1

Mc Dowell
FOUN 1101 Caribbean Civilisation
14th November 2014.
The eighteenth century Caribbean can be considered as a period of agricultural
dictatorship. Caribbean gold came in the form of sugar, an agricultural entity. At this time
in the region, sugar production was characterized by enslavement. This essay would serve
as a book report on Beyond Massa Management in the British Caribbean 1770-1834.
This book was written by John F. Campbell, who is currently a lecturer at the University
of the West Indies St. Augustine. This book generally discusses or looks at Sugar
Production at every level in the eighteenth century. The book has its settings mainly on
the Golden Grove Plantation in Jamaica. The text consisted of seven chapters, a soft
cover and cost two hundred and fifty dollars. Issues that would be discussed throughout
this essay is as follows; enslavement, gender, human resource strategies/policies and
revisionism.
Beyond Massa Management in the British Caribbean 1770-1834 goes straight to
the point of enslaved African labor. To get the ball rolling on slavery, one must
understand the types of slavery involved and also that in referring to the word slave
reference is being made to the word servitude. In traditional African society, Africans
could become slaves for punishment, for crime, as payment of family debt[s], or most
common of all, being captured as prisoners of war1. In this particular type of slavery the
Africans grew in, understood, accepted and were still considered human. The slavery that

1 Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, an analysis by Dr. Hakim

Adi, last updated on 10th May 2012.

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existed in the eighteenth century Caribbean was called chattel slavery and it saw the
enslaved as objects. The word Chattel in its legal context simply mean property2.
There is a common belief that slavery was due to racism. Although this text
focuses of enslaved African labor, mention must be made that unfree labour in the New
World was brown, white, black, yellow.3 The reason for slavery, wrote Gibbson
Wakefield, are not moral, but economical circumstances; they relate not to vice and virtue
but to production hence slavery was not born of racism: rather was the consequence of
slavery4. Therefore the reason for enslaved African labor is simple. Africans were best
suited for the climate as the one they experience in Africa was similar to that of the
Caribbean and also the type of work to be done could easily be maneuvered by the
Africans. The robust built of the Africans made it certain that, one Negro was worth four
Indians. 5
Plantations were managed under a strict hierarchy of control. As a result the
enslaved populations were divided into groups or gangs that facilitated the day to
transactions of the estate. The gang a person was placed in either one or the other was
dependent on their physical prowess. The first gang was considered the backbone of
the labor force6. The persons in this gang were arguably the most valued as they were in
the best of health and able to provide the quality of work the land demanded. The second
gang generally consisted on children, depending on the health of the child or the
strength of the plantations force of field hands, children were allowed a longer time to
2 John Campbell - Beyond Massa Management in the British Caribbean
1770-1834.
3 Eric Williams Capitalism & Slavery, 06.
4 Williams, Capitalism & Slavery, 06.
5 Williams, Capitalism & Slavery, 07.
6 Campbell, Beyond Massa, 30.

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physically mature in the grass gang.7
Gender was an important determinant in the experience of a slave, Slave women were
subject not only to exhaustive work routines and punishment, but also to sexual
exploitation and the extra burden of reproduction.8 Beauty was a curse bestowed upon
some of the enslaved women. As a result of beauty, men who were superior to them
would forcefully have sex with them. It was a trend that women were raped during the
middle passage. This trend continued, where their masters would take advantage of them.
In the Caribbean eighteenth century slavery as previously stated was known to be chattel
slavery. In this type of slavery the master advocated that the body of these enslaved
women were under his control, hence he can do as he pleased with them. These women
who were repeatedly raped and were seen as object of pleasure.9 Apart from women
being used as objects of sexual pleasure, the rape of these women was used to undermine
the husbands making the bold statement that they (the husbands) are powerless in the
system of slavery.
Women in slavery were also housekeepers. Although better clothed and better fed,
they were always under the watchful eyes of the master. Under the eyes of the master
anything that didnt appeal or went against what the master wanted resulted in forms of
punishment for the women. Sex was also used as a punishment. Although subjected to
regular punishment these women could have revenge on the master by poisoning him.

7 Justin Roberts, Slavery and the Enlightenment in the British Atlantic,

1750-1807.
8 Karen Louise Rule, Thomas Thistlewood and women slaves.
9 Adair Alexander, Women in slavery the final project.

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Women were also use for their reproductive function. I have bot [bought] 20
young Ebo women . . . & I keep them at the place where they have always been & have a
person to attend them constantly10 This clearly speaks of plans to use women as a
means of increasing labor through productivity. Later incentives were given to women
who were successful in their pregnancies, Those women who produced living births
were to receive rewards.11 Women who were fortunate enough to have live births
constantly lived in fear. When children were forcibly taken from their mother and sold
these fear were now a reality. As a result women were Emotionally and mentally
traumatized. Making reference to the movie Twelve Years a slave directed by Steve
McQueen, a woman who was sold into slavery with her children, endured emotional and
mental trauma as her children were sold to a different plantation. Not aware of how her
children were, where they were and what was being done to them plagued her mind. This
reference serves as an example to show how the enslaved women felt.
As for men, slavery was equally as devastating. Both men and women were apart
of the first gang which did the field work which was inclusive of, land clearance,
hoeing, planting, reaping of canes and the manual work in the refinery.12 Of course men
had harder work than women. William Beckford remarks a negro man is purchased for
trade or cultivation and different process of the cane however there were only two roles
women could efficiently perform within either the house, with its several departments and
the suppose indulgencies, or the field with its exaggerate labours. Men were seen as
more valuable to the plantations than women, . . . you want Men infinitely more than

10 Campbell, Beyond Massa, 34.

11 Campbell, Beyond Massa, 114.
12 Campbell, Beyond Massa, 30.

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Women, for there are many things which Women cannot do as cutting Copperwood,
Wainmen, Boilers, Distillers, Strokers, Mulemen etc.13
Positions such as boilerman were given to the enslaved man. He who determined the
critical point that would yield the most sugar crystals. This was very dangerous as the
sugar may have pitched from the pot to the skin of the enslaved, severely burning him.
Men were slave drivers. In this they look down upon the other enslaved Africans.
Adding insult to injury not only were they in charged of the enslaved (e.g gangs of field
slaves) they even had permission or the authority to whip these people.
Seeing the Africans as they were a resource or a bridge that linked them (the
masters) to the profit lands, they realized that in order to maximize production the slave
initially had to be treated better. Hence the Amelioration policy and Consolidated Act
were set up to ensure that the Africans were treated better. The Amelioration policy was
geared toward easing the workload of enslaved labor, to maintain its health and to
prolong its life In this the enslaved were regarded as its which is exactly what the
masters saw them as its. They were the its that were the reason for profits.
Human Resource Management polices or strategies were a hoax. Hard human
resource management is an employee management system in which workers are
considered a resource that needs to be controlled in order to achieve the best competitive
advantage.14 In order to effectively implement human resource policies it meant that a
system had to be implanted to have the slaves under the control of the master. As stated
earlier this system was Chattel Slavery.
While it was true that the planter had control of their (enslaved) bodies through the slave
13 Campbell, Beyond Massa, 52.
14 Cambridge Business Dictionary.

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mode production they were determined that the planter would not be able to control their
minds.15 With a mind set on what would be tolerated and what would not it would not be
longer before the enslave population began to revolt or resist the system forced upon
them. Soon the planters were aware that profits lay in the labour force. The Human
resource aspect on the plantations was a hoax designed under the pretense of making the
enslaved life better in an effort of maximizing profits for the master. The association of
punishment and reward was an important human resource management strategy of white
management.16 Hence the enslaved were given perks, flogging wasnt to be
administered out of vexation and whites were given additional perks.17
A human resource strategy used by the white managers was the implementation of elite
enslaves. These slaves were trusted by the management if only because it occupied the
lower managerial positions originally intended for white people.18 It may arguably be
said that these elite slaves were traitors. It seemed as though the word slave didnt define
them, only the word elite. These slave loyalty changed from their people to their masters
and hence women and men alike carrying information of planned uprising to the masters.
In 1675 in Barbados, a house elite named Fortuna, reported to her master rumors she
had heard about a planned uprising by a group of Coromantee Negros . . .19 Elite slaves
were also apart of field work. Obviously some were hurt to perform the duties of brutal
floggings upon other enslaved people20 some may have not have hesitated as if the
refused they themselves were at risk of being whipped.
15
16
17
18
19
20

Campbell,
Campbell,
Campbell,
Campbell,
Campbell,
Campbell,

Beyond
Beyond
Beyond
Beyond
Beyond
Beyond

Massa,
Massa,
Massa,
Massa,
Massa,
Massa,

20
77
54
75
76
77

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Although as previously stated some of the enslaved loyalty resided with their master,
others loyalty was to themselves and their people. Some of these elite slaves were apart
of uprising, revolts and much sabotage on the plantations. This was their cry to make the
planters know that their incentive to pacify them generally worked in favor of the
enslave and against the white management. It is a very remarkable fact that the most
confidential slaves, and consequently the most intelligent, have been the most active
rebels.21
To sum up this text Beyond Massa Management in the British Caribbean 1770-1834, it
keeps with a revisionist perspective. History is written by the victors Winston S.
Churchill. The above quote simply stated explains that the history one reads often is the
reflection on one person from the past; the superior class or the victors. History books
mainly reflect the involvement of men.22 Caribbean books neglected women because
early historians looked at colonisation, government, religion, trade and war fare, activities
men were more involved in. Also some historians felt that womens issues did not merit
inclusion and where women could have been included, such as slave uprisings, their
contributions were ignored.23 As a result the voice of women has always been hushed.
Dr. John F. Campbell gives voice to the voiceless. His book acts as a ventriloquist as
women who are always seen and never heard are give a listening ear. He show the
exploitation of the enslaved but women rather. Being voiceless was not unique to enslave
African women but to White women also. The title gives way to this revisionist
perspective, this is as the title Beyond Massa simply means Beyond the master

21 Campbell, Beyond Massa, 81.

22 Nigel Sadler, Women and their forgotten role in slavery.
23 Nigel Sadler, Women and their forgotten role in slavery.

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In his book he gives voice to white women as they played a part in this diffused
power struggles.24 Women were seen as the gentler sex. The absentee owner of Golden
Grove Chaloner Arcedekne mother Mrs. Arcedekne and her sister had a say on what took
place on the plantation. . . . advise with your mother whether I should . . . she desired
me not25 the dominance of Mrs. Arcedeknes did not only relate to matters on the estate,
but in the wider society she was able to hold sway and impose her will.26 John F.
Campbell gives women in his book a chance to be heard and more or less to be observed
under the same light as men.
Beyond Massa Management in the British Caribbean 1770-1834 gives an account
of the experiences faced by the enslaved during slavery. It relates to the identity of the
Caribbean, which is characterized by a history of struggle. The book gives an in-depth
insight into the experiences and challenges that the enslaved women as well as the white
women faced. The book was rather satisfying in its entirety and was worth the two
hundred and fifty dollars it cost. In addition this book gives profound knowledge on the
past in respect to Sugar Production and allows one to become aware of the
courageousness and determination on the enslaved.

Bibliography
Adi, Hakim.Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade.
(an analysis) last updated May 10th 2012.
24 Campbell, Beyond Massa, 93.
25 Campbell, Beyond Massa, 96.
26 Campbell, Beyond Massa, 97.

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Alexander, Adair. Women in slavery the final project.
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ai97Yk7-xjE
Campbell, John F. Beyond Massa Management in the British Caribbean
1770-1834. (United Studies: Calaloux Publications,
2012.)
Roberts, Justin.

Slavery and the Enlightenment in the British

Atlantic , 1750-1807. (Cambridge University Press,
July 2013.)

Rule, Karen Louise

Thomas Thistlewood and Women Slaves.
(University of Canterbury 1994)
Sadler, Nigel.

Women and their forgotten role in slavery.

Williams, Eric.

Capitalism & Slavery. (Ian Randle Publishers, 2005.)