BIO 599/799

Environmental Science
Ecological Principles 1

Components of Ecosystems:
Ecosystems are ecological units that include all the living or biotic factors and nonliving or abiotic factors in an area. Examples
include regions such as ponds, caves, or portions of a forest or desert.
The abiotic factors determine the type of organisms that can successfully live in a
particular area. Some of the major nonliving
factors of an ecosystem include:
sunlight -- necessary for photosynthesis
water -- all living things require some water, but some can live with lesser
amounts
temperature -- all living things have a range of temperatures in which they can
survive; beyond those limits they will have difficult time
oxygen -- many living things require oxygen; it is necessary for cellular
respiration, a process used to obtain energy from food; others are actually killed
by the presence of oxygen (certain bacteria)
soil -- the type of soil, pH, amount of water it holds, available nutrients, etc
determine what type of organism can successfully live in or on the soil; for
example, cacti live in sand, cattails in soil saturated with water
Biotic factors include the plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and any other living things
that live in an area. Categories include:
Producers or autotrophs make their own food. Producers, such as plants, make
food through a process called photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, plants use
carbon dioxide and water to make sugar. This food is used by the plant for its
own energy or may be eaten by consumers.

 Consumers or heterotrophs need to eat food that autotrophs have produced.

There are different types of consumers. Herbivores eat plants. Carnivores eat
animals. Omnivores eat both plants and animals.
Decomposers are heterotrophs that break down dead tissue and waste products.
They play a very important role in the ecosystem because they recycle
nutrients. Bacteria and fungi are decomposers.
Within an ecosystem, all living things have a habitat or the physical area in which they
live. The habitat of an organism may
include many different areas. Think of the various places you might find a mouse; in a
field, a garden and in the walls of your house. Animals that migrate will have different
habitats during different seasons. Some birds that live in Kentucky during summer
spend the winter in Mexico and Central America.
If events occur to change a habitat a series of changes may result in the ecosystem.
For example, cutting the trees in a forest (e.g., clearcutting in the Tongass National
Forest below) destroys the homes of some animals, increases the amount of light that
reaches the forest floor, reduces the amount of food for organisms that depend on
those trees, reduces the amount of carbon dioxide taken from the air and oxygen
released into it. As a result of this habitat destruction, some organisms may become
threatened, endangered and eventually extinct.

Annette Island, Tongass National Forest, Alaska

Important processes in ecosystems:

Photosynthesis

o carried out by plants (with chlorophyll)

o rate is influenced by light intensity, temperature, and availability of
water
Decomposition
o reverse of photosynthesis, with organic matter being converted into
inorganic compounds (like carbon dioxide)
o accomplished by decomposers:
microorganisms like bacteria & fungi
larger organisms like earthworms

Herbivory - the eating of plants by animals of various types

Carnivory - the eating of animals by other animals
Although these important processes occur in all ecosystems, the organisms involved
may differ. For example, the plants and animals found in ecosystems in Kentucky
(like a forest) differ from those found in ecosystems in Florida or Minnesota or most
other states.
What factors influence the distribution of plants and animals?
Temperature - the ability to withstand extremes in temperature varies widely
among plants & animals

o Animals respond to variation in temperature both physiologically and

behaviorally. Birds and mammals are endotherms ('hot-blooded') &
maintain relatively high body temperatures using the heat by their own
metabolism. Other animals (such as reptiles, amphibians, fish, & insects)
are called ectotherms & their body temperatures are largely set by the
ambient (surrounding) temperature.
Ectotherms - use sources of heat such as solar radiation (direct
and indirect) & conduction to help adjust their body temperature
Endotherms - may maintain body temperature by:
changing the position of fur or feathers (like the Carolina
Chickadee below)
sweating & panting
shivering
behavioral means such as seeking shade or water,
burrowing, or varying periods of activity
Endotherms - may avoid extended periods of low or high
temperatures by hibernating or estivating
Hibernation - winter dormancy
Estivation - summer dormancy
common among some desert animals (permits
conservation of water)

Many small and medium-sized

mammals in north-temperate regions
solve the problem of winter scarcity of
food and low temperature by entering a
prolonged and controlled state of
dormancy. True hibernators, such as
ground squirrels, groundhogs, & bats,
prepare for hibernation by building up
lots of body fat. Some, such as the
groundhog, also store food in their
burrow. Entry into hibernation is
gradual. After a series of "test-drops"
during which the temperature drops a
few degree and then returns to normal,
the animal cools to within a degree or
less of the ambient (surrounding)
temperature. Metabolism is greatly
reduced. In ground squirrels, the
respiratory rate drops from a normal of
200 per minute to 4 to 5 per minute,
and the heart rate from 150 to 5. If the
body temperature drops close to
freezing, the animal will awaken.
Hibernators also awaken at irregular
intervals to eat and eliminate wastes
and then return to sleep. Some
mammals (such as bears, badgers,
raccoons, and opossums) enter a state
of prolonged sleep in winter with little
or no drop of body temperature. This is
not true hibernation.Their heart rates
may drop, but their body temperature
remains normal. Mammals are not the
only hibernators. Several another
animals (such as toads and frogs) that
also survive winter by hibernating.

A hibernating Indiana Bat

o Plants - obviously cannot move to escape high or low temperatures

photosynthesis slows down or stops when temperatures get too
high or too low
at high temperatures, leaves can lose some heat by
evapotranspiration (loss of water through small holes in
leaves)
plants adapted to withstand low temperatures:
may have hairs on leaves or stems

 have more solutes in cytoplasm to reduce freezing point

tend to be short and grow closely together to resist the cold
temperatures and wind
tend to be dark-colored to absorb as much of the suns heat
as possible

Lichens are composed of a sac fungus

and a blue-green algae living and
growing together. The association is
symbiotic (mutually advantageous):
the fungus cannot photosynthesize but
is able to obtain food from the algae.
The fungus absorbs and retains water,
and the algae uses this to
photosynthesise, therefore providing
food for itself and the fungus. Lichens
commonly grow on exposed rocks or
trees. They can withstand severe
temperature extremes, and as well as
inhabiting the cold tundra, they may
also be found in the scorching deserts.
They are very slow-growing and vary
greatly in size, from a millimeter to
several meters across. In habitats
where there is little else for animals to
eat, lichens are a valuable food source.
They have also been commercially
used as dyes, medicines, poisons,
cosmetics and perfumes; and are good
indicators of pollution.

Water
o precipitation determines, along with mean temperature, the world-wide
distribution of biomes
o Primary problem for plants in areas like deserts is a lack of water. Plants
adapted for arid conditions include:
Xerophytes, such as cacti (pictured below) and joshua trees, that
usually have special means of storing and conserving water. They
often have few or no leaves, which reduces transpiration.

 Phreatophytes - plants that grow extremely long roots, allowing

them to acquire moisture at or near the water table.
Cacti (like the saguaro cactus shown
here)are among the most droughtresistant plants on the planet due to
their absence of leaves, shallow root
systems, ability to store water in their
stems, spines for shade and waxy skin
to seal in moisture. Cacti depend on
chlorophyll in the outer tissue of their
skin and stems to conduct
photosynthesis for the manufacture of
food. Spines protect the plant from
animals, shade it from the sun and also
collect moisture. Extensive shallow root
systems are usually radial, allowing for
the quick acquisition of large quantities
of water when it rains. Because they
store water in the core of both stems
and roots, cacti are well-suited to dry
climates and can survive years of
drought on the water collected from a
single rainfall.

perennials, such as the Ocotillo, survive by becoming dormant

during dry periods, then springing to life when water becomes
available.
ephemerals, such as the Desert Sand Verbena, that usually
germinate in the spring following winter rains. They grow quickly,
flower and produce seeds before dying. These seeds are extremely
hardy. They remain dormant, resisting drought and heat, until the
following spring -- sometimes 2 or 3 springs -- when they repeat
the cycle, germinating after winter rains to bloom again in the
spring.
o Animals survive in hot, dry areas by:
avoiding the heat, for example:
Costa's Hummingbirds breed in desert areas of the
American southwest in late winter, then leave in late spring
when temperatures become extreme.

 Many animals (especially mammals and reptiles) are

crepuscular (active only at dusk and dawn)
Bats, many snakes, most rodents and some larger mammals
like foxes and skunks, are nocturnal, sleeping in a cool den,
cave or burrow by day.
dissipating heat, for example:
the large ears of jackrabbits (like the black-tailed jackrabbit
shown to the right) have lots of blood vessels that release
heat when the animal is resting in a cool, shady location
acquiring water, for example:
from plants, particularly succulent ones, such as cacti.
Many species of insects thrive in the deserts this way. Some
insects tap plant fluids such as nectar or sap from stems,
while others extract water from the plant parts they eat,
such as leaves and fruit.
Fire:
o Historically, humans have thought that all fires were detrimental because
they blackened landscapes and burned trees. In fact, plants and animals
evolved together with fire, making it a necessary element in the survival
of many ecosystems.
o Fire-dependent ecosystems in the
U.S.:
as