furtherreading
PaulTipler(2004).PhysicsforScientistsandEngineers:Electricity,Magnetism,Light,andElementary
ModernPhysics(5thed.).W.H.Freeman.ISBN0716708108.
MeasuringElectricalResistivityandConductivity(https://www.academia.edu/29112469/Electrical_Conduct
ivity_and_Resistivity)

Externallinks
"ElectricalConductivity".Sixty
Wikibookshasabookonthetopicof:A
Symbols.BradyHaranforthe
level_Physics_(Advancing_Physics)/Resistivity_and_Conductivity
UniversityofNottingham.2010.
ElectricalResistivityand
conductivityWikipediaarticlespokenfortheblind(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gcSAomwrLD4&ab
_channel=Audiopedia)"AudiopediaasofJuly17,2014"(https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCV63FScHn
ShoobfaENC8R_Q/about?&ab_channel=Audiopedia)
ComparisonoftheelectricalconductivityofvariouselementsinWolframAlpha(http://www.wolframalpha.c
om/input/?i=conductivity+sulfur%2C+silicon%2C+copper&lk=3)

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